ENGINEERING

DATA ANALYSIS
2ND SEMESTER SY 2023-2024

ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR V

Isabela State University

City of Ilagan Campus
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
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 Discrete
Probability
Distributions

TOPIC 3
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete OBJECTIVES
Probability
Distributions
Upon successful completion of this topic,
students should be able to:
• Understand random variables and their
probability distributions.
• Analyze cumulative distribution functions
• Synthesize expected values of random
variables
ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE
• Distinguish between the Binomial
distribution and the Poisson distribution
 Random
Variables and
their
Probability
Distributions
TOPIC 3.1
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete RANDOM VARIABLE - DEFINITION
Probability
Distributions
•A random variable is a
mathematical concept used in
probability theory and statistics to
represent and quantify uncertain
outcomes or events in a given
experiment, process, or situation.
• It is denoted by a letter, such as X
ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE Y, or Z, and can take on different
values based on the underlying
probability distribution.
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete RANDOM VARIABLE - DEFINITION
Probability
Distributions For a given sample space S of an
experiment, a random variable is any rule
that associates a number with each
outcome in S.

ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE

It is a function whose domain is the

sample space and whose range is the set
of real numbers.
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete BERNOULLI RANDOM VARIABLE
Probability
Distributions
Bernoulli random variable - a
random variable whose only possible
values are 0 and 1.

Ex. Consider the experiment in which a

telephone number in a certain area code is
dialed using a random number dialer, and
define Y.
ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE

If 6241234 appears in the telephone

directory, then Y(6241234) = 1,
If not, then Y(6241234) = 0.
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete RANDOM VARIABLES
Probability
Distributions Ex. An electrical engineer has on hand six
resistors. Three of them are labeled 10 Ω and the
other three are labeled 20 Ω. Suppose that the
three resistors labeled 10 Ω have actual
resistances of 9, 10, and 11 Ω, and that the three
resistors labeled 20 Ω have actual resistances of
19, 20, and 21 Ω. The engineer wants to connect
a 10 Ω resistor and a 20 Ω resistor in series, to
create a resistance of 29 Ω. What is P(X = 29)?

ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE

10 Ω 20 Ω
(9, 10, and 11 Ω) (19, 20, and 21 Ω)
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete RANDOM VARIABLES
Probability
Distributions We assign each outcome a number equal
to the sum of the two selected resistances,
represented by X in the table below.

ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE

P(X = 29) = P({(9, 20), (10, 19)}) = 2/9

TOPIC 3 –
Discrete RANDOM VARIABLES
Probability
Distributions List the possible values of the random variable X
and find the probability of each of them.

ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE

TOPIC 3 –
Discrete TWO TYPES OF RANDOM VARIABLES
Probability
Distributions
1. A discrete random variable has either a finite
set of possible values or an infinite, countable
sequence.

Ex. total number of times that individual moves

residence up to age 18, total number of mobile
phones owned by individual up to age 18

2. A continuous random variable can take any

ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE
value in an interval (to be discussed more in the
Topic 4).

Ex. average height of the five people at age 18,

total time spent on Facebook by individual up to
age 18
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete RANDOM VARIABLES
Probability
Ex. Computer chips often contain surface imperfections. For a
Distributions certain type of computer chip,
9% contain no imperfections,
22% contain 1 imperfection,
26% contain 2 imperfections,
20% contain 3 imperfections,
12% contain 4 imperfections, and
the remaining 11% contain 5 imperfections.
Let Y represent the number of imperfections in a randomly
chosen chip.

• What are the possible values for Y?

- The integers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE • Is Y discrete or continuous?
- Discrete, because it takes on integer values only.
• What is P(Y = y) for each possible y value?
- P(Y = 0) = 0.09, P(Y = 1) = 0.22, P(Y = 2) = 0.26,
- P(Y = 3) = 0.20, P(Y = 4) = 0.12, P(Y = 5) = 0.11.
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete RANDOM VARIABLE
Probability
Distributions Ex. A certain type of magnetic disk must
function in an environment where it is
exposed to corrosive gases. It is known
that 10% of all such disks have lifetimes
less than or equal to 100 hours, 50%
have lifetimes greater than 100 hours but
less than or equal to 500 hours, and 40%
have lifetimes greater than 500 hours.
ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete RANDOM VARIABLE
Probability
Distributions Let Z represent the number of hours in the
lifetime of a randomly chosen disk.
• Is Z continuous or discrete?
- Continuous because the lifetime of a
component is not limited to a list of
discretely spaced values.

ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE

TOPIC 3 –
Discrete RANDOM VARIABLE
Probability
Distributions Let Z represent the number of hours in the
lifetime of a randomly chosen disk. Find
P(Z ≤ 500).
Given:
• P(Z ≤ 100) = 0.10,
• P(100 < Z ≤ 500) = 0.50
• P(Z > 500) = 0.40.
Therefore, P(Z ≤ 500) = 0.60.

ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE

TOPIC 3 –
Discrete RANDOM VARIABLE
Probability
Distributions • Can you compute all the probabilities for Z?
– P(Z ≤ 100) = 0.10,
Given:

– P(100 < Z ≤ 500) = 0.50

– P(Z > 500) = 0.40.
We lack sufficient information to compute
all the probabilities for Z, as we don’t know
the proportion of components with lifetimes
in specific intervals, like between 100-200
hours or 200-300 hours.
ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE To compute all the probabilities for Z, we
would need to be able to compute the
probability for every possible interval, for
example, P(200 < Z ≤ 300), P(200 < Z ≤
201), P(200 < Z ≤ 200.1), and so on.
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete DISCRETE RANDOM VARIABLES
Probability
Distributions Ex. The number of flaws in a 1-inch length of
copper wire manufactured by a certain process
varies from wire to wire. Overall, 48% of the wires
produced have no flaws, 39% have one flaw, 12%
have two flaws, and 1% have three flaws. Let X be
the number of flaws in a randomly selected piece of
wire. Then
P(X = 0) = 0.48
P(X = 1) = 0.39
P(X = 2) = 0.12
ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE P(X = 3) = 0.01
The list of possible values 0, 1, 2, 3, along with the
probabilities for each, provide a complete
description of the population from which X is drawn
is called the probability mass function (pmf).
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete PROBABILITY MASS FUNCTION
Probability
Distributions The probability mass function (pmf) is a
listing of all the possible values of a discrete
random variable along with their
corresponding probabilities.
Let X be a discrete random variable. Then
the probability mass function (pmf) of X is
the function
𝒑 𝒙 =𝑷 𝑿=𝒙 .
Thus,
ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE

p(0) = P(X = 0) = 0.48

p(1) = P(X = 1) = 0.39
p(2) = P(X = 2) = 0.12
p(3) = P(X = 3) = 0.01
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete PROBABILITY MASS FUNCTION
Probability
Distributions The probability mass function (pmf) can be
represented by a graph with vertical lines at each
possible value of the random variable, where the
line heights correspond to their probabilities.

ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE

p(0) = 0.48, p(1) = 0.39, p(2) = 0.12, p(3) = 0.01

 Cumulative
Distribution
Functions

TOPIC 3.2
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete CUMULATIVE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION
Probability
Distributions The cumulative distribution function (cdf)
gives the probability that a random variable
is less than or equal to a given value.

Let X be a discrete random variable. Then

the cumulative distribution function (cdf)
of X is the function
𝑭 𝒙 =𝑷 𝑿≤𝒙

𝑭 𝒙 = σ𝒕≤𝒙 𝒑 𝒕 = σ𝒕≤𝒙 𝑷 𝑿 = 𝒕 .
ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE

■σ𝒙 𝒑 𝒙 = σ𝒙 𝑷 𝑿 = 𝒙 = 𝟏, where the sum

is over all the possible values of X.
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete CUMULATIVE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION
Probability
Ex.
Distributions
p(0) = 0.48 p(1) = 0.39,
p(2) = 0.12 p(3) = 0.01,
p(x) = 0 for x other than 0, 1, 2, or 3.

Let F(x) denote the cumulative distribution function (cdf) of

the random variable X that represents the number of flaws in a
randomly chosen wire. Find F(1) and F(2.5).

F(1) = P(X ≤ 1)
= P(X = 0) + P(X = 1)
= 0.48 + 0.39
ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE
= 0.87

F(2.5) = P(X ≤ 2.5)

= P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2)
= 0.48 + 0.39 + 0.12
= 0.99
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete CUMULATIVE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION
Probability Ex. Plot the cumulative distribution function F(x) of the random variable X
Distributions that represents the number of flaws in a randomly chosen wire.

