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In Praise of Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware/
Software Interface, Sixth Edition

“Textbook selection is often a frustrating act of compromise—pedagogy, content

coverage, quality of exposition, level of rigor, cost. Computer Organization and
Design is the rare book that hits all the right notes across the board, without
compromise. It is not only the premier computer organization textbook, it is a
shining example of what all computer science textbooks could and should be.”
—Michael Goldweber, Xavier University
“I have been using Computer Organization and Design for years, from the very first
edition. This new edition is yet another outstanding improvement on an already
classic text. The evolution from desktop computing to mobile computing to Big
Data brings new coverage of embedded processors such as the ARM, new material
on how software and hardware interact to increase performance, and cloud
computing. All this without sacrificing the fundamentals.”
—Ed Harcourt, St. Lawrence University
“To Millennials: Computer Organization and Design is the computer architecture
book you should keep on your (virtual) bookshelf. The book is both old and new,
because it develops venerable principles—Moore’s Law, abstraction, common case
fast, redundancy, memory hierarchies, parallelism, and pipelining—but illustrates
them with contemporary designs.”
—Mark D. Hill, University of Wisconsin-Madison
“The new edition of Computer Organization and Design keeps pace with advances
in emerging embedded and many-core (GPU) systems, where tablets and
smartphones will/are quickly becoming our new desktops. This text acknowledges
these changes, but continues to provide a rich foundation of the fundamentals
in computer organization and design which will be needed for the designers of
hardware and software that power this new class of devices and systems.”
—Dave Kaeli, Northeastern University
“Computer Organization and Design provides more than an introduction to computer
architecture. It prepares the reader for the changes necessary to meet the ever-
increasing performance needs of mobile systems and big data processing at a time
that difficulties in semiconductor scaling are making all systems power constrained.
In this new era for computing, hardware and software must be co-designed and
system-level architecture is as critical as component-level optimizations.”
—Christos Kozyrakis, Stanford University
“Patterson and Hennessy brilliantly address the issues in ever-changing computer
hardware architectures, emphasizing on interactions among hardware and software
components at various abstraction levels. By interspersing I/O and parallelism concepts
with a variety of mechanisms in hardware and software throughout the book, the new
edition achieves an excellent holistic presentation of computer architecture for the post-
PC era. This book is an essential guide to hardware and software professionals facing
energy efficiency and parallelization challenges in Tablet PC to Cloud computing.”
—Jae C. Oh, Syracuse University
R I S C - V E D I T I O N

