02 Communication and Internet

Technologies
Candidates should be able to:
Show understanding of why a protocol is essential for communication
between computers

Show understanding of how protocol implementation can be viewed as a

stack, where each layer has its own functionality

Show understanding of the TCP/IP protocol suite

Show understanding of protocols (HTTP, FTP, POP3, IMAP, SMTP, BitTorrent)

and their purposes

Show understanding of circuit switching

Show understanding of packet switching

Definitions
TCP/IP Protocol A set of protocols for transmitting data over the internet

A device that participates in a network and has the same

Peer
functionality as one or more devices in the network

A server that keeps records of all computers in the swarm and

Tracker shares their IP addresses so that they can connect to each
other

Leech A peer that downloads much more than it uploads

A peer that has downloaded a file and has then made it

Seed
available to other peers in the swarm

A peer that downloads many files but does not make available
Lurker
any new content for the community

02 Communication and Internet Technologies 1

 Circuit switching Uses a dedicated circuit which lasts throughout the connection

A method of transmission in which is broken up into a number

Packet switching
of packets that can be sent independently to each other

2.1 Protocols
2.1.1 The need for protocols
Needed so that all data uses the same format

Provide rules for communication

All sending/receiving happens according to the same rules

Need so that communication is independent of software and hardware

2.1.2 TCP/IP protocols

A set of protocols for transmitting data

Stands for Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol

It is a layered model with 4 layers

Application Layer

Transport Layer (TCP part)

Internet (Network) Layer (IP part)

Network Access Layer

Each layer operates independently and can only communicate with an

adjacent layer

Messages are split up into packets (APP)

A router is used to transmit packets of data (APP)

Host ‘X’ will send host ‘Y’ a packet which will include synchronization
sequence bits to that segments will be received in the correct order (TR)

Host ‘Y’ will now respond by sending back its own packet (containing an
acknowledgement together with its own synchronization sequence bits (TR)

02 Communication and Internet Technologies 2

 Host ‘X’ sends out its own acknowledgement that the packet from ‘Y’ was
received (TR)

Transmission of data between ‘X’ and ‘Y’ can now take place (TR)

Ensure correct routing of packets of data over the internet (I/N)

Responsible for protocols when communicating between networks

Take a packet form the transport layer and adds it own header which will
include the IP address of both sender and recipient (DL)

The IP packet (datagram) is sent to the data-link layer where it assembles the
data grams into frames for transmission (DL)

Application Layer
Handles access to services

Manages data exchange

Defines protocols used

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

Defines the format of the messages sent and received

Browsing websites

Used for transfer of web pages from server to client

Underpins the World Wide Web

Used when fetching an HTML document from a web browser

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

To directly transfer data between 2 computer over a network

Upload and download files over the internet

Used for interactive files transfer

It allows users to access files without the need to identify who they are to the
ftp server

POP3/4 and IMAP (Post Office Protocol and Internet Message Access Protocol)

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 Used when receiving emails from the email server

Mail is held for you by a remote server until you download it

Pull protocol

Client periodically connects to a server; checks for and downloads new

emails from the server

The connection is then closed, this process is repeated to ensure the

client is updated

Doesn’t keep the server and client in synchronization

When emails are downloaded by client, they are then deleted from the
server

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

Used for sending email messages

Used by mail servers to forward email messages

Push protocol

A client opens a connection to a server and keeps the connection active all
the time, the client then uploads a new email to their server

Doesn’t handle binary files: media, images, music

Need to use Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) protocol

Transport Layer
Handles forwarding packets

Checks packet port to identify the application type

Checks packet destination so the packet can be sent to the correct application

Recalculate checksum of packet to ensure integrity

If checksum invalid, it’ll send a message to resend packet

TCP

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

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 host to host communication

Breaks up application data into packets

Adds sequence number to TCP packet headers

Sends and receives packets to and from internet layer respectively

Does error checking

Handles retransmission of lost/corrupted packets

Reassembles packets into correct order

Internet Protocol (IP)

Routes packets between networks

Adds IP header

Encapsulates data into a datagram

Passes data to and from network access layer and transport layer

Internet/Network Layer and Network/Data-Link Layer

Handles transmission of data/routing/IP addressing

Peer-to-Peer Sharing/BitTorrent Protocol

Computer has BitTorrent client software

Computer downloads torrent descriptor file and joins swarm using the
software

Server called “tracker” keeps records of all computers in the swarm and
shares their IP addresses so that they can connect to each other

