UNIT-II PROPERTIES OF MATTER

INTRODUCTION

Elasticity is a branch of Physics which deals with the elastic property of materials. When an
external force is applied to a body, there will be some change in its length ,shape and volume.
When this external force is removed, and if the body regains its original shape and size, then the
body is said to be a Perfectly Elastic body . If the body does not regain its originaI shape or size
after removal of the applied force, then it is said to be Perfectly Plastic body.
STRESS AND STRAIN:

A body is said to be rigid body, if the distance between any two points in a body is unaltered
due to application of the force. In practice no body is perfectly rigid. When a body is subjected to
some external forces the body will offer some resistance to the deforming forces, as a result some
work is done on the body and this work is stored as the elastic potential energy. Now if the
deforming forces reremoved the energy stored brings back the body to its original condition.
TYPESOFSTRESS

Stress are classified into three types namely,

Stress

Tensile (or) Tangential or

Hydrostatic
Longitudinal Shearing
i. Tensile or Longitudinal Stress
Whentheforceisappliedparallel tothesurfaceofthebody,thenthestressis calledaslongitudinal stress or
tensile stress.
ii.Tangential or Shearing stress

Whentheforceisappliedalong thesurfaceofthebody,thenthe c o r r e s p o n d i n g stress exerted is

calledastangential stress or shearing stress.
iii. Hydrostatic Stress
When a body is subjected to a uniform force from all sides, then the corresponding stress is called
hydrostatic stress.

STRAIN:
Strainisdefined asthe change indimension (fractional deformation)produced bythe externalforceofthe

body.Inother wayitcanalsobedefined asthe ration ofthechange in dimensiontotheoriginaldimension.It is a

dimensionless quantity as it is a ratio between two quantities of same dimension.

TYPESOFSTRESS
Stress are classified into three types as follows,

Strain

Longitudinal Volumetric Shear

Strain Strain Strain

Longitudinal strain
Longitudinal strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the change in length of the body due
to the deformation to its original length in the direction of the force. If l is the original length and dl the
change in length occurred due to the deformation, the Longitudinal strain

Change in Length l
Longitudinal Strain  
original length l

Linear strain may be a tensile strain, or a compressive strain according as ∆l refers to an increase in length
or a decrease in length of the body. If we consider one of these as +ve then the other should be considered as
–ve, as these are opposite in nature.
Volumetric Strain
Volumetric strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the change in volume of the body to the
deformation to its original volume. If V is the original volum and ∆V the change in volume occurred due to
the deformation, the volumetric strain is given by
 Change in volume V
Volume Strain  
original volume V

When a force is applied uniformly and normally to the entire surface of the body, then there will
be a change in volume of the body, without any change in its shape. This strain is called ‘bulk or
volumetric strain.
Shear strain

Shear strain is defined as the strain accompanying a shearing action. It is the angle in radian measure
through which the body gets distorted when subjected to an external shearing action. It is denoted by.

Consider a cube ABCD subjected to equal and opposite forces Q across the top and bottom forces AB and
CD. If the bottom face is taken fixed, the cube gets distorted through angle  to the shape ABC’D’. Now
strain or deformation per unit length is

Shear strain () of cube = CC’ / CD = CC’ / BC = Deformation / Original length.

Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law states that stress is proportional to strain upto elastic limit
Stress α Strain
Stress = E x Strain
Modulus of elasticity (E) = Stress/ Strain
Modulus of Elasticity

As there are three types of stress and strain, therefore, the modulus of
elasticity is of three types
1.Young's modulus (Y)
2.Bulk modulus or volume elasticity (k)
3.Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus (η)
1. Young's Modulus :

The ratio of tensile or longitudinal stress to tensile or longitudinal strain of a material body is called
Young's modulus.

longitudinal stress
Young ' s modulus 
longitudinal strain

F/A FL
Y  N/m2
L / L A L

Consider a wire of length L having uniform cross sectional area 'A'. One end
of wire is tied to a rigid support while lower end or free end is loaded (or) stretched by a force ‘F’ as shown in
fig.
The wi re elongates through ∆l due to the applied force F.
The longitudinal stress = F/A
The longitudinal strain = i/L
 F/A FL
Y 
L / L A L N/m2
It is different for different materials.