Computer Organization and Design

T H E H A R D W A R E S O F T W A R E I N T E R FA C E

SECOND EDITION
David A. Patterson has been teaching computer architecture at the University of
California, Berkeley, since joining the faculty in 1977, where he held the Pardee Chair
of Computer Science. His teaching has been honored by the Distinguished Teaching
Award from the University of California, the Karlstrom Award from ACM, and the
Mulligan Education Medal and Undergraduate Teaching Award from IEEE. Patterson
received the IEEE Technical Achievement Award and the ACM Eckert-Mauchly Award
for contributions to RISC, and he shared the IEEE Johnson Information Storage Award
for contributions to RAID. He also shared the IEEE John von Neumann Medal and
the C & C Prize with John Hennessy. Like his coauthor, Patterson is a Fellow of both
AAAS organizations, the Computer History Museum, ACM, and IEEE, and he was
elected to the National Academy of Engineering, the National Academy of Sciences,
and the Silicon Valley Engineering Hall of Fame. He served as chair of the CS division
in the Berkeley EECS department, as chair of the Computing Research Association,
and as President of ACM. This record led to Distinguished Service Awards from ACM,
CRA, and SIGARCH. He received the Tapia Achievement Award for Civic Science and
Diversifying Computing and shared the 2017 ACM A. M. Turing Award with Hennessy.
At Berkeley, Patterson led the design and implementation of RISC I, likely the first
VLSI reduced instruction set computer, and the foundation of the commercial SPARC
architecture. He was a leader of the Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (RAID)
project, which led to dependable storage systems from many companies. He was
also involved in the Network of Workstations (NOW) project, which led to cluster
technology used by Internet companies and later to cloud computing. These projects
earned four dissertation awards from ACM. In 2016, he became Professor Emeritus at
Berkeley and a Distinguished Engineer at Google, where he works on domain specific
architecture for machine learning. He is also the Vice Chair of RISC-V International
and the Director of the RISC-V International Open Source Laboratory.
John L. Hennessy was a Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
at Stanford University, where he has been a member of the faculty since 1977 and was,
from 2000 to 2016, its tenth President. Hennessy is a Fellow of the IEEE and ACM; a
member of the National Academy of Engineering, the National Academy of Science,
and the American Philosophical Society; and a Fellow of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences. Among his many awards are the 2001 Eckert-Mauchly Award for
his contributions to RISC technology, the 2001 Seymour Cray Computer Engineering
Award, and the 2000 John von Neumann Award, which he shared with David Patterson.
In 2017, they shared the ACM A. M. Turing Award. He has also received seven honorary
doctorates.
In 1981, he started the MIPS project at Stanford with a handful of graduate students.
After completing the project in 1984, he took a leave from the university to cofound
MIPS Computer Systems (now MIPS Technologies), which developed one of the first
commercial RISC microprocessors. As of 2006, over 2 billion MIPS microprocessors have
been shipped in devices ranging from video games and palmtop computers to laser printers
and network switches. Hennessy subsequently led the DASH (Director Architecture
for Shared Memory) project, which prototyped the first scalable cache coherent
multiprocessor; many of the key ideas have been adopted in modern multiprocessors.
In addition to his technical activities and university responsibilities, he has continued to
work with numerous start-ups, both as an early-stage advisor and an investor.
He is currently Director of Knight-Hennessy Scholars and serves as non-executive
chairman of Alphabet.
R I S C - V E D I T I O N

Computer Organization and Design

T H E H A R D W A R E S O F T W A R E I N T E R FA C E

SECOND EDITION

David A. Patterson
University of California, Berkeley
Google, Inc

John L. Hennessy
Stanford University
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To Linda,
who has been, is, and always will be the love of my life
Contents

Preface xi

C H A P T E R S

1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 2

1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Seven Great Ideas in Computer Architecture 10
1.3 Below Your Program 13
1.4 Under the Covers 16
1.5 Technologies for Building Processors and Memory 25
1.6 Performance 29
1.7 The Power Wall 40
1.8 The Sea Change: The Switch from Uniprocessors to Multiprocessors 43
1.9 Real Stuff: Benchmarking the Intel Core i7 46
1.10 Going Faster: Matrix Multiply in Python 49
1.11 Fallacies and Pitfalls 50
1.12 Concluding Remarks 53
1.13 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 55
1.14 Self-Study 55
1.15 Exercises 59

2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 66

2.1 Introduction 68
2.2 Operations of the Computer Hardware 69
2.3 Operands of the Computer Hardware 73
2.4 Signed and Unsigned Numbers 80
2.5 Representing Instructions in the Computer 87
2.6 Logical Operations 95
2.7 Instructions for Making Decisions 98
2.8 Supporting Procedures in Computer Hardware 104
2.9 Communicating with People 114
2.10 RISC-V Addressing for Wide Immediates and Addresses 120
2.11 Parallelism and Instructions: Synchronization 128
2.12 Translating and Starting a Program 131
2.13 A C Sort Example to Put it All Together 140
 Contents vii

2.14 Arrays versus Pointers 148

2.15 Advanced Material: Compiling C and Interpreting Java 151
2.16 Real Stuff: MIPS Instructions 152
2.17 Real Stuff: ARMv7 (32-bit) Instructions 153
2.18 Real Stuff: ARMv8 (64-bit) Instructions 157
2.19 Real Stuff: x86 Instructions 158
2.20 Real Stuff: The Rest of the RISC-V Instruction Set 167
2.21 Going Faster: Matrix Multiply in C 168
2.22 Fallacies and Pitfalls 170
2.23 Concluding Remarks 172
2.24 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 174
2.25 Self-Study 175
2.26 Exercises 178

