AI and DS QB1

1. Explain data analysis also different types of data analysis

i. Data analysis is the process of systematically examining and
interpreting raw data to extract meaningful insights and support
informed decision-making, typically involving techniques like
statistical modeling, visualization, and pattern recognition.
ii. The main types of data analysis include descriptive, diagnostic,
predictive, and prescriptive analysis.
iii. Descriptive analysis: Descriptive analytics looks at data and analyze
past event for insight as to how to approach future events. It looks at
past performance and understands the performance by mining
historical data to understand the cause of success or failure in the
past. Almost all management reporting such as sales, marketing,
operations, and finance uses this type of analysis.
iv. Diagnostic analysis: In this analysis, we generally use historical data
over other data to answer any question or for the solution of any
problem. We try to find any dependency and pattern in the historical
data of the particular problem.
v. Predictive Analysis: Predictive analytics turn the data into valuable,
actionable information. Predictive analytics uses data to determine
the probable outcome of an event or a likelihood of a situation
occurring. Predictive analytics holds a variety of statistical
techniques from modeling, machine learning, data mining, and game
theory that analyze current and historical facts to make predictions
about a future event.
vi. Prescriptive Analysis: Prescriptive Analytics automatically
synthesize big data, mathematical science, business rule, and
machine learning to make a prediction and then suggests a decision
option to take advantage of the prediction.
2. Difference between supervised & unsupervised learning
Aspect Supervised Learning Unsupervised Learning
Input Data Uses labeled data (input Uses unlabeled data (only
features + corresponding input features, no outputs)
outputs)
Goal Predicts outcomes or Discovers hidden patterns,
classifies data based on structures, or grouping in
known labels data
Computati Less complex, as the model More complex, as the model
onal learns from labeled data with must find patterns without
Complexit clear guidance. any guidance.
y
Types Two types: Classification Clustering and association
(for discrete outputs) or
regression (for continuous
outputs).
Testing the Model can be tested and Cannot be tested in the
model evaluated using labeled test traditional sense, as there
data. are no labels
Type of Uses training dataset Uses just input dataset
dataset
used
Uses Used for prediction Used for Analysis
No. of Known number of classes Unknown number of classes
classes
Data Data is classified based on Uses properties of given
Classificati training dataset data to classify it
on
Data Use off-line analysis of data Use Real-time analysis of
analysis data
Graph
3. Explain in detail the following algorithm
a) Linear Regression:
Linear regression is a statistical method used to model the
relationship between a dependent variable and one or more
independent variables. It provides valuable insights for prediction
and data analysis.
The types of linear regression are:
1. Simple Linear Regression: Simple Linear regression is the
simples form of linear regression and it involves only one
independent variable and one dependent variable
2. Multiple Linear Regression: Multiple Linear Regression involves
more than one independent variable and one dependent variable
Equation of linear regression is: Y = mX + b
Here,
Y = dependent variable
X = independent variable
m = slope of the line (how much there is a change in Y with the
change in X)
b = intercept (value of Y when X =0)
The steps to calculate Linear Regression is:
 Step1: Data Collection
 Step2: Calculations
 Step3: Prediction
 Step4: Visualization
Example of Linear Regression: Consider the example of a pizza
b) Logistics Regression:
Logistic regression is a supervised machine learning algorithm used
for classification tasks where the goal is to predict the probability
that an instance belongs to a given class or not. Logistic regression
is a statistical algorithm which analyze the relationship between two
data factors.
The different types of Logistic Regression are:
1. Binomial: In binomial Logistic regression, there can be only two
possible types of the dependent variables, such as 0 or 1, Pass or
Fail, etc.
2. Multinomial: In multinomial Logistic regression, there can be 3
or more possible unordered types of the dependent variable, such
as “cat”, “dogs”, or “sheep”
3. Ordinal: In ordinal Logistic regression, there can be 3 or more
possible ordered types of dependent variables, such as “low”,
“Medium”, or “High”.
Example, we have two classes Class 0 and Class 1 if the value of the
logistic function for an input is greater than 0.5 (threshold value)
then it belongs to Class 1 otherwise it belongs to Class 0. It’s referred
to as regression because it is the extension of linear regression but is
mainly used for classification problems.