2.Bulk modulus or volume elasticity (K):

The ratio of volume stress to volume strain of a material body is calledbulk modulus.
Not all deformations are linear. Sometimes an applied stress F/A results in a decrease of volume
and the strain produced is a bulk modulus (K) of elasticity.

The negative sign in the equation indicates that when pressure increases,

volume decreases.

Thus, the Bulk modulus can alternatively be defined as the product of volume
and negative gradient of pressure with respect to volume. This property possess by solid,
liquid and gases. It depends upon temperature and material.

Compressibility :
Compressibility is reciprocal of Bulk modulus. i.e. ratio of volume strain tovolume stress of a material
body.
The SI and CGS units are m2/N and cm2/dyne respectively.
The dimensions are [M-1 L1 T2].
3. Modulus rigidity (n)
The ratio of tangential stress to shearing strain, within the elastic limits.
Rigidity modulus (n) = Tangential stress / Shearing strain

= F/A N/m2
This property possesses by solids only.
All three types of modulus of elasticity or elastic constants have same units and
dimensions i.e. N/m2 and [M1 L-1 T-2] respectively.

Poisson's ratio:

When a wire is stretched, its length increases, however at the same time its
diameter decreases. The longitudinal elongation strain produced in the wire. The wire also gets
contraction hence contraction strain is produced in the wire. The ratio of the lateral contraction
strain to the longitudinal elongation strain is a constant and is called as the Poisson's ratio (σ)
for the material.
Consider a wire of length L and diameter D. If ‘l’ is the increase in its length and ‘d’ is
decrease in its diameter, under the application of a force then,

l
Longitudinal elongation strain 
L
 d
and Lateral contraction strain 
D

By definition of Poisson’s ratio

Lateral contraction strain


Longitudinal elongation strain

d l L d
 / 
D L lD
It is the ratio of two similar quantities, therefore it has no unit and dimensions. It is a pure
number. It's maximum value is 0.5 and minimum value is -1. In most of the metals, its value is about
0.3.
Bending of Beams

Beam: A beam is defined as a rod or bar. Circular or rectangular of uniform cross- section whose
length is very much greater than its other dimensions,such as breadth and thickness. It is commonly
used in the construction of bridges to support roofs of the buildings etc. since the length of the
beam is much greater than its other dimensions the shearing stresses are very small.

Assumptions:
While studying about the bending of beams, the following assumptions have to be made.
1. The length of the beam should be large compared to other dimensions.
2. The load(forces) applied should be large compared to the weight of the beam
3. The cross-section of the beam remains constant and hence the geometrical moment of
inertia 19 also remains constant
4. The shearing stresses are negligible
5. The curvature ofthe beam is very small
Bending of a Beam and neutral axis
Let us consider a beam of uniform rectangular cross-section in the figure. A beam may be
assumed to consist of a number of parallel longitudinal metallic fibers placed one over the other and are
called as filaments as shown in the figure.
 Let the beam be subjected to deforming forces at its ends as shown in the figure. Due to the
deforming force the beam bends. We know the beam consists of many filaments. Let us consider a
filament AB at the center of the beam. It is found that the filaments (layers) lying above AB gets
elongated, while the filaments lying below AB gets compressed. Therefore the filament i.e. layer AB
which remains u n a l t e r e d taken as the reference axis called as Neutral axis and the plane is called as
neutral plane. Further, the deformation of any filament can be measured with reference to the neutral axis.
Bending moment of beam equation Q q

The moment of couple due to elastic reactions (restoring couple) which balances the bending
couple due to applied load is called the bending moment.

Let us consider a beam under the action of deforming forces. The beam bends into a circular arc as
shown in the fig.

Let ABCD represent a small section of bent beam. Let PQ be the neutral axis of the beam and P’ Q’ be
another filament at distance y from PQ.

If R is the radius of curvature of the neutral axis of the and  is the angle subtended by it at its centre of
curvature ‘C’.

Then we can write original length PQ = Radius x Angle

= R .................(1)

If R+y is the radius of curvature of the filament P’Q’.