3 Arithmetic for Computers 188

3.1 Introduction 190

3.2 Addition and Subtraction 190
3.3 Multiplication 193
3.4 Division 199
3.5 Floating Point 208
3.6 Parallelism and Computer Arithmetic: Subword Parallelism 233
3.7 Real Stuff: Streaming SIMD Extensions and Advanced Vector Extensions
in x86 234
3.8 Going Faster: Subword Parallelism and Matrix Multiply 236
3.9 Fallacies and Pitfalls 238
3.10 Concluding Remarks 241
3.11 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 242
3.12 Self-Study 242
3.13 Exercises 246

4 The Processor 252

4.1 Introduction 254

4.2 Logic Design Conventions 258
4.3 Building a Datapath 261
4.4 A Simple Implementation Scheme 269
4.5 Multicyle Implementation 282
4.6 An Overview of Pipelining 283
4.7 Pipelined Datapath and Control 296
4.8 Data Hazards: Forwarding versus Stalling 313
4.9 Control Hazards 325
4.10 Exceptions 333
4.11 Parallelism via Instructions 340
4.12 Putting it All Together: The Intel Core i7 6700 and ARM
Cortex-A53 354
viii Contents

4.13 Going Faster: Instruction-Level Parallelism and Matrix Multiply 363

4.14 Advanced Topic: An Introduction to Digital Design Using a Hardware
Design Language to Describe and Model a Pipeline and More Pipelining
Illustrations 365
4.15 Fallacies and Pitfalls 365
4.16 Concluding Remarks 367
4.17 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 368
4.18 Self-Study 368
4.19 Exercises 369

5 Large and Fast: Exploiting Memory Hierarchy 386

5.1 Introduction 388

5.2 Memory Technologies 392
5.3 The Basics of Caches 398
5.4 Measuring and Improving Cache Performance 412
5.5 Dependable Memory Hierarchy 431
5.6 Virtual Machines 436
5.7 Virtual Memory 440
5.8 A Common Framework for Memory Hierarchy 464
5.9 Using a Finite-State Machine to Control a Simple Cache 470
5.10 Parallelism and Memory Hierarchy: Cache Coherence 475
5.11 Parallelism and Memory Hierarchy: Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive
Disks 479
5.12 Advanced Material: Implementing Cache Controllers 480
5.13 Real Stuff: The ARM Cortex-A8 and Intel Core i7 Memory
Hierarchies 480
5.14 Real Stuff: The Rest of the RISC-V System and Special Instructions 486
5.15 Going Faster: Cache Blocking and Matrix Multiply 488
5.16 Fallacies and Pitfalls 489
5.17 Concluding Remarks 494
5.18 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 495
5.19 Self-Study 495
5.20 Exercises 499

6 Parallel Processors from Client to Cloud 518

6.1 Introduction 520

6.2 The Difficulty of Creating Parallel Processing Programs 522
6.3 SISD, MIMD, SIMD, SPMD, and Vector 527
6.4 Hardware Multithreading 534
6.5 Multicore and Other Shared Memory Multiprocessors 537
6.6 Introduction to Graphics Processing Units 542
6.7 Domain-Specific Architectures 549
6.8 Clusters, Warehouse Scale Computers, and Other Message-Passing
Multiprocessors 552
 Contents ix

6.9 Introduction to Multiprocessor Network Topologies 557

6.10 Communicating to the Outside World: Cluster Networking 561
6.11 Multiprocessor Benchmarks and Performance Models 561
6.12 Real Stuff: Benchmarking the Google TPUv3 Supercomputer and an
NVIDIA Volta GPU Cluster 572
6.13 Going Faster: Multiple Processors and Matrix Multiply 580
6.14 Fallacies and Pitfalls 583
6.15 Concluding Remarks 585
6.16 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 587
6.17 Self-Study 588
6.18 Exercises 590