c) SVM
- Support Vector Machine (SVM) is a supervised machine learning
algorithm used for classification and regression tasks.
- The algorithm maximizes the margin between the closest points
of different classes.
- The different types of SVM’s are:
- Linear SVM: Linear SVMs use a linear decision boundary to
separate the data points of different classes. When the data can
be precisely linearly separated, linear SVMs are very suitable.
This means that a single straight line (in 2D) or a hyperplane (in
higher dimensions) can entirely divide the data points into their
respective classes.
- Non-Linear SVM: Non-Linear SVM can be used to classify data
when it cannot be separated into two classes by a straight line (in
the case of 2D). By using kernel functions, nonlinear SVMs can
handle nonlinearly separable data. The original input data is
 transformed by these kernel functions into a higher-dimensional
feature space, where the data points can be linearly separated. A
linear SVM is used to locate a nonlinear decision boundary in
this modified space
- Advantages of SVM:
1. High-Dimensional Performance: SVM excels in high-
dimensional spaces, making it suitable for image
classification and gene expression analysis
2. Nonlinear Capability: Utilizing kernel functions like RBF and
polynomial, SVM effectively handles nonlinear relationships.
3. Outliear Resilience: : The soft margin feature allows SVM to
ignore outliers, enhancing robustness in spam detection
4. Binary and multiclass support: SVM is effective for both
binary classification and multiclass classification,
5. Memory Efficiency: SVM focuses on support vectors, making
it memory efficient compared to other algorithms.
- Disadvantages of SVM:
1. Slow training: SVM can be slow for large datasets, affecting
performance
2. Noise Sensitivity: SVM struggles with noisy datasets and
overlapping classes, limiting effectiveness in real-world
scenarios.

d) ID3 (Iterative Dichotomiser 3)

- The ID3 algorithm is a popular decision tree method in machine
learning.
- It builds a tree by selecting the best feature at each step based on
information gain, aiming to create the most uniform groups. ID3
continues until a stopping condition, like a maximum tree depth,
is met. More advanced versions, like C4.5 and CART, improve
upon it.
- Its primary objective is to construct a tree that best explains the
relationship between attributes in the data and their
corresponding class labels.
- How does ID3 Work?
1. Selecting the best attribute: ID3 uses entropy and information
gain to find the best attribute for splitting data. Entropy
measures the randomness in the dataset, and the algorithm
 selects the attribute that reduces uncertainty the most,
ensuring better data separation.
2. Creating Tree Nodes: ID3 selects an attribute and splits the
dataset into subsets based on its values. It then recursively
finds the best attribute for each subset, forming branches and
nodes.
3. Stopping Criteria: The process stops when all instances in a
branch belong to the same class or when no more attributes
are available for splitting.
4. Handling Missing Values: ID3 can handle missing attribute
values by using various strategies like attribute mean/mode
etc.
5. Tree Pruning: Pruning is a technique to prevent overfitting.
While not directly included in ID3, post-processing
techniques or variations like C4.5 incorporate pruning to
improve the tree's generalization.
- Advantages of ID3:
1. Interpretability
2. Handles Categorical Data
3. Computationally Inexpensive
- Limitations of ID3:
1. Overfitting: D3 tends to create complex trees that may overfit
the training data
2. Sensitive to noise: Noise or outliers in the data can lead to the
creation of non-optimal or incorrect splits.
3. Binary trees only: ID3 constructs binary trees, limiting its
ability to represent more complex relationships present in the
data directly.

e) Decision Tree:
- A Decision Tree is a supervised learning algorithm used for both
classification and regression tasks. It works by recursively
splitting the dataset based on the best attribute, forming a tree-
like structure where each internal node represents a decision, and
each leaf node represents a final outcome or class label.
- A decision tree consist of different types of nodes:
- Root Node: the first node in the tree, representing the entire
dataset. It is split on the child node based on the best attribute
 - Internal Node: Nodes that represent the decision made on the
attribute values
- Leaf Nodes: Terminal nodes that provide the final output
- Working of Decision tree:
- STEP1: SELECTING THE BEST ATTRIBUTES:
~To build a decision tree, we need to determine the best attribute
at each step. This is done using:
~ Entropy: Measures the randomness or impurity of the data.
Lower the entropy means purer the data
~ Information Gain: Measures how much an attribute reduces
entropy when used for splitting
- STEP2: CREATING TREE NODES AND BRANCHES
~ The dataset is divided into subsets based on the selected
attribute’s values
~ Each subset forms a child node, and the process repeats
recursively
- STEP3: STOPPING CONDITIONS
~ All instances in a subset belong to the same class (pure node).
~ No more attributes remain for splitting (majority class is
assigned to the leaf node).
~ A predefined tree depth or minimum subset size is reached (to
prevent overfitting).
- The different types of decision tree are:
- Information Gain- Used in ID3: This measures the reduction in
entropy after splitting and also the attributes with highest IG is
choosen
- Gini Index- Used in CART: Measures impurity by calculating the
probability of misclassification and the attribute with the lowest
Gini Index is chosen
- Gain Ratio – Used in C4.5: Improves Information Gain by
considering attribute value distribution