Then we have

P’Q’ = (R+y) ...........(2)

Extension Produced in the filament P’Q’

Due to bending = P’Q’- PQ

= (R+y)-R
 = y ............(3)

The strain on the filament

Extensionp roduced
=
Originalle ngth

y y
=  .............(4)
R R

The Young’s modulus of the filament P’Q’

Stress
Y=
Strain

Stress  Y x Strain

y Yy
z Y  .............(5)
R R

If A is the area of cross-section of the filament, then the force on the Filament.

FStress x Area

Yy
= xa
R

Y
F x ay ...................(6)
R

We know, moment of longitudinal force about the neutral axis

= Force x distance

=Fxy

Y
= ay 2
R

The moment of all the forces about the

Y
Neutral axis  ay 2 .................(7)
R

Here, Ig = ay2 = AK2 is called as the geometrical moment of inertia.

Where, A – Total area of the beam

K – Radius of Gyration
Total moment of all the forces (or)

YI g
Internalbe ndingmoment  .........(8)
R

Case (i) Rectangular section

Geometrical moment of inertia of rectangular section of a beam having breadth b and depth d,

bd 3
Ig 
12

Hence, bending moment for a rectangular section

Y bd 3
= ................(9)
R 12

Case (ii) Circular section

Geometrical moment of circular section of a beam of radius r,

r2
Ig 
4

Hence bending moment for a circular section

Y r4
= .................(10)
R 4

Uniform Bending – Elevation at the centre of the beam loaded at both ends.

Fig.a
 Let us consider a beam AB of negligible mass, supported symmetrically on two knife edges C
and D . It is loaded with equal weight W at each end. Let ‘l’ be the length between the two knife edges
and ‘a’ be the length between the knife edge and the load.

 CD = l and CA =DB = a

Due to the applied load the beam bends into an arc of circle and procedures an elevation ‘y’.Let P be
any section of the beam. At the equilibrium position of the section PA of the beam two equal forces, the
applied load W at A (download) and the normal reaction W at C (upward) are acting in the opposite
direction constitute a couple.

The External bending moment = Wa ...................(1)

YI g
Internal bendingmoment  ..................(2)
R
Where, R is the radius of curvature.

At Equilibrium,

External bending moment = Internal bending moment

YI g
W a ..................(3)
R

Since, Wa is a constant, R is also constant. Therefore the beam bends into an arc of a circle of radius R.
Hence the bending in this case is said to be uniform.

Fig . b
From the figure (b), we have

2 R  y y  l  l
2 2
If, R>>>y then 2R-y = 2R

l2
then 2 Ry 
4
l2
 R  ................(4)
8y
Substituting (4) in (3)

Y I g 8 y 
Wa 
l2
Wal 2
 The Elevation y ............(5)
8YI g
When, the Elevation h is measured, Young’s modulus of the material of the beam can be calculated as,

Wal 2
Y ................(6)
8 yI g

Case (i) Rectangular Section

bd 3
In the case of rectangular section I g  , where b is the breadth and d is the thickness of the
12
beam.

Hence the elevation of the beam of rectangular section.

Wal 2 12
y 
8Y bd 3
3W al 2
y .............(7)
2Ybd 3
Case (ii): Circular Section

r 4
In the case of circular section where I g  , r is the radius of the beam.
4
Hence, the elevationh of the beam of circular section

Wal 2 4
y 
8Y  r 4

Wal 2
y ..........(8)
2Y r 4
Experiment

Construction:
A rectangular beam AB of uniform – section is supported horizontally on two knife –
edges A and B as shown in Figure.

Two weight hangers of equal masses are suspended from the ends of the beam. A pin is
arranged vertically at the mid-point of the beam. A microscope is focused on the tip of the pin.
Procedure
A dead loads are attached to the hangers. The microscope is adjusted such that the horizontal cross-wire
coincides with the tip of the image of the pin and the readings on the vertical scale are taken.
Equal weights i n s t e p s o f 5 0 g are added to both hangers simultaneously and the
reading of the microscope in the vertical scale in noted.
The experiment is repeated for decreasing order of magnitude of the equal masses.

The observations are then tabulated and the mean elevation (y) at the mid point
of the bar is determined.

Observation
 s.no Load Microscope reading mean (M/y)
Loading Unloading Elevation(y)
MSR VSC div TR div MSR VSC div TR div X10-2m metre Kg/m
Kg
Cm Cm
1 W

2 W+50

3 W+100

4 W+150

5 W+200

The mean elevation ‘y ‘produced by an addition of M say 50 gm is found by the formula.