A P P E N D I X

A The Basics of Logic Design A-2

A.1 Introduction A-3

A.2 Gates, Truth Tables, and Logic Equations A-4
A.3 Combinational Logic A-9
A.4 Using a Hardware Description Language A-20
A.5 Constructing a Basic Arithmetic Logic Unit A-26
A.6 Faster Addition: Carry Lookahead A-37
A.7 Clocks A-47
A.8 Memory Elements: Flip-Flops, Latches, and Registers A-49
A.9 Memory Elements: SRAMs and DRAMs A-57
A.10 Finite-State Machines A-66
A.11 Timing Methodologies A-71
A.12 Field Programmable Devices A-77
A.13 Concluding Remarks A-78
A.14 Exercises A-79
Index I-1

O N L I N E C O N T E N T

B Graphics and Computing GPUs B-2

B.1 Introduction B-3
B.2 GPU System Architectures B-7
B.3 Programming GPUs B-12
B.4 Multithreaded Multiprocessor Architecture B-25
B.5 Parallel Memory System B-36
B.6 Floating-point Arithmetic B-41
x Contents

B.7 Real Stuff: The NVIDIA GeForce 8800 B-46

B.8 Real Stuff: Mapping Applications to GPUs B-55
B.9 Fallacies and Pitfalls B-72
B.10 Concluding Remarks B-76
B.11 Historical Perspective and Further Reading B-77

C Mapping Control to Hardware C-2
C.1 Introduction C-3
C.2 Implementing Combinational Control Units C-4
C.3 Implementing Finite-State Machine Control C-8
C.4 Implementing the Next-State Function with a Sequencer C-22
C.5 Translating a Microprogram to Hardware C-28
C.6 Concluding Remarks C-32
C.7 Exercises C-33

D Survey of Instruction Set Architectures D-2

D.1 Introduction D-3

D.2 A Survey of RISC Architectures for Desktop, Server, and Embedded
Computers D-4
D.3 The Intel 80×86 D-30
D.4 The VAX Architecture D-50
D.5 The IBM 360/370 Architecture for Mainframe Computers D-68
D.6 Historical Perspective and References D-74
Glossary G-1
Further Reading FR-1
Preface

The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the

source of all true art and science.

Albert Einstein, What I Believe, 1930

About This Book

We believe that learning in computer science and engineering should reflect
the current state of the field, as well as introduce the principles that are shaping
computing. We also feel that readers in every specialty of computing need
to appreciate the organizational paradigms that determine the capabilities,
performance, energy, and, ultimately, the success of computer systems.
Modern computer technology requires professionals of every computing
specialty to understand both hardware and software. The interaction between
hardware and software at a variety of levels also offers a framework for
understanding the fundamentals of computing. Whether your primary interest
is hardware or software, computer science or electrical engineering, the central
ideas in computer organization and design are the same. Thus, our emphasis in
this book is to show the relationship between hardware and software and to focus
on the concepts that are the basis for current computers.
The recent switch from uniprocessor to multicore microprocessors confirmed
the soundness of this perspective, given since the first edition. While programmers
could ignore the advice and rely on computer architects, compiler writers, and silicon
engineers to make their programs run faster or be more energy-efficient without
change, that era is over. For programs to run faster, they must become parallel.
While the goal of many researchers is to make it possible for programmers to be
unaware of the underlying parallel nature of the hardware they are programming,
it will take many years to realize this vision. Our view is that for at least the next
decade, most programmers are going to have to understand the hardware/software
interface if they want programs to run efficiently on parallel computers.
The audience for this book includes those with little experience in assembly
language or logic design who need to understand basic computer organization as
well as readers with backgrounds in assembly language and/or logic design who
want to learn how to design a computer or understand how a system works and
why it performs as it does.
xii Preface

About the Other Book

Some readers may be familiar with Computer Architecture: A Quantitative
Approach, popularly known as Hennessy and Patterson. (This book in turn is
often called Patterson and Hennessy.) Our motivation in writing the earlier book
was to describe the principles of computer architecture using solid engineering
fundamentals and quantitative cost/performance tradeoffs. We used an approach
that combined examples and measurements, based on commercial systems, to
create realistic design experiences. Our goal was to demonstrate that computer
architecture could be learned using quantitative methodologies instead of a
descriptive approach. It was intended for the serious computing professional who
wanted a detailed understanding of computers.
A majority of the readers for this book do not plan to become computer
architects. The performance and energy efficiency of future software systems will
be dramatically affected, however, by how well software designers understand the
basic hardware techniques at work in a system. Thus, compiler writers, operating
system designers, database programmers, and most other software engineers
need a firm grounding in the principles presented in this book. Similarly,
hardware designers must understand clearly the effects of their work on software
applications.
Thus, we knew that this book had to be much more than a subset of the material
in Computer Architecture, and the material was extensively revised to match the
different audience. We were so happy with the result that the subsequent editions of
Computer Architecture were revised to remove most of the introductory material;
hence, there is much less overlap today than with the first editions of both books.

