01/02/2022

ME4160 Flight Control System Design

Mr. Nuwan Rupasinghe MEng , MIET
[email protected]
DOME - UOM

ME 4160 Flight Control System Design

Module learning aims and outcomes

Aims:
•To develop an understanding of the dynamics of rigid body aircraft flight and of the
significance of aircraft dynamic and stability characteristics in aircraft design.
•To develop a fundamental understanding in flight control systems and design simple
controllers to modify the natural modes of flight of an aircraft.

Learning outcomes:
• Demonstrate the understanding of aircraft flight dynamics
• Analyse the performance of aircraft under various Flight conditions such as take-
off, cruise, landing, climbing, gliding, turning and other manoeuvres
• Explain the interactions between aircraft and pilot and the effect on the vehicle
performance
• Design simple flight control systems for vehicle stability augmentation
• Design the control system of flying vehicles

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ME 4160 Flight Control System Design

Recommended Reading List

• Check the uploaded list in Moodle Course Page

1. Adamsen. Beatrice, Automatic Flight Control Systems - Latest Developments, Scitus

Academics, ISBN: 16-8117-273-9
2. Nelson, Robert C, Flight Stability and Automatic Control, 2nd Ed, McGraw-Hill, ISBN: 00-
7115-838-3
In the Library
Covers both aircraft stability and control theory
3. Roskam, Jan. Airplane Flight Dynamics and Automatic Flight Control, DAR Corp.,
ISBN:18-8488-517-9

ME 4160 Flight Control System Design

Program Structure

• Intro to Flight Performance and Flight envelop

• Intro to Flight Stability & Control systems
• Mechanics of Flight
– Rigid bodies in translation, Euler Angles, Direction Cosines
– Equations of motions
• Longitudinal Static Stability
• Longitudinal Dynamic Stabilty
– SPPO (Short Period Pitching Oscillation)
– Phugoid
• Lateral Stability
– Spiral Mode
– Roll Subsidence
– Dutch Roll
• Flight Handling Qualities
• Flight Test Procedures
• Basics of control systems modeling

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Introduction to Flight

True Air Speed (TAS)

The speed of the aircraft relative to the airmass in which it is flying.

Indicated Air Speed (IAS)

• The airspeed indicator (ASI), driven by ram air into a Pitot tube and still air into a
barometric static port, and shows the IAS.
• measures the dynamic pressure of the outside air entering a pitot tube.
• At sea level in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) (ISA), and at slow
speeds where air compressibility is negligible, IAS corresponds to TAS. When
the air density or temperature around the aircraft differs from standard sea level
conditions, IAS will no longer correspond to TAS, thus it will no longer reflect
aircraft performance. The ASI will indicate less than TAS when the air density
decreases due to increase in altitude or temperature.
• Control speeds (e.g. V1, V2, VR etc) are given as IAS

Introduction to Flight

Calibrated Air Speed (CAS)

corrected for altitude and non-standard temperature - the speed of the aircraft
relative to the airmass in which it is flying.
– IAS corrected using,
– E6B flight computer (Darlton computer)
– static air temperature, Pressure altitude , density, compressibility factor,
Mach no. etc.

Equivalent Air Speed (EAS)

Equivalent airspeed (EAS) is defined as the speed at sea level, under ISA
conditions, that would produce the same incompressible dynamic pressure that is
produced at the true airspeed and the altitude at which the vehicle is flying.

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Introduction to Flight
Flight Phases

Introduction to Flight

Take Off

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Introduction to Flight

Take Off
T – Thrust , D –Drag, F – Rolling resistance friction

Rotation Velocity VR
• safe initial flying speed at which pilot starts to rotate / pitch up
• usually 1.1 (Safety Factor)× VSTALL
• V1- Abort decision speed.
• V2 – Safe climb speed.
• V2 must be no less than 1.2 * Vstall. Below this speed aircraft cannot attain sufficient
climb rate.

Introduction to Flight

Transport Aircraft :
• VR must not be less than V1
• VR must be greater than 1.05 * VMC
• VR must be set so that aircraft achieves V2 before reaching a height of 35ft above the
runway surface.
Obstacle Clearance Distance

Take-Off (Balanced) Field Length

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Guidance, Navigation, and Control (GNC)

• Guidance is determining the future path of an object (Aircraft) from

its current position to a destination.
• Navigation is the ability to determine the position of an object
(Aircraft) on or above the surface of the earth.

• Control is manipulating, and steering control surface and thrusters to

travel to the destination while maintaining vehicles stability.

Kinematics vs Dynamics ?

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The differences in following systems? (w.r.t controlling)

Flight Control System Design

PART II

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Understanding of the flight stability and control plays an important role

in the ultimate success of aircraft designs. In designing aircraft we need
to meet certain performance requirements e.g. range, endurance, flight
ceiling, rate of climb, etc.
However, we also require aircraft to be stable and controllable.

