Unit 5

Photonics and Fibre optics

Learning objective
1. To learn basics of lasers viz., the fundamental theory, conditions of laser action,
few types of lasers, laser application in industries and medicine.
2. Also, to learn the concepts, types and some applications of the optical fibers.
________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
In 1950,Lamb and Rutherford’s in their papers on fine structure of hydrogen atom quoted the negative
absorption what is present day Population inversion has made the steping stone to the MASER and later to
LASER. From their concepts, it was strongly believed that the electron of each atom, subjected to
inhomogeous field under go oscillations and get excitation by observing some energy and releases the same
including the losses. The energy observed/liberated may be comparable to the two (ground state, excited
state) states of the electron of the atom. This was demonstrated using microwaves in Microwave
amplification of stimulated emission (MASER). Later, the Radio waves (RASER), further the light
(LASER)

Micro wave cavity

In homogenous field Molecular source

1. Basics of Laser
˝LASER˝ is acronym of expansion Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation. When light propagates through a medium its intensity reduces due to
reflection, refraction and scattering losses. To make the light amplified, the property of
the medium on which it propagates should be modified for the following (conditions for
laser action):
1. There must be population inversion (N2>N1) in the atoms of medium.
2. The energy density of radiation on the medium should be increased. The ρ(v) is to
be increased in optical resonance cavity.
3. The ratio of Einstein’s coefficient should be less (A21/B21<) so that more
stimulated emission to take place than the spontaneous emission.
If the above conditions are satisfied on a medium then the laser will be generated .The
laser action, which occurs on a medium is called active medium,
1.1 Population inversion
In an ideal state of a atoms more of electrons (N1) are available in the lower energy state
than the higher energy state Fig.1a.
When the atom is subjected to the electric field/exposed to radiation/ heated in a heat
source or kept in a magnetic field, some energy will be supplied to these electrons in
lower energy state. These electrons could take up the energy and reaches the higher
energy state called excited state and the process is excitation/absorption Fig.1b.
As the result of above, more of electrons (N2) will be present in the higher energy state
than the lower energy state after some time. This is contrary to ideal state of a atom, now
the atom with more number of electrons at higher energy state is known as “population

Higher energy state Higher energy state Higher energy state

Lower energy state Lower energy state Lower energy state

1a. Energy states of 1b. Excitation 1c. Population

ideal atom Inversion
Fig.1 Ideal, Excitation and Population
Inversion of atom
inversion”Fig.1
1.2 Pumping
The process of obtaining population inversion is called pumping.
The following are the mechanisms used to achieve the population inversion.
1. Optical Pumping
When the medium is exposed to optical radiation for excitation then the mechanism is
called optical pumping
2. Electrical discharge pumping
If the active medium is subjected to the electric field for increase of electron velocity
which also transfers the energy to near by atoms called electrical discharge pumping.
3. Direct conversion
The electric field will be applied on the direct band gap semiconductor where accelerated
electrons and holes mix up in recombination and release the energy by emission of laser
radiation.
4. Pumping by inelastic collision
In an inelastic collision of atoms with electron, one of atom will be excited. The atom
simultaneously releases the energy gained in the collision to its neighbor and make it to
become excited known as pumping by in-elastic collision.
1.3 Excitation, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission
1.3.1 Excitation
The Bohr’s atom model expresses that the electrons are distributed in the permitted
energy levels/orbits. The lowest energy level that occupied by electrons is ground
state/lower energy state of the atom.
If the electron belongs to lower energy state absorbs the energy to reach the next
higher energy level/state is known as Excitation /absorption (Fig2a)