Why a RISC-V Edition?

The choice of instruction set architecture is clearly critical to the pedagogy of a
computer architecture textbook. We didn’t want an instruction set that required
describing unnecessary baroque features for someone’s first instruction set, no
matter how popular it is. Ideally, your initial instruction set should be an exemplar,
just like your first love. Surprisingly, you remember both fondly.
Since there were so many choices at the time, for the first edition of Computer
Architecture: A Quantitative Approach, we invented our own RISC-style instruction
set. Given the growing popularity and the simple elegance of the MIPS instruction
set, we switched to it for the first edition of this book and to later editions of the
other book. MIPS has served us and our readers well.
It’s been many years since we made that switch, and while billions of chips that
use MIPS continue to be shipped, they are typically in found embedded devices
where the instruction set is nearly invisible. Thus, for a while now it’s been hard
to find a real computer on which readers can download and run MIPS programs.
The good news is that an open instruction set that adheres closely to the RISC
principles has recently debuted, and it is rapidly gaining a following. RISC-V, which
was developed originally at UC Berkeley, not only cleans up the quirks of the MIPS
 Preface xiii

instruction set, but it offers a simple, elegant, modern take on what instruction sets
should look like in 2020.
Moreover, because it is not proprietary, there are open-source RISC-V
simulators, compilers, debuggers, and so on easily available and even open-source
RISC-V implementations available written in hardware description languages.
Moreover, 2020 saw the introduction of low-cost boards based on RISC-V that are
the equivalent of the Raspberry Pi, which is not the case for MIPS. Readers will not
only benefit from studying these RISC-V designs, they will be able to modify them
and go through the implementation process in order to understand the impact of
their hypothetical changes on performance, die size, and energy.
This is an exciting opportunity for the computing industry as well as for education,
and thus at the time of this writing more than 300 companies have joined the RISC-V
foundation. This sponsor list includes virtually all the major players except for ARM
and Intel, including Alibaba, Amazon, AMD, Google, Hewlett Packard Enterprise,
IBM, Microsoft, NVIDIA, Qualcomm, Samsung, and Western Digital.
It is for these reasons that we wrote a RISC-V edition of this book, and we
switched Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach to RISC-V as well.
With this edition of the RISC-V version, we switched from 64-bit RV64 to 32-bit
RV32. Instructors found that the extra complexity of a 64-bit instruction set made
it harder on the students. RV32 reduces the core architecture by 10 instructions—
dropping ld, sd, lwu, addw, subw, addwi, sllw, srlw, sllwiw, srliw—and they don’t
have to understand operations on the lower 32 bits of a 64-bit register. We also can
largely ignore doublewords and just use words in the text. in this edition we also
hid the odd-looking SB and UJ formats until Chapter 4. We explain the hardware
savings of the swirled bit orderings in the immediate fields of SB and UJ later
since that chapter is where we show the datapath hardware. Just as we did for
the sixth MIPS addition, we added an online section showing a multiple-clock-
cycle implementation for this edition, but we modified it to match RISC-V. Some
faculty prefer to go through the multicycle implementation after the single-cycle
implementation before introducing pipelining.
The only changes for the RISC-V edition from the MIPS edition are those
associated with the change in instruction sets, which primarily affects Chapter 2,
Chapter 3, the virtual memory section in Chapter 5, and the short VMIPS example
in Chapter 6. In Chapter 4, we switched to RISC-V instructions, changed several
figures, and added a few “Elaboration” sections, but the changes were simpler than
we had feared. Chapter 1 and most of the appendices are virtually unchanged. The
extensive online documentation and combined with the magnitude of RISC-V
make it difficult to come up with a replacement for the MIPS version of Appendix
A (“Assemblers, Linkers, and the SPIM Simulator” in the MIPS Sixth Edition).
Instead, Chapters 2, 3, and 5 include quick overviews of the hundreds of RISC-V
instructions outside of the core RISC-V instructions that we cover in detail in the
rest of the book.
The current plan is to continue revisiing both the MIPS and RISC-V versions of
this book, as we did in 2020.
xiv Preface