Wal 2
y
8YI g ....................... (1)

If the given beam is rectangular in shape

bd 3
Ig 
12 ..................... (2)
Where’ b’ is the breadth and‘d’ is the thickness of the beam.
Also, the weight W = Mg ....................... (3)
Substitute (2) and (3) in (1) we have,

Mg al 2 12
y
8Y bd 3

3Mg al 2
y
2Ybd 3
The length of the bar between the knife edges ‘l’ is measured. The distance of one of the
weight hangers from the nearest knife edge a is measured. The breadth (b) and thickness (d) of the
bar are measured by using vernier calipers and screw gauge.

The young’s modulus of the material of the beam is determined by the relation
 3Mg al 2 N
Y
2 ybd 3 m2

3g al 2  M  N
Y  
2bd 3  y  m
2

Graphical method (or) Dynamical method

A graph is drawn between load (M) along x axis and elevation (y) along y axis.It is found to be a straight
line as shown in fig. The slope of the straight line gives the value of y/M.

1/slope = AC/BC = M/y

Hence Young’s modulus can be calculated as

3gal 2 1 N
Y 2 orPa
3
2bd Slope m

DEPRESSIONOFACANTILEVER
Cantilever:

It is a beam fixed horizontally at one end and loaded at the other end.
Theory

Let us consider a beam fixed at one end and loaded at its other free end as shown in fig. Let AB is the neutral axis
of a cantilever (a beam or rod)of length ‘l’ is fixed at the end A and loaded at the free end B by a
weight W.The end B is depressed to B’.

BB’ represents the vertical depression at the free end.

Due to the load applied at the free end, a couple is created between the two forces. (i.e)

(i) Force (load ‘W’) applied at the free end towards downward direction and
(ii) Reaction (R) acting in the upward direction at the supporting end.

This external bending couple tends to bend the beam in the clockwise direction. But, since
one end of the beam is fixed, the beam cannot rotate. Therefore the external bending
couple must be balanced by another equal and opposite couple, created due to the elastic
nature of the body called as internal bending moment .

Consider the section of the cantilever P at a distance ‘x’ from the fixed end A. Q is an other point at a
distance dx form P i.e., PQ = dx.
It is a distance (l-x) from the loaded end B’.Considering the equilibrium of the portion PB’,there
is a force of reaction Wof P.

The external bending moment=W xPB’=W(l-x)………(1)

YI
Internal bending moment of the cantilever =
R

Where Y–Young’s modulus of the cantilever.

I- Geometricalmomentofinertia of its cross-section.R-

Radius of the curvature of the neutralaxis at P.

In the equilibrium position,

External bending moment = Internal bending moment

 YI g
w(l  x)
R

YI g
R ………………..(2)
wl  x 

Since P and Q are very near, we can assume that the radius of curvature R is practically the same. The tangents are
drawn at P and Q meeting the vertical line BB’ at C and D. Let d be the angle between the tangents at P and
Q.

Length dx = radius x angle = Rd

dx
Then the angle POQ = d  …….(3)
R

Substituting the value of R from (2) in (3), we have

dxW (l  x)
d  …………….(4)
YI g

If dy is the depression due to the curvature at PQ

dy l  x d ……………(5)

Substituting value of d,

 dxW l  x 
 dy l  x  
 YI g 

W l  x 2 dx
= ……(7)
Yi g

Total depression at the free end of the cantilever

l l
W (l  x) 2 dx
y   dy  
0 0
YI g

 l  x 
W
 2
dx
YI g 0
  l 
l
W
 2
 x 2  2 xl dx
YI g 0

l
W  2 x 2 2 xl 2 
 l x   
YI g  3 2 
0

W  3 l3 3
 l   l 
YI g  3 
w l3
Depression of the cantilever at free end, y 
YI g 3

If the depression y is meadured, Young’s modulus of the material of the beam can be calculated as

Wl 3 Mgl 3
Y 
3 yI g 3 yI g

Case (i) Rectangular Section

bd 3
In the case of rectangular section, I g  , where b is the breadth and d is the thickness of the beam.
12

Hence, the depression of a cantilever of rectangular section

 Wl 3 12
y 
3Y bd 3

4wl 3
y
Ybd 3

Case (ii) Circular section

r 4
In the case of circular section, I g  , where r is the radius
4

Hence, the depression of a cantilever of circular section,

Wl 3 4
y  4
3Y r

4Wl 3
y
3Yr 4

Experimental determination of Young’s modulus by Cantilever Depression

Construction:

One end of the beam is rigidly clamped at one end to the edge of the tableusing G- clamp. A tall pin
P is fixed vertically to the free end of the bar. A loop of cotton string or a hook is attached to this end of the
bar and a weight hanger is suspended from it. A travelling microscope is focused on the tip of the pin as
shown in fig.