f) K-Means Clustering
- K-means clustering is a technique used to organize data into
groups based on their similarity.
- The algorithm works by first randomly picking some central
points called centroids and each data point is then assigned to the
closest centroid forming a cluster.
 - After all the points are assigned to a cluster the centroids are
updated by finding the average position of the points in each
cluster.
- This process repeats until the centroids stop changing forming
clusters.
- The goal of clustering is to divide the data points into clusters so
that similar data points belong to same group.
- The algorithm for K-mean works as follows:
1. First, we randomly initialize k points, called means or cluster
centroids
2. We categorize each item to its closest mean, and we update
the mean’s coordinates, which are the averages of the items
categorized in that cluster so far
3. We repeat the process for a given number of iterations and at
the end, we have our clusters
- In conclusion, K-means clustering is a powerful unsupervised
machine learning algorithm for grouping unlabeled datasets. Its
objective is to divide data into clusters, making similar data
points part of the same group. The algorithm initializes cluster
centroids and iteratively assigns data points to the nearest
centroid, updating centroids based on the mean of points in each
cluster.

g) Hierarchical Clustering
- Hierarchical clustering is a technique used to group similar data
points together based on their similarity creating a hierarchy or
tree-like structure. The key idea is to begin with each data point
as its own separate cluster and then progressively merge or split
them based on their similarity.
- There are types of Hierarchical Clustering and they are:
1. Agglomerative Clustering: It is also known as the bottom-up
approach or hierarchical agglomerative clustering
(HAC).This clustering algorithm does not require us to
prespecify the number of clusters. Bottom-up algorithms treat
each data as a singleton cluster at the outset and then
successively agglomerate pairs of clusters until all clusters
have been merged into a single cluster that contains all data.
 2. Divisive Clustering: It is also known as a top-down approach.
This algorithm also does not require to prespecify the number
of clusters. Top-down clustering requires a method for
splitting a cluster that contains the whole data and proceeds
by splitting clusters recursively until individual data have
been split into singleton clusters.

- Example for Hierarchical Clustering

- Imagine you have four fruits with different weights: an apple
(100g), a banana (120g), a cherry (50g), and a grape (30g).
Hierarchical clustering starts by treating each fruit as its own
group.
1. It then merges the closest groups based on their weights.
2. First, the cherry and grape are grouped together because they are the
lightest.
3. Next, the apple and banana are grouped together.
- Finally, all the fruits are merged into one large group, showing
how hierarchical clustering progressively combines the most
similar data points.

4. What are the different univariate plots on EDA? Explain in detail

- In Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA), common univariate plot
used to visualize the distribution of a single variable include
histogram, density plots, box plots, bar charts (for categorical
data), stem-and-leaf plots, and frequency distribution tables,
which help identify patterns, central tendency and outliers within
the data
- Below are the most commonly used univariate plots, explained
in detail:
1) Histogram: Shows the distribution of a continuous numerical
variable by dividing it into bins (intervals) and counting the
number of observations in each bin. Used to analyzing the age
distribution of customers in a store
Key Features:
 X- axis represents the variable’s values
 Y-axis represents the frequency of occurrence
 Helps identifying skewness, modality (uni-modal, bi-
modal, multi-modal) and outliners
2) Box Plot: Summarizes the distribution of a dataset using five-
number summary: Minimum, First Quartile (Q1), Median
(Q2), Third Quartile (Q3), and Maximum. Used in
Understanding the spread of student exam scores in a class.
Key Features:
 The box represents the interquartile range (IQR = Q3 -
Q1), where the middle 50% of data lies.
 The whiskers extend to the minimum and maximum values
within 1.5 × IQR.
 Outliers are displayed as individual points beyond the
whiskers.
3) Density Plot: Similar to a histogram, but provides a smooth
estimate of the data’s distribution using a probability density
function. Used in examining the salary distribution of
employees in a company
Key Features:
  More refined than a histogram.
 Helps in identifying peaks and valleys in the distribution.
 Can be used to compare multiple distributions by
overlaying different density plots.
4) Bar Plots: Represents categorical data using bars where the
height indicates frequency. Used in displaying the number of
products sold in different categories (electronics, furniture,
clothing).
Key Features:
 Used for categorical variables.
 Can be vertical (column chart) or horizontal.
 Helps in understanding the most and least common
categories.
5) Stem-and-Leaf Plots: Displays numerical data while
preserving actual values, useful for small datasets. Used in
analyzing student’s test scores in a class.
Key Features:
 The stem represents the leading digits.
 The leaves represent the trailing digits.
 Useful for quick visualization of distributions.