Changes for the Second Edition

There is arguably been more change in the technology and business of computer
architecture since the fifth edition than there were for the first five:
● 
The slowing of Moore’s Law. After 50 years of biannual doubling of the
number of transistors per chip, Gordon Moore’s prediction no longer holds.
Semiconductor technology will still improve, but more slowly and less
predictably than in the past.
● 
The rise of Domain Specific Architectures (DSA). In part due to the slowing of
Moore’s Law and in part due to the end of Dennard Scaling, general purpose
processors are only improving a few percent per year. Moreover, Amdahl’s
Law limits the practical benefit of increasing the number of processors per
chip. In 2020, it is widely believed that the most promising path forward is
DSA. It doesn’t try to run everything well like general purpose processors,
but focuses on running programs of one domain much better than
conventional CPUs.
● 
Microarchitecture as a security attack surface. Spectre demonstrated that
speculative out-of-order execution and hardware multithreading make
timing based side-channel attacks practical. Moreover, these are not due to
bugs that can be fixed, but a fundamental challenge to this style of processor
design.
● 
Open instruction sets and open source implementations. The opportunities
and impact of open source software have come to computer architecture.
Open instruction sets like RISC-V enables organizations to build their
own processors without first negotiating a license, which has enabled
open-source implementations that are shared to freely download and use
as well as proprietary implementations of RISC-V. Open-source software
and hardware are a boon to academic research and instruction, allowing
students to see and enhance industrial strength technology.
● 
The re-virticalization of the information technology industry. Cloud
computing has led to no more than a half-dozen companies that provide
computing infrastructure for everyone to use. Much like IBM in the 1960s
and 1970s, these companies determine both the software stack and the
hardware that they deploy. The changes above have led to some of these
“hyperscalers” developing their own DSA and RISC-V chips for deployment
in their clouds.
 Preface xv

Chapter or Appendix Sections Software focus Hardware focus

1. Computer Abstractions 1.1 to 1.12

and Technology 1.13 (History)
2.1 to 2.14
2. Instructions: Language 2.15 (Compilers & Java)
of the Computer 2.16 to 2.22
2.23 (History)
D. RISC Instruction-Set Architectures D.1 to D.6
3.1 to 3.5
3.6 to 3.8 (Subword Parallelism)
3.9 to 3.10 (Fallacies)
3. Arithmetic for Computers
3.11 (History)
A. The Basics of Logic Design A.1 to A.13
4.1 (Overview)
4.2 (Logic Conventions)
4.3 to 4.4 (Simple Implementation)
4.5 (Multicycle Implementation)
4.6 (Pipelining Overview)

4. The Processor 4.7 (Pipelined Datapath)

4.8 to 4.10 (Hazards, Exceptions)
4.11 to 4.13 (Parallel, Real Stuff)
4.14 (Verilog Pipeline Control)
4.15 to 4.16 (Fallacies)
4.17 (History)
C. Mapping Control to Hardware C.1 to C.6

5.1 to 5.10

5.11 (Redundant Arrays of

Inexpensive Disks)
5. Large and Fast: Exploiting
Memory Hierarchy
5.12 (Verilog Cache Controller)
5.13 to 5.16
5.17 (History)
6.1 to 6.9
6. Parallel Process from Client 6.10 (Clusters)
to Cloud 6.11 to 6.15
6.16 (History)
B. Graphics Processor Units B.1 to B.11