Higher energy state Higher energy state

Higher energy state

Lower energy state Lower energy state Lower energy state

2a. Excitation 2b. spontaneous 2c. Stimulated

emission emission
Fig.2 Excitation, spontaneous and stimulated emission

Then the energy required for excitation of atom is E  h  E2  E1

Where E2 is the energy of excited state of electron in a atom and E1 the energy of ground
state of electron in the same atom.
1.3.2 Spontaneous emission
Spontaneous emission is a continuous process. Since, the life time of excited electron at
higher energy state is less (in the order of nano seconds), the electrons from higher
energy could release the energy that gained during excitation by some mechanism and
make the whole atom to get de excitation.
The energy released will be E  E2  E1 .
If the energy released is continuous in the form of radiation, which does not follow
unique wave length then it must be due to spontaneous emission. (Fig2b).
1.3.3. Stimulated emission
Stimulated emission is a controlled de excitation. If the energy released in de excitation is
controlled in the presence of some energy which is used for the excitation. This situation
causes controlled emission of radiation following the unique wave length known as
stimulated emission (Fig2c)
1.4 Einstein theory and significances
In the present theory the Einstein’s coefficients in an equation indicates the
electronic/atomic transition between two energy levels as a simple case. Let the energy
level be E1(lower) and E2(higher) with arbitrary constant A and B depends on
spontaneous emission and stimulated emission respectively.
The excitation /absorption
The rate of excitation from lower level E1 to higher level E2 will be
12  N1 ( ) B12 (1)
Where
B12 - a constant depends on excitations/absorption.
N 1 - Number of atoms per unit volume with E1 energy
 ( ) - Energy density of radiation during the excitation.
The spontaneous emission
The rate of spontaneous emission from E2 to E1 (de excitation) is
21  N 2 A21 (2)
Where
A21 – a constant depends on spontaneous emission form E2 to E1.
N2 – Number of atoms per unit vol. with E2 energy level
The Stimulated emission
The rate of stimulated emission from E2 to E1 is
21
'
 N 2  ( ) B21 (3)
Where
N2 – Number of atoms per unit vol. with E2 energy level
 ( ) - Energy density of radiation during stimulated emission
At thermal equilibrium the
rate of excitation = rate of spontaneous emission + rate of stimulated emission,
ie.,
12  21  21
'
(4)

Substituting (1), (2) and (3) in (4)

N1 ( ) B12  N2 A21  N2  ( ) B21 (5)
Dividing each term by N2
N1 ( ) B12
 A21   ( ) B21 (6)
N2

The constant B12 depends on excitation which is also depends on stimulated emission
because both of them are taking place in a controlled manner.
Therefore, B12  B21 (7)
From Boltzmann’s energy distribution law to the dissimilar particles for a system having
energy difference between them as h  E2  E1 is
 E 2  E1   h 
N1    
 e kT 
 e kT  (8)
N2
Substituting (7) and (8) in (6)
N1 ( ) B12
 A21   ( ) B21
N2

A21 1
Therefore,  ( )   h 
(9)
B12  
e  kT 
1
From the Planck’s radiation theory the energy density is
8h 3 1
 ( )   h 
(10)
c3  
e  kT 
1
Comparing (9) and (10)

A21 1 8h 3 1
 ( )   h 
  h 
B12   c3  
e  kT 
1 e  kT 
1

A21 8h 3
and  (11)
B12 c3
The equation (11) is the ratio of Einstein’s coefficients A21 and B12
Significance
The ratio of Einstein coefficients indicated that (A21/ B12) should be less, as one of the
condition for laser action to be satisfied. In this condition B12 should be more(stimulated
emission ) so that the ratio become minimum Therefore, to obtain the laser action in the
active medium one should get the B12 value from the ratio contains Einstein’s
coefficients. If B12 is less which results to the ratio become more corresponding to more
spontaneous emission
1.5 Some types of lasers.
In the present section some types of lasers are presented as below
1. Nd-YAG laser
2. CO2-laser
3. Semiconductor lasers
1.5.1. Nd-YAG laser
Niodynium-Yttrium Aluminium Garnet is the expansion of Nd-YAG lasers.
Principle
The rare earth Nd metal ion is present in the Yttrium Aluminiam Garnet structured
mixture which requires minimum energy for excitations. The addition of (Nd3+) ions in
the Yttrium acts as active centre with Nd-YAG mixture.
Structure and working
The laser contains active medium as Nd3+ ion doped YAG rod with a resonant optical
cavity. The cavity has been formed
Excited state Nd 3+
Nd 3+
1.06
um
0.80um
0..73um
Nd 2+
Perfect Power Partial
supply
reflector reflector Ground state