F(0) = P(X ≤ 0) = 0.48

F(1) = P(X ≤ 1) = 0.48 + 0.39 = 0.87
F(2) = P(X ≤ 2) = 0.48 + 0.39 + 0.12 = 0.99
F(3) = P(X ≤ 3) = 0.48 + 0.39 + 0.12 + 0.01 = 1

0 x<0
0.48 0≤x<1
F(x) = 0.87 1≤x<2
0.99 2≤x<3
1 x≥3

ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE

 Expected
Values of
Random
Variables

TOPIC 3.3
TOPIC 3 – EXPECTED VALUES OF RANDOM
Discrete
Probability
VARIABLES – MEAN
Distributions Let X be a discrete random variable with probability
mass function p(x) = P(X = x).

The mean of X is given by

𝝁𝑿 = ෍ 𝒙 ∙ 𝒑(𝒙)
𝒙

where the sum is over all possible values of X.

ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE
The population mean of a random variable X may
also be called the expectation, or expected value
of X, denoted by μX.
TOPIC 3 – EXPECTED VALUES OF RANDOM
Discrete
Probability
VARIABLES – MEAN
Ex. A civil engineer is analyzing the load-bearing capacity of a
Distributions
new bridge. The load (in tons) that the bridge can support is
modeled as a random variable 𝑋 with the following non-
symmetrical probability distribution:
Load 10 15 20 25 30
Probability 0.05 0.15 0.45 0.25 0.1
Expected Value (Mean), μX
𝝁𝑿 = ෍ 𝒙 ∙ 𝒑(𝒙)
𝒙
μX = 10(0.05) + 15(0.15) + 20(0.45) + 25(0.25) + 30(0.10)
μX = 21 tons
0.5 0.45
0.45
ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE 0.4
0.35
Probability

0.3 0.25
0.25
0.2 0.15
0.15 0.1
0.1 0.05
0.05
0
10 15 20 25 30
Load (kN)
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION
Probability
Variance, 𝝈𝟐𝑿 = σ𝒙(𝒙 − 𝝁𝒙 )𝟐 𝑷 𝑿 = 𝒙
Distributions
𝝈𝟐𝑿 = (10 − 21)2 𝑃 𝑋 = 10 + (15 − 21)2 𝑃 𝑋 = 15
+(20 − 21)2 𝑃 𝑋 = 20 + (25 − 21)2 𝑃 𝑋 = 25 + (30 − 21)2 𝑃 𝑋 = 30
𝝈𝟐𝑿 = (−11)2 0.05 + (−6)2 0.15 + (−1)2 0.45
+(4)2 0.25 + (9)2 0.10
𝝈𝟐𝑿 = 𝟐𝟒

Variance, 𝝈𝟐𝑿 = σ𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝑷 𝑿 = 𝒙 − 𝝁𝟐𝑿

𝝈𝟐𝑿 = (10)2 𝑃 𝑋 = 10 + (15)2 𝑃 𝑋 = 15 + (20)2 𝑃 𝑋 = 20
+(25)2 𝑃 𝑋 = 25 + (30)2 𝑃 𝑋 = 30 − 212
𝝈𝟐𝑿 = (10)2 0.05 + (15)2 0.15 + (20)2 0.45
ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE

+(25)2 0.25 + (30)2 0.10 − 212

𝝈𝟐𝑿 = 𝟐𝟒

Standard Deviation, 𝝈𝒙 = 𝝈𝟐𝑿

𝝈𝒙 = 24 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟗𝟗
 ANY
QUESTIONS
CLASS?

Q&A
TOPIC 3 –
Discrete GROUP WORK #2
Probability
Distributions
• Place 15 differently colored balls in a box, where
the distribution of colors is as follows: 1 red ball, 2
blue balls, 3 yellow balls, 4 green balls, and 5
orange balls. Draw a ball from the box, record its
color, and then put it back. Do this 50 times.
• Repeat the experiment at least 10 times and
compare the observed frequencies with the
expected probabilities based on the number of balls
for each color.
ENGR. ALEX M. BALUBAL, MEE, CSEE
• You may use cards instead of balls.
• You may alter the total number of balls/cards and
the distribution of colors.

Date of submission: March 5, 2025

File naming format: Groupname#2.docx
 See you in the
next topic:
Binomial
Distribution
and Poisson
Distribution
TOPICS 3.4 and 3.5
 Probability and Statistics for Engineers and Scientists, Sixth
Edition. Ronald E. Walpol, Ramond H. Myers, Sharon L. Myers.
Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd, 2000.

Statistics for Engineers and Scientists, Fourth Edition. William

Navidi. McGraw-Hill Education, 2015.

Statistical Methods for Practice and Research, Second Edition.

Ajai S. Gaur, Sanjaya S. Gaur. Sage Publications India Pvt Ltd,
2009.

Various internet sources.

REFERENCES