5. What are the different issues in ML Algorithm?

- Machine Learning (ML) algorithms can face several
challenges that affect their performance, accuracy, and
reliability. These issues can arise due to data quality, model
selection, computational complexity, or ethical concerns.
Below are some of the most common problems in ML:
1. Data-Related Issues
a) Insufficient Data
- ML models require a large amount of quality data to
generalize well.
- Small datasets can lead to overfitting, where the model
performs well on training data but poorly on unseen data.
Solution: Collect more data, use data augmentation, or apply
transfer learning.
b) Imbalanced Data
- When one class has significantly more samples than another,
the model becomes biased toward the majority class.
- Example: Fraud detection, where fraudulent transactions are
rare compared to normal transactions.
Solution: Use oversampling, undersampling, SMOTE
(Synthetic Minority Over-sampling Technique), or class-
weighted loss functions.
c) Noisy and Incomplete Data
- Noisy data contains errors or outliers, which can mislead the
model.
- Missing data can reduce the effectiveness of the model.
Solution: Use data cleaning techniques, imputation methods
(mean, median, mode), or more robust ML algorithms.

2. Model-Related Issues
a) Overfitting
- The model learns patterns too well, including noise, making
it perform well on training data but poorly on test data.
- Happens when the model is too complex.
Solution: Use regularization techniques (L1, L2), cross-
validation, dropout in neural networks, and simpler models.
b) Underfitting
- The model is too simple and fails to capture underlying
patterns in data.
- Leads to high bias and poor performance on both training
and test data.
Solution: Use a more complex model, increase training time,
or add more relevant features.
c) Hyperparameter Tuning Issues
- Choosing the right hyperparameters (learning rate, number
of layers, regularization strength) is difficult.
- Poor tuning can lead to poor performance.
Solution: Use Grid Search, Random Search, or Bayesian
Optimization.

3. Algorithm-Related Issues
a) Computational Complexity
- Some ML algorithms require high computational power,
making them infeasible for large datasets.
- Example: Deep learning models require GPUs/TPUs for
efficient training.
Solution: Use dimensionality reduction (PCA, t-SNE),
optimized algorithms, and cloud computing.
b) Feature Selection and Engineering
- Too many irrelevant features can slow down training and
reduce accuracy.
- Choosing the right features is critical for model
performance.
Solution: Use feature selection techniques (Recursive Feature
Elimination, Mutual Information) or create new meaningful
features.

4. Ethical and Interpretability Issues

a) Bias and Fairness
- If training data is biased, the model will make biased
predictions.
- Example: AI hiring tools may favor certain demographics
based on historical hiring data.
Solution: Use fair ML techniques, diverse datasets, and
debiasing methods.
b) Lack of Interpretability
- Complex models (like deep learning) act as black boxes,
making it hard to understand why they make certain
predictions.
- This is a problem in high-stakes applications like healthcare
and finance.
Solution: Use explainability tools (SHAP, LIME) and prefer
interpretable models where possible.

5. Deployment and Real-World Challenges

a) Concept Drift
- Data distribution changes over time, causing model
performance to degrade.
- Example: Spam detection models need updates as new spam
patterns emerge.
Solution: Regularly retrain and update models with new data.
b) Scalability
- A model trained on small datasets might not scale well when
deployed in a real-world system.
 Solution: Use distributed computing (Hadoop, Spark), cloud-
based ML platforms (AWS, GCP, Azure).
c) Security and Adversarial Attacks
- ML models can be fooled by adversarial attacks, where
attackers modify input slightly to trick the model.
- Example: Self-driving cars misidentifying stop signs due to
adversarial perturbations.
Solution: Implement robust training techniques, adversarial
training, and model security practices.