Fig.3 Constructional details and energy level diagram

using perfect reflector and partial reflector one on either sides of the active medium to
increase energy density of radiations.
The active medium is kept closed to the flash lamp, where both laser rod and lamp are put
closed to each other in an elliptical housing as in Fig3. The flash lamp has been
connected to the power supply. As the power supply is switched ON the light comes out
from xenon flash lamp interacts with active medium.
All the Nd3+ ions form the active medium are excited and deexcited to Nd3+ due to their
short life time in excited state.
In the above de excitation no radiation will be emitted. Further, de excitation from Nd3+
to Nd2+takes place in the same mechanism which emits radiation of 1.06μm wavelength.
The remaining de excitations are appearing due to radiation less transitions.
The transition from Nd3+ to Nd2+ gives IR radiations of 1.06μm wavelength using
threshold power in 100 W to get several 100W as output power
of radiations.
The Nd-YAG laser has 100 ps duration of pulses and intensity as
1016W/cm2, this has been in the use for industrial applications and laser induced fusion
reaction.
1.5.2 Carbon di oxide (CO2) laser
Principle
A molecule contains few atoms or collections of atoms together and apart from electronic
transitions in atom, it may vibrate, rotate and combination of both could also involve in
the emission of laser.
Therefore, the emission of laser is not only through electronic transitions but also in other
types of transitions viz., vibration and rotation
Each electronic level is split into various vibrational sublevels and each vibrational level
could sub divided into rotational sub levels.
Thus, energy difference between various electronic levels corresponding to visible and
Ultra violet (UV) region. Similarly, energy difference between various vibrational levels
corresponds to IR region. The energy difference between various rotational levels
corresponds to far IR region of the spectrum.
Structure and Working
A typical CO2 laser structure is shown in the Fig 4. The mixture of CO2, N2 and He in
0.33:1.2:7 ratios with few tens Torr. pressure is taken in water cooled discharge tube. The
above gaseous mixture is excited by dc voltage/RF voltage.
The resonator reflectors are kept one on either side of the discharge tube connected
through metallic bellow. The length of discharge tube can be adjusted depending on
operating voltage.
The discharge tube consists of 1.6cm inner diameter and 1.5 m length borosilicate glass
tube with water circulation tube. The discharge tube has tungsten anode and copper
cathode with perfect reflector of 90% ZnS on one side and partial reflector on other side.
The power supply for the discharge tube has 60 mA 8KV DC supply. The Brewster’s
angle windows are provided for polarized laser beams.

1-Perfect reflector,2-Metal bellow,3-tungstant anode,4glass jacket,5-copper cathode,6-output relector,7-glass stop

cock,8-mechanical pump,9-oil monometer,10-Needle valve
Fig.4 CO2 Laser structure

The functioning of laser could be expressed using symmentric stretching and

asymmentric stretching and bending modes as below.
Symmentric stretching
In symmentric stretching of CO2 molecule, the carbon atoms are stationary and oxygen
atom oscillates simultaneously along the CO2 axis represented as (100) mode.
ASymmentric stretching
In asymmentric stretching of CO2 molecule the carbon atom are stationary and oxygen
atom oscillates irregularly representing (010) mode.
Bending mode
In bending mode the carbon and oxygen atoms are moving in perpendicular direction to
molecular axis representing (001) as in fig 5.
When electric discharge takes place in the mixtures of gases, first N2 and O2 atom
absorbs the energy and excited to higher energy level.

Symmetric stretching (100) Asymmetric stretching (001)

Oxygen
atom Oxygen atom

O atom Carbon atom O atom Carbon atom

Carbon atom
O atom O atom

Bending (010)

Fig.5 Carbon and oxygen atomic vibrations in

CO2 laser

CO2

Asymmetric
Symmetric Bending N2

10.6um (001) Resonance

energy transfer ν =1
(100) 9.6um

(020)
N2 Ground
(010) state ν =0

Fig.6 Energy level diagram for CO2 laser

In the collision between them, that causes excitation of CO2 by N2 atoms. Consequently,
there is efficient transfer of energy from N2 to CO2 called resonant energy transfer.
In excited state the population inversion has been obtained at energy levels K5 and K4.
Similarly, K5 and K3. The de excitation from K5 to K4 gives emission of radiation with
wavelength 10.6 μm(IR). K5 to K3 de excitation produces 9.6 μm wavelength of IR.
Remaining de excitations from K3 to K2 and K2 to K1 produces radiation less transition
and heat developed will be taken by the presence of He gas in the mixture.
Features and application.
The laser radiation is highly intense in both continuous and pulsed modes with high
energy per unit area. CO2 laser found wide application in material processing and medical
applications followed by communication purpose.