Procedure:

A dead load without any slotted weights is attached to the hook. The microscope is adjusted such
that the horizontal cross wire coincides with the tip of the image of the pin and the reading on the vertical
scale is taken. Loads are added to the hanger in steps of 50g and every time, the readings are noted on the
vertical scale.
 These observations are also repeated while unloading in the same steps and the readings are
tabulated.The mean depression ‘y’ for a load ‘M’ kg is found from the tabulated readings.

The observations are tabulated as follows

s.no Load Microscope reading mean (M/y)

(M) Loading Unloading Depression(y)
Kg MSR VSCdiv TRdiv MSR VSC div TR div X10-2m metre Kg/m
Kg
Cm Cm
1 W

2 W+50

3 W+100

4 W+150

5 W+200

Theoretically, we know the depression (y) produced by an addition of load Mkg (say 50g) is found by the
formula.

Wl 3
y ……………………(1)
3YI g
Where l is the length of the beam, b is the breadth of the beam and d is the thickness of the beam.,I g the
geometric moment of inertia . If the given cantilever is rectangular in dimension,
 bd 3
Ig  ……………………(2)
12
Where b is the breadth and d is the thickness of the beam.

Also, the weight W = Mg ………………..(3)

Substituting W and Ig in (1)

Mgl 3 12 4Mgl 3
y  3
3Y bd Ybd 3

4Mgl 3 N
Young’s modulus Y
bd 3 y m2

(or)

4 gl 3 M  N
Y   2 ……….(4)
bd 3  y  m

Graphical method

A graph is Plot between the load (M)and depression (y) along x and y axis respectively. The graph is a
straight line as shown in fig.

Equation (4) can also be written as

4 gl 3 1
Y 3 . N or Pa
bd slope m2
By substituting the slope value from the graph in the above formula Young’s modulus of the beam can be
calculated.

GIRDER

A girder is a support beam used in construction. Girder is the term used to denote the main
horizontal support of a structure, which supports smaller beams. A girder is commonly used more in
the building of bridges and planes.

I-Shape Girders

The girders with upper and lower section broadened and the middle section tapered, so that it
can withstand heavy loads over it is called as I-shape girders.

The cross section of the girder takes the shape of the capital letter I as shown in fig. The vertical
plate in the middle is known as the web and the top and bottom plates are referred to as flanges, steel is
one of the most common material used to make I- beams, since it can withstand very heavy loads,
although other materials, such as aluminium are sometimes used.
When a beam is used as a girder for a given load, depression must be minimum. We know
that the depression at the mid point of a beam loaded at that point is given by
4Mgl 2
y for a given load.
Ybd 3
Here, the depression can be minimised by,

1. Decreasing the load (Mg)

2. Decreasing the length (l)
3. Increasing the Young’s modulus (Y)
4. Increasing the breadth (b)
5. Increasing the thickness of the girder (d)

Since the length (l) and Young’s modulus (Y) of the beam are the fixed quantity, it
can not be altered. Therefore the breadth and thickness are adjusted to minimise the
depression. Thus the girders are made of I shape and are called I shape girders.

Applications of I- shape girders

1. Support beam for commercial and residential construction.
2. Support frames and coloumns for trolley ways, lifts and hoists.
3. Construction of platforms.
4. Trailer and truck bed framing.
5. Construction of bridges.
6. Machine bases.
7. Iron rails exclude in railway tracks.

Advantages:

1. As the layers of the beam at top and bottom are subjected to maximum stress
more material must be needed at these layers to withstand the strain.
2. As the stress around the neutral layer is small, material in these regions canbe
removed without loss of efficiency. This would save cost of material of the
girder.