6. Describe the architecture of ML Application with an example

(using an application)
- A Machine Learning (ML) application follows a structured
architecture that includes data collection, preprocessing, model
training, deployment, and monitoring.
- ML Application Architecture: Key Components
- Data Collection Layer: The first step is gathering data from
various sources such as databases, APIs, sensors, or user inputs.
Example sources: CSV files, SQL databases, cloud storage, web
scraping.
- Data Processing & Feature Engineering Layer: Cleansing and
transforming raw data into a suitable format for training.
Its Common tasks are: Handling missing values, Encoding
categorical data, Scaling numerical features, Removing outliers
- Model Training & Evaluation Layer: A machine learning
algorithm is selected based on the problem type (e.g.,
classification, regression, clustering).
• The model is trained using the preprocessed data and optimized
using techniques like hyperparameter tuning.
• Performance is evaluated using metrics like:
Accuracy, Precision, Recall (for classification)
RMSE, MAE (for regression)
- Model Deployment Layer: After successful training, the model is
deployed for real-world use.
•Deployment options: Web applications (Flask, FastAPI,
Django), Mobile applications, Cloud-based APIs (AWS, GCP,
Azure)
- Prediction & Inference Layer: The model takes real-time input
data and generates predictions. Predictions are sent back to users
or applications.
- Monitoring & Continuous Learning: Ensures the model remains
accurate over time.
Monitors data drift and concept drift (when patterns in data
change).
Periodic model retraining is done using new data.

- Example:
Problem: Predict house prices based on location, size, and
number of rooms
Steps:
1- Data Collection: Gather real estate data (price, location, area,
rooms)
2- Preprocessing: Handle missing values, scale, numerical
features
3- Model Training: use Liner regression or random forest to
learn patterns
4- Deployment: Create an API to take inputs and return price
prediction
5- Prediction: User inputs location=Mumbai, sqft=1500,
bedrooms=3, model predicts ₹75,00,000.
6- Monitoring: Retrain the model periodically with new data.
7. Distinguish Between Business Intelligence and Data Science
Aspect Business Intelligence Data Science
Def Analyzes past and Uses ML and
present data for statistical
decision-making. techniques to
predict future
trends.
Purpose Reporting, Prediction,
monitoring, and automation, and
performance tracking. pattern discovery.
Data Type Structured Data (SQL Structured, semi-
databases, structured and
spreadsheets) unstructured data
(text, images,
videos)
Time Historical and current Past, present and
Orientation data future data
Techniques Data visualization, Machine Learning,
Used dashboards, SQL, AI, deep learning,
OLAP statistical
modelling
Tools & Power BI, Tableau, Python, R,
Technologies Excel, Looker, SAP TensorFlow,
BI PyTorch, Scikit-
learn
Complexity Easier, focuses on data More complex,
summarization & involves coding,
visualization. modeling, and
algorithm
development.
User Business analysts, Data scientists, AI
executives, managers. engineers,
researchers
Example Use Analyzing sales trends Predicting
Cases and creating customer churn
dashboards. using machine
learning.
End Goal Better decision- Building AI-driven
making based on past solutions for
data. automation and
efficiency.
8. Explain the role played by correlation and covariance in EDA
- Covariance:
 Definition:
o Measures the direction of the relationship between two
variables
o A positive covariance means both variables increase
together
o A negative covariance means one increase while the other
decreases
 Formula:

 Limitations:
o Covariance does not indicate the strength of the
relationship
o Its value are not standardized, making comparisons
difficult
 Example in EDA:
If the height and weight of people have a positive
covariance, it suggests taller people tend to weigh more.

- Correlation:
 Definition:
o Measures both direction and strength of the
relationship between two variables
o It is the scaled version of covariance and ranges
from -1 to +1
 Types of Correlation:
o Positive Correlation (r > 0): One variable increases,
the other also increases
o Negative Correlation (r<0): One variable increases,
the other decreases
o No correlation ( r ≈ 0): No relationship between
variables

 Formula:
  Advantages:
o Standardized between -1 to +1, making it easier to
interpret
o Helps in feature selection by identifying redundant
variables in ML models
 Example In EDA:
If hours studied and exam scores have r = 0.85, it means
they have a strong positive correlation.