1.5.3. Semiconductor laser

Semiconductors are used to prepare solid state diodes. There are two types of impure
semiconductors as p-type and n-type. The p-type can be put to n-type where pn junction
would be formed using same semiconductors. These diodes are “homo junction” diodes
for both the rectifier as well as laser emission. Other than same material, ie.,
semiconductors with metal are used to form pn junction diodes to the same purpose
called “hetero junction ” diodes.
The band structures and semiconductor lasers
In atomic model, the lower energy levels are equivalent to valence states of electrons
from the atoms of semi conductors. Similarly, the higher energy level of a atom
equivalent to conduction states of electrons from semiconductor atoms, where electron
could occupy more in number during population inversion by direct conversion.
The electrons are majority charge carrier in N-type or donor semiconductor and holes are
majority charge carrier in P-type as acceptor semiconductor. When p-type fused over n-
type, the p-n junction will be formed. Applying electric field on the junction causes
acceleration of charges and mixing of one over the other called “recombination” in
semiconductors.
The energy from recombination has been used for driving of electrons in pn junction to
P-type and holes in pn junction to N-type, where the p-n junction diode functions in
forward bias is called rectifier action.
Alternatively, the energy from recombination get enhanced and in turn generates light
radiation from p-n junction diode functions in forward bias is called laser action.
If the semiconductor of p-type and n-type are fused together to get p-n junction, then it is
homo junction laser diode. If metal with semiconductors of p-type and n-type are fused
together to get p-n junction, with third material at the junction forms the diode called
hetero junction laser diode.
Homo junction laser diode
Ga-As homo junction laser diode can be formed by doping Ga p-type semiconductor on
one side and n-type As on other, so that p-n junction could be formed. The p-n junction is
the active medium and the junction has been metallized on outer surface using aluminium
mirror for resonance cavity where the energy density of radiation enhances by back and
forth reflection. The structure of homo junction diode laser is as shown in fig.7
In the fig, the M1M2 represents the energy band gap of n type semiconductor and M3M4

P-type N-type

CB PN-juction
p-Ga-As

Aluminium
metalization M4
M2
M3
N-Ga -As M1

(a) Ga-As laser

VB
(b) Band structure

Fig.7 Ga-As laser and its band structure

to corresponding energy band gap in p-type. The band gap as been reduced at the pn-
junction due to fusion, which helps in recombination to get light (mixing of holes to
electron called appears as exciton which disappear as photons and electrons). In this way,
the light will be produced continuously from the diode. This light reflects back and forth
at the junction to increase the energy density forms laser radiations.
Hetero junction laser diode
The Ga-As n-type semiconductor can be used as base material on which n-type Al –Ga-
As has been formed followed by p-type Ga-As and p-AlGaAs. These layers are formed
as show in the fig. The junction of Al-Ga-As p-type and AlGaAs n-type forms 2 junctions
of differing semiconductors. The junction on suitable biasing potential emits laser
radiation from hetero junction.
The diodes can be edge emitting laser diodes and bulk emitting laser diodes. If the laser
emitted direction is parallel to the surface then it this edge emitting laser diodes, where as
the laser emitted direction is perpendicular to the surface then it is bulk emitting laser
diodes.
 P Ga-As
p-Ga-As

P-Al-Ga-As

Active region p-Ga-As

n-Al-Ga-As
n-Al-Ga-As substate
n-Ga-As

(a) Hetero junction laser (b) Double hetero junction

Laser diode

Fig.8 Hetero junction Semi conductor laser diode

1.6 Applications of lasers

Industrial applications
The laser can be used in Material processing viz., welding, hole drilling, laser cutting
vaporizing and deposition.
Welding
In welding the material is added to join the two surfaces. Therefore, laser power should
not be high to evaporate material, in the same time removal of metal should not be
encouraged. Thus, laser for welding should have high average power than high peak
power. The high peak power has been focused on to the surface for suitable heating as in
fig. The laser welding found significant application in the field of electronics and mico
electronics which requires precise welding.