Read carefully Read if have time Reference

Review or read Read for culture
xvi Preface

The second edition of COD (RISC-V edition) reflects these recent changes,
updates all the examples and figures, responds to requests of instructors, plus adds
a pedagogic improvement inspired by textbooks I used to help my grandchildren
with their math classes.
● The Going Faster section is now in every chapter. It starts with a Python version
in Chapter 1, whose poor performance inspires learning C and then rewriting
matrix multiply in C in Chapter 2. The remaining chapters accelerate matrix
multiply by leveraging data-level parallelism, instruction-level parallelism,
thread-level parallelism, and by adjusting memory accesses to match the
memory hierarchy of a modern server. This computer has 512-bit SIMD
operations, speculative out-of-order execution, three levels of caches, and 48
cores. All four optimizations add only 21 lines of C code yet speedup matrix
multiply by almost 50,000, cutting it from nearly 6 hours in Python to less than
1 second in optimized C. If I were a student again, this running example would
inspire me to use C and learn the underlying hardware concepts of this book.
● With this edition, every chapter has a Self-Study section that asks thought
provoking questions and supplies the answers afterwards to help you
evaluate if you follow the material on your own.
● Besides explaining that Moore’s Law and Dennard Scaling no longer hold,
we’ve de-emphasized Moore’s Law as a change agent that was prominent in
the fifth edition.
● Chapter 2 has more material to emphasize that binary data has no inherent
meaning—the program determines the data type—not an easy concept for
beginners to grasp.
● 
Chapter 2 also includes a short description of the MIPS as a contrasting
instruction set to RISC-V alongside ARMv7, ARMv8, and x86. (There is
also a companion version of this book based on MIPS instead of RISC-V,
and we’re updating that with the other changes as well.)
● The benchmark example of Chapter 2 is upgraded to SPEC2017 from SPEC2006.
● 
At instructors’ request, we’ve restored the multi-cycle implementation
of RISC-V as an online section in Chapter 4 between the single-cycle
implementation and the pipelined implementation. Some instructors find
these three steps an easier path to teach pipelining.
● The Putting It All Together examples of Chapters 4 and 5 were updated
to the recent ARM A53 microarchitecture and the Intel i7 6700 Skyelake
microarchitecture.
● The Fallacies and Pitfalls Sections of Chapters 5 and 6 added pitfalls around
hardware security attacks of Row Hammer and Spectre.
● 
Chapter 6 has a new section introducing DSAs using Google’s Tensor
Processing Unit (TPU) version 1. Chapter 6’s Putting it All Together section
 Preface xvii

is updated to compare Google’s TPUv3 DSA supercomputer to a cluster of

NVIDIA Volta GPUs.
Finally, we updated all the exercises in the book.
While some elements changed, we have preserved useful book elements
from prior editions. To make the book work better as a reference, we still place
definitions of new terms in the margins at their first occurrence. The book element
called “Understanding Program Performance” sections helps readers understand
the performance of their programs and how to improve it, just as the “Hardware/
Software Interface” book element helped readers understand the tradeoffs at this
interface. “The Big Picture” section remains so that the reader sees the forest despite
all the trees. “Check Yourself ” sections help readers to confirm their comprehension
of the material on the first time through with answers provided at the end of each
chapter. This edition still includes the green RISC-V reference card, which was
inspired by the “Green Card” of the IBM System/360. This card has been updated
and should be a handy reference when writing RISC-V assembly language programs.

Instructor Support
We have collected a great deal of material to help instructors teach courses using
this book. Solutions to exercises, figures from the book, lecture slides, and other
materials are available to instructors who register with the publisher. In addition,
the companion Web site provides links to a free RISC-V software. Check the
publisher’s website for more information:
https://textbooks.elsevier.com/web/manuals.aspx?isbn=9780128203316

Concluding Remarks
If you read the following acknowledgments section, you will see that we went to
great lengths to correct mistakes. Since a book goes through many printings, we
have the opportunity to make even more corrections. If you uncover any remaining,
resilient bugs, please contact the publisher.
This edition is the fourth break in the long-standing collaboration between
Hennessy and Patterson, which started in 1989. The demands of running one of
the world’s great universities meant that President Hennessy could no longer had
the tme the substantial commitment to create a new edition. The remaining author
felt once again like a tightrope walker without a safety net. Hence, the people in the
acknowledgments and Berkeley colleagues played