9. Explain various stages in data analystic lifecycle

- The Data analytic lifecycle is designed for Big Data problems
and data science projects. The cycle is iterative to represent real
project.
- Phase 1: Discovery
 The data science team learns and investigates the problem
 Develop context and understanding
 Come to know about data sources needed and available for
the project.
 The team formulates the initial hypothesis that can be later
tested with data.
- Phase 2: Data Preparation:
 Steps to explore, preprocess, and condition data before
modeling and analysis.
 It requires the presence of an analytic sandbox, the team
executes, loads, and transforms, to get data into the
sandbox.
 Data preparation tasks are likely to be performed multiple
times and not in predefined order.
 Several tools commonly used for this phase are – Hadoop,
Alpine Miner, Open Refine, etc.
- Phase 3: Model Planning:
 The team explores data to learn about relationships
between variables and subsequently, selects key variables
and the most suitable models.
 In this phase, the data science team develops data sets for
training, testing, and production purposes.
  Team builds and executes models based on the work done
in the model planning phase.
 Several tools commonly used for this phase are – Matlab
and STASTICA.
- Phase 4: Model Building:
 Team develops datasets for testing, training, and
production purposes.
 Team also considers whether its existing tools will suffice
for running the models or if they need more robust
environment for executing models.
 Free or open-source tools – Rand PL/R, Octave, WEKA.
 Commercial tools – Matlab and STASTICA.
- Phase 5: Communication Results:
 After executing model team need to compare outcomes of
modeling to criteria established for success and failure.
 Team considers how best to articulate findings and
outcomes to various team members and stakeholders,
taking into account warning, assumptions.
 Team should identify key findings, quantify business
value, and develop narrative to summarize and convey
findings to stakeholders.
- Phase 6: Operationalize:
 The team communicates benefits of project more broadly
and sets up pilot project to deploy work in controlled way
before broadening the work to full enterprise of users.
 This approach enables team to learn about performance
and related constraints of the model in production
environment on small scale which make adjustments
before full deployment.
 The team delivers final reports, briefings, codes.
 Free or open source tools – Octave, WEKA, SQL, MADlib
10.Explain histogram? Can we perform univarient graphical
analysis using histogram
- A histogram is a graphical representation of numerical data that
shows the frequency distribution of a single variable.
- It consists of bars, where the height of each bar represents the
number of data points that fall within a specific range (bin).
Unlike a bar chart, the bars in a histogram are continuous since
they represent numerical intervals.
- Univariate analysis focuses on analyzing a single variable at a
time.
- A histogram visualizes the distribution of that variable, helping
to identify:
 Central tendency (mean, median, mode).
 Spread and variability (range, standard deviation).
 Skewness and symmetry (left-skewed, right-skewed, or
normal).
 Outliers or gaps in data.
- Example of Univariate Analysis Using a Histogram:
Suppose we analyze the exam scores of 100 students.
Step1: Collect exam scores
Step2: Plot a histogram with:
X-axis: score ranges (bins)
Y-axis: Frequency (number of students)
Step3: Analyze the shape of the histogram:
If bell-shaped, scores are normally distributed.
If right-skewed, most students scored lower
Id left-skewed, most students scored higher

11.Explain various measures of central tendencies of statistical

analysis using histogram
- Central tendency refers to the statistical measures that summarize
the center of a dataset. The three main measures of central
tendency are: Mean, Median and Mode
- These measures help in understanding the distribution of data,
which can be effectively visualized using a histogram
- Mean:
The mean is the sum of all values divided by the total number of
values. It represents the center of the data.
 Where:
X = Data Values
N = Number of values
Interpretation in a Histogram:
 The mean is affected by outliers and skewed
distributions.
 In a normal distribution, the mean is located at the center.
 In a right-skewed histogram, the mean is greater than the
median.
 In a left-skewed histogram, the mean is less than the
median.
Example: In an exam score histogram, if the mean score is 75,
most students scored around this value
- Median:
The median is the middle value when the data is arranged in
ascending order. It divides the dataset into two equal halves.
Interpretation in a Histogram:
 The median is not affected by outliers and is useful for
skewed data.
 In a normal distribution, the median is at the center, equal
to the mean.
 In a right-skewed histogram, the median is less than the
mean.
 In a left-skewed histogram, the median is greater than the
mean.
Example: In an income distribution histogram, if the median
salary is $50,000, half of the people earn below and half earn
above this value.
- Mode:
The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a dataset
Interpretation in a Histogram:
 The mode is represented by the tallest bar in a histogram.
 A dataset can have:
Unimodal Distribution → One peak (single mode).
Bimodal Distribution → Two peaks (two modes).
 Multimodal Distribution → Multiple peaks (more than
two modes)

12.Write with respect to quantitative data analysis:

a) Measures of central tendency:
- Central tendency refers to statistical measures that identify the
central or typical value in a dataset. The three key measures are
Mean, Median, and Mode, and they help summarize large
datasets effectively.
- Mean:
The mean is the sum of all values divided by the total number of
values. It represents the center of the data.