Gas in

(b) laser cutting

(a) Welding
Material to be cut

Fig.9 Laser in material processing

Hole drilling
Drilling of holes in various substances is another application of laser. Removal of some
materials from the substance causes hole drilling. For example 100um of diameter of hole
on hard substance can be done using laser.
Laser cutting
Laser also find application in cutting, CO2 laser is the common laser used for the cutting
process. In cutting process the removal of metal along the cut direction should be
performed. If cuts are obtained using pulsed lasers, then the repetition frequency of the
pulse and the motion of the laser across the material is to be adjusted so that series of
partially overlapping holes could be avoided. The caution should be taken in the cut
which should be with the allowance to avoid any re welding of the cut materials.
The efficiency of the laser can be improved by keeping gas jet co axially with laser.
In certain cases Oxygen can be used so that when the laser heats the material it interacts
with gas and gets bunts. The structure of the face is also helps to drive molten material to
improve the efficiency. The N2 like gas can also be used to improve the efficiency.
Vaporizing and deposition
Laser can be used to vaporizing of materials and also used for deposition on substrate.
Some pre selected area of material may be evaporated or evaporatrant may be located
closed to the substance. Brittle material like rock marble etc., can be fractured using laser
beams. Such technique finds application in rock crushing and boring.
1.7 Laser in Medicine
The laser is used in the medicine for treatment and diagnosis.
Laser in therapy
Retinal repair
The human eye is roughly spherical and consists of an outer transparent wall called
Cornea. This is followed by the Iris (a control slit to allow light in to eye) and lens. On
the part of Cornea and the lens at the back of the eye the light sensitive elements are
present called Retina. When the light falls on a lens and retina, the photosensitive cells
present on retina converts light in to electrical signal and the optical nerve carries the
signal to brain. The resulting is the mechanism of visuals
Due to some diseases or impact, the retina could detach and created partial blindness.
Before the application of laser therapy, the Xenon lamp was in use to attach the retina.
The unique application of laser is to attach the retina, where laser can be used to focus the
small spot of light precisely. The time involved is also extremely small in the order of
300usec. at 1J of energy.
Laser for cancer
Lasers are used extensively in the cancer treatment. In laboratories the Amelanotic
melanoma was given to the lab animals and ruby laser radiation was administered for
complete tumor treatment which disappeared in 30days.
Holography
A Photography is two dimensional recording of three dimensional scenes. Since, the
photo sensitive material is coated on to photo film which could record intensity
variations and does not respond to phase distribution. Since the intensity variations are
alone recorded the 3dimesion features is lost.
Recording
In principle the phase distribution was introduced during the record i,e one wave from the
object (object wave ) superimposed on to a reference wave. The two waves interfere in
the plane of recording medium and produce interference fringes. This called recording
process. These fringes are depending on object and recording medium which records the
intensity distribution with phase distribution, hence three dimensional images are formed
as in Fig.10.
Beam splitter

Laser

Reference wave

Object

Object wave

Photo film

Fig.10. Recording of Hologram

Reconstruction
The line holography
Before the use of laser in the mixing of reference wave to object wave both of them
should be almost parallel and the traversed path should be equal called line holograph.
This is one of the basic requirements, due to the source as discharge lamps which had
small coherent length. Since, the interference wave forms virtual and real images along
the same direction it causes unfocussed real image wile occurrence of the virtual image.
Referece wave
Virtual image
forming waves

Eye

Photo film Real

image
Real image
Object forming waves
wave Virtual
image Hologram

(a) Reconstruction (b) Line Holograme

Eye Virtual Image

Real Image

Fig.11 Reconstruction and line hologram

Off axis holography using laser

To over come the defect in line holograph an off axis holograph was introduced followed
by present day laser based holography.