Torrent is split into small pieces

At least one computer has the complete file and makes it available to swarm

Pieces of the torrent are both downloaded and uploaded

Once a computer has a piece of the torrent file, it can start uploading it and
become a “seed”

A leech is a computer that downloads much more than it uploads

02 Communication and Internet Technologies 5

 Skill Check 1

The use of the TCP/IP protocol suite is essential for successful

communication over the Internet

1. Describe the TCP/IP protocol suite. [5]

2. A group of over 100 students has produced a movie. The size of the
movie file is very large.
The students would like to use peer-to-peer file sharing to share this file
with friends and family.
Identify the
most appropriate TCP/IP protocol for sharing this file over the Internet
and describe the way this protocol works. [5]

Solution

1. It is a layered model with 4 layers. The layers are Application Layer,

Transport Layer, Internet Layer and Data Link layer. It uses a set of
protocols for transmission of data. TCP/IP is short form for transport
control protocol with internet protocol

2. BitTorrent
BitTorrent client software is made available to friends and family’s
computers. A complete copy of the torrent to be shared is available
on at at least one computer. The file is split into small pieces. The
rarer pieces are given priority for downloading. A user joins by using
the BitTorrent software to load the torrent descriptor file. Once a
computer has a piece, it can become a seed. A server called a
tracker keeps records of all the computers in the swarm the tracker
shares their IP addresses allowing connection to each other

2.2 Circuit Switching, Packet Switching

2.2.1 Circuit Switching
Suited for live video

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 Process:

A circuit between sender and receiver is established before

communication starts and is used for full duration of the communication

All data travels down one dedicated channel

Full bandwidth is used

Connection is dropped at end of communication

Advantages:

Full bandwidth because dedicated channel

Better synchronization than packet switching

No delays

Data arrives in order sent

Disadvantages:

Bandwidth not available for others

Lower security because easier to intercept since only one route used

Extra time required at start to set up circuit

Less reliable because if route fails communication cannot continue

2.2.2 Packet Switching

Used where

Synchronization is not necessary

Error checking is needed

Real time transmission is not needed

Process:

Message is divided into small, same-sized pieces called packets

Each packet has a header and a payload

The header has

02 Communication and Internet Technologies 7

 Source IP address

Destination IP address

Sequence number

IP version (IPv4 or IPv6)

Packet Length, etc.

Header is needed to store information about packet so original message

can be reconstructed

Each packet is sent independently and may take different routes

They may arrive out of order and must be reassembled into original
message at destination using sequence number in the header

If packet(s) are missing or corrupted, a retransmission request is sent

Advantages:

Bandwidth can be shared

Makes best use of available channels

Circuit does not need to be established at start of communication

More secure and robust since different paths taken by packets

Does error checking

Disadvantages:

Must wait until all packets received to put them in order

Video and sound may nor be synchronized

Could be insufficient bandwidth if others are using it

Routing Tables
Router reads packet header

Reads IP address of destination

The router has a routing table, containing info about available hops and status
of different routes

02 Communication and Internet Technologies 8

 Decides best route for packet

Sends packet down this route

Skill Check 2

1. Explain how packet switching is used to transfer messages across the

internet. [5]

2. Outline the function of a router in packet switching. [3]

Solution

1. A large message is divided up into a group of smaller chunks of the

same size called packets. Each packet has a header and a payload.
The header contains a source IP address, destination IP address.
Each packet is dispatched independently and may travel along
different routes. The packets may arrive out of order and are
reassembled into the original message at the destination. If packets
are missing a re-transmission request is sent

2. The router examines the packet’s header. It reads the IP address of

the destination. A router has access to a routing table containing
information about available hops, netmask, gateway used, and the
status of the routes along the route.

Points To Note
Circuit switching requires a dedicated circuit to be established between
sender and receiver before transmission can start

In packet switching, packets can be transmitted without any circuit being

created

Packet switching can use connectionless or connection-oriented transmission

A protocol suite is implemented as a layered stack

02 Communication and Internet Technologies 9

 The TCP/IP protocol suite supports usage of the Internet

Ethernet is the most likely option for use in the Network and Data link layers

Examples of application-layer protocols are HTTP, SMTP, POP3, IMAP and

FTP

Peer-to-peer file sharing on the Internet uses the BitTorrent protocol

02 Communication and Internet Technologies 10