Where:
X = Data Values
N = Number of values
Interpretation in a Histogram:
 The mean is affected by outliers and skewed
distributions.
 In a normal distribution, the mean is located at the center.
 In a right-skewed histogram, the mean is greater than the
median.
 In a left-skewed histogram, the mean is less than the
median.
Example: In an exam score histogram, if the mean score is 75,
most students scored around this value
- Median:
The median is the middle value when the data is arranged in
ascending order. It divides the dataset into two equal halves.
Interpretation in a Histogram:
 The median is not affected by outliers and is useful for
skewed data.
 In a normal distribution, the median is at the center, equal
to the mean.
  In a right-skewed histogram, the median is less than the
mean.
 In a left-skewed histogram, the median is greater than the
mean.
Example: In an income distribution histogram, if the median
salary is $50,000, half of the people earn below and half earn
above this value.
- Mode:
The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a dataset
Interpretation in a Histogram:
 The mode is represented by the tallest bar in a histogram.
 A dataset can have:
Unimodal Distribution → One peak (single mode).
Bimodal Distribution → Two peaks (two modes).
Multimodal Distribution → Multiple peaks (more than
two modes)

b) Measures of spread
- Measures of spread (dispersion) describe how much the data
values vary from the central tendency (mean, median, or mode).
These measures help understand the distribution, variability,
and consistency of data.
- The main measures of spread are:
i. Range: The range is the difference between the maximum
and minimum values in a dataset.
Formula: Range = Max Value – Min Value
Example: If the scores in a test are 45,50,60,75,90 then:
Range = 90-45 = 45
ii. Interquartile Range (IQR): The IQR s the range of the
middle 50% of data, found by subtracting the 1st quartile
(Q1) from the 3rd quartile (Q3).
Formula: IQR = Q3 – Q1
Example: If Q1 = 50 and Q3 = 80 then:
IQR = 80 – 50 = 30
iii. Variance: The variance measures the average squared
deviation of each data point from the mean. It shows how
data points spread around the mean.
Formula:
For a population:
 For a sample:

Where:
X = Each data point
μ = Mean (for population), X = Sample mean
N, n = number of observations
Example:
If exam scores 50, 55, 60, 70, 80, variance is calculated
as the average of squared differences from the mean
iv. Standard Deviation: The standard deviation is the square
root of variance. It measures the typical amount by which
data points deviate from the mean.
Formula:

Example: If the exam scores have a standard deviation of

10, most student’s scores deviate by ±10 points from the
mean
 c) Measures of skewness and kurtosis
- Skewness: Skewness measures how asymmetric a dataset is
compared to a normal distribution. It shows whether the data is
skewed (shifted) left or right.
- Types of Skewness:
Type Description Skewness Graph
Value Shape
Symmetrical Data is evenly 0 Bell shaped
distributed
around the
mean
Positive Skew More values >0 Tail on
are right
concentrated
on the left,
with a long
right tail
Negative Skew More values <0 Tail on left
are
concentrated
on the right,
with a long left
tail

- Formula for Skewness:

Where,
X = Data Values
X = Mean
N = Number of values
s = Standard deviation
- Example: If exam scores have a right-skewed distribution, most
students scored low, but a few high scores pull the mean higher
than the median.
 - Kurtosis: Kurtosis measures how heavy or light the tails of a
distribution are compared to a normal distribution. It helps
detect extreme values (outliers).
- Types of Kurtosis:
Type Description Kurtosis Value Graph Shape
Mesokurtic Moderate peak, ≈ 3 Bell shaped
normal tails.
Leptokurtic High peak, thick >3 Tall, thin peak
tails (many
outliers).
Platykurtic Low peak, thin <3 Broad, flat peak
(Light-Tailed) tails (few
outliers).

- Formula for Kurtosis:

- Example: A leptokurtic distribution appears in financial

markets, where extreme price fluctuations (outliers) are
frequent.