Unstable aircraft are often flyable and responsive to pilot control inputs,
but are hard work for the pilot to keep the aircraft under control.
Conversely, aircraft that are too stable are unresponsive to control
input.

Stability and control are thus interlinked, and play an important role in
determining pilot’s opinion of the handling of an aircraft.

Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Stability
Stability is the tendency of a system, when perturbed (disturbed) from
an equilibrium state, to return to that same state.

A system must have both positive static and dynamic stability in order
to be considered completely stable.

Positive dynamic Negative dynamic

Positive static Negative static
stability stability
stability stability

Neutral static stability

Neutral dynamic stability

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Stability

Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Flight Control Systems

Primary Controls

• Elevator – Pitch
• Aileron – Roll
• Rudder – Yaw
• Throttle – Speed

• Each control surface is located near the extremities of the

aircraft, so utilizing the largest moment arm about the Cg,
allowing surfaces to be small in size.

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Flight Control Systems

Secondary Controls

• Elevator trim
• Aileron trim
• Rudder trim

Auxillary Controls
Flaps
Slats
spoilers
air brakes and variable-sweep wings.

Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Tailplane stability

The longitudinal forces and moments acting on an aircraft are

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Tailplane stability

The three equations of equilibrium in the longitudinal plane of symmetry

are:
Axial (x-axis force):
Transverse (z-axis force):
Pitch (y-axis moment about CG):

Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Tailplane stability

The simple pitching moment equation for equilibrium contains:

•A moment inherent from the camber of the airfoil, M0.
•The moment of the lift force from the main wing (and fuselage) about
the center of gravity (CG), Lwx.
•The moment of the lift force from the tailplane about the CG, Ltlt.

Note that the moment from the tailplane is negative – it provides a

counter balance to the moments due to the wing.

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Tailplane stability

Consider the same aircraft, but with the tailplane removed (a tailless
aircraft). The pitching moment about the CG is then simply

In the presence of a perturbation in angle of attack, α, from a gust of

wind, what will be the nature of the pitching moment of the aircraft?

Since lift is proportional to α the lift, Lw, and hence the pitching moment
M, will tend to increase in the direction of the disturbance.

Thus, the wing alone has a negative contribution to static stability.

Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Tailplane stability

With the same disturbance the presence of the the tailplane will
produce a restoring moment to the increase in M, since Lt = f(α), and
counteract the natural instability of the wing.

The ability of the tailplane to provide adequate stability characteristics

for an aircraft is heavily influenced by:
•The location of the CG
•The geometry and location of the tailplane
•The interference between the wing and tail surfaces. This interference
takes the form of a downwash on the tail due to the trailing vortices
produced by the wings.

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Tailplane stability

The downwash alters the incidence of the flow at the tail and
consequently affects the aerodynamic loads on it.

Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Flight Control Systems

Methods of Control

To transfer the commands of the pilot from throttle, Control stick (yoke)
and pedals etc. to control surfaces.
• Mechanical
• Hydro mechanical
• Powered Controls
– Power-assisted
– Power-operated

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Flight Control Systems

Mechanical

Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Flight Control Systems
Hydro-Mechanical
Use of hydraulic pumps (without electric power) to assist with loads on
the control stick.

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Flight Control Systems

Power assisted controls

Use of electrically powered hydro-mechanical devices to counter the

extreme loads on the flight controllers.

Powered controls

Use of electrical signals to command the aircraft with flight computers.

Surfaces are moved by either electric or hydraulic actuators.
(Significant weight saving due to electrical cables being lighter
compared to mechanical or hydraulic connectors)
• Hence totally dependent on the power supply
• Alternative/ redundant systems are required
• Incase of failure redundant hydraulic circuits will support the basic
functions of the aircraft

Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Flight Control Systems
Fly by wire & Autopilot

Fly by optics
(Future generation aircraft)

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Aircraft sensors
aircraft requires feedback on a wide range of flight conditions as well
as the states of various flight equipment and systems.
• Flow sensors sense the amount of lubricating oil and liquid coolant in motion as
well as fluid moving in fuel transfer and bleed air systems.
• Liquid level sensors monitor oil, fuel and coolant levels, as well as fluid levels in
potable and gray (waste) water reservoirs, collection sumps and hydraulic
reservoirs.
• Pressure sensors monitor pressure in hydraulic systems, including those used
for moving control surfaces, braking and raising and lowering landing gear.
• Position sensors such as linear variable differential transformers (LVDT).
• rotary variable differential transformers (RVDT) sense the displacement of
various aircraft components, including, for example, the deployment status of
thrust reversers.
• Force and vibration sensors are also used on aircraft to measure the torque
and force in braking and actuation systems as well as in flight controls.
• Temperature sensors play a key role in monitoring the conditions of hydraulic
oils, fuels and refrigerants, as well as temperatures in environmental cooling
systems.

Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Aircraft sensors
Instrument Systems

Sensors are integral to the instrument systems on board aircraft, including flight,
engine and navigation instruments. Flight instruments include altimeters, airspeed
indicators and vertical speed indicators.

Air Data Computers

Aircraft with digital instrument systems (e.g., glass cockpits) receive data from
various sensors located remotely around the aircraft, including, for example, the total
air temperature probe, angle of attack probe and the pitot-static pressure system. Air
data computers process the inputs from these sensors, apply compensating factors
and present information on flight displays to the pilot. The electrical output from
analogue sensors must be pre-processed by analogue-to-digital converters, while
the digital outputs of solid-state sensors can be handled directly by the computer.

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Aircraft actuators
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and
controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms,
it is a "mover". An actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy.

Design requirements of aircraft actuators

• The more flight critical – The safer equipment!
• Low probability of faults and damage (in fight)
• A fault shall not lead to total loss of aircraft
• Low fuel consumption
• Low weight.1 kg equipment could give 4-5 kg in aircraft
• Energy waste adds more heat exchangers, cooling system, gear box, ramm air channels, engine,
airframe to support, (electric power)
• Low aerodynamic drag from actuators, control surfaces and ramm air channels
• Performance of aircraft
• Sizing of actuators are done for a few operations
• ”Minimal pilot compensation shall be required from pilot”
• <100 msec from pilot stick to actuator response
• Nonlinearities (saturation etc) in equipment give lag!

Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Aircraft actuators

Design requirements of aircraft actuators

• Always in air!
• Limited scheduled maintenance
• Fast identification of faults essential. Diagnostics.
• Clarification for flight, e.g. refueling and maintenance should not
• require special tools and special staff
• Low maintenance
• Avoid open a hydraulic system
• Open the system before it breaks! Prognostics

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Flying and handling qualities

Most countries involved in aviation have national agencies to oversee

aeronautical activity in their territories.

All of these agencies issue extensive documentation specifying

minimum acceptable standards for construction, performance, operation
and safety of all air vehicles under their jurisdiction.

This includes acceptable standards for flying qualities, more commonly

known as flying and handling quality requirements.

Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Flying and handling qualities

The flying and handling

qualities of an aircraft are those
stability and control
characteristics that describe
the ease and effectiveness
with which it responds to a
pilot’s commands.

PIO (pilot Induced oscillation) due to flight

control system error during testing.

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Flying and handling qualities

In the event that an aeroplane fails to meet the flying and handling
requirements it is necessary to:
• Redesign the airframe (not trivial), or
• Augment the stability using flight control computers

Augmenting the stability of an aircraft is most readily achieved with the

introduction of negative feedback acting on the motion sensors for the
aircraft to automatically drive the appropriate control surfaces.

Subsequently, the unsatisfactory dynamic modes can be corrected by

automatic control inputs, leaving the pilot to focus on flight path control.

Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Stability augmentation systems
A systems approach
to flight dynamics,
stability, and control
leads to the treatment
of a closed loop
control system
(augmented aircraft),
for which well-
established tools exist
for the design and
analysis of such
control systems.

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Stability augmentation systems

Today, both civilian and military aircraft rely heavily on automatic

control systems to provide artificial stabilization and autopilots to aid
pilots in navigating and landing in adverse weather conditions.

In addition to the dynamic modes of motion inherent from the

aerodynamic properties of the aircraft, the dynamics introduced by
digital flight control systems present further challenges for pilot
handling qualities (e.g. pilot induced oscillations).

Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Systems Engineering
A generic definition of Systems Engineering (Engineering Systems
Design):
• Systems Engineering is a top down, life cycle approach to the design,
development & deployment of large scale systems, processes or operations to
meet the effective needs of users and stakeholders in a cost effective and high
quality way. OR

• It is the defining, designing, creating, testing and delivering processes of a

product or service which has individual, interacting components working together
to perform a function.

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

What’s a “system”?
What is a ‘system’ in the context of Systems Engineering?
• A set of elements that interact to achieve a stated purpose. OR

• It is a combination of interacting elements organised to achieve one or

more stated purposes. (as defined in INCOSE Systems Engineering
Handbook)

Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

System of Systems
Hierarchical descriptions of a system

We can consider the system to be a hierarchical composition of system elements.

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Introduction to Flight Stability and Control

Importance of control systems
Control systems play a major role in achieving aircraft performance
and reliability.

Think about following

• Controllability & Observability

• Accuracy & Precision
• Controlled flight

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