13.Explain the rules of convergence from predicate to CNF (All

rules explain with example)
Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) is a standard format for logical
expressions used in automated theorem proving and logic
programming. It is a conjunction (AND) of disjunctions (OR) of
literals.
Steps to Convert a Predicate Logic Statement to CNF
Rule1: Eliminate Implications (--->) and Bi-conditional (<--->)
Implication and bi-conditional operators are not allowed in CNF.
 Use the following transformations:

 Example:
Rule2: Move NOT (¬) inward
Negation should only apply to individual predicates, not to entire
expressions.

Example:
Rule 3: Rename Variables
Each quantifier should have unique variable names to avoid
confusion
Example:

Rule4: Remove Existential Quantifiers

 Existential quantifiers (∃) must be eliminated.
 Replace ∃x with a Skolem function or constant.
 Example:

Rule5: Move Universal Quantifiers Left

All universal quantifiers (∀) should be moved to the left of the
expression.
Example:
 Rule6: Convert to Conjunctive Form
Apply distributive law to get a conjunction of disjunctions

14. Differentiate between uni-variate, bi-variate, multi-variate

Feature Univariate Bivariate Multivariate
No. of 1 2 3 or more
variables
Purpose Study one Find Analyze how
variable at a relationship multiple
time between two variables
variables interact
Example Examining Checking how Studying how
students test temp affects weather,
scores ice cream traffic, and
sales fuel price
affect car sales
Statistical data Z-test , t-test Correlation ANOVA,
test, factor analysis
regression test
ML use Checking Simple Complex
feature predictions models like
importance (e.g., one deep learning,
input, one AI-based
output) forecasting
Dependency No Examines Studies
Consideration relationships how two interactions
considered variables between many
affect each variables
other
Difficulty Easy Medium Hard
Level
 Real-World Checking the Finding the Predicting
Example average salary link between house prices
of employees exercise and based on
weight loss location, size,
and facilities

15. Explain confusion matrix w.r.t. ML. Also explain false positive
and false negative and how are they significant?
- A Confusion Matrix is a table used to evaluate the performance
of a classification model by comparing actual values with
predicted values. It helps in understanding the accuracy and
types of errors the model makes.
- Structure of a Confusion Matrix
Actual/ Predicted Predicted Positive Predicted Negative
(1) (0)
Actual Positive True Positive False Negative
(Correct (FN) (Missed
Prediction) Positive)
Actual Negative False Positive (FP) True Negative
(0) (Wrongly (TN) (Correct
Predicted as Prediction)
Positive)
- A False Positive (Type I Error) occurs when the model
incorrectly predicts a positive result for a negative case.
- The Significance of False Positive is:
 Can lead to unnecessary actions (e.g., unnecessary
medical treatment).
 In fraud detection, wrongly blocking a genuine
transaction can inconvenience users.
- Example:
 A spam filter marks an important email as spam.
 A COVID-19 test wrongly detects a healthy person as
infected.
- A False Negative (Type II Error) occurs when the model
incorrectly predicts a negative result for a positive case.
- The Significance of False Negative is:
 Can be more dangerous than false positives in critical
applications like healthcare.
 In fraud detection, a fraudulent transaction being marked
as genuine can lead to financial loss.
- Example:
  A cancer detection model fails to detect cancer in a
patient.
 A security system does not flag a cyberattack.

16.Explain data visualization and its importance in Data Analysis

- Data Visualization is the graphical representation of data using
charts, graphs, and maps. It helps in understanding complex
datasets by presenting them in an easy-to-interpret visual
format. Tools like matplotlib, seaborn, Tableau, and Power BI
are commonly used for data visualization.
- Better Data Understanding – Helps identify patterns, trends, and
correlations quickly.
- Simplifies Complex Data – Converts large datasets into easy-to-
interpret visuals.
- Faster Decision-Making – Enables quick insights for business
and research.
- Detecting Outliers & Anomalies – Identifies unusual patterns or
errors.
- Enhances Communication – Makes reports and presentations
more effective.
- Supports Predictive Analytics – Helps forecast future trends.
- Aids in Comparative Analysis – Allows comparison of different
datasets.
- Interactive Exploration – Enables dynamic filtering and deeper
insights.
- Industry-Wide Applications – Used in finance, healthcare,
marketing, etc.
- Improves ML Interpretability – Helps in feature selection and
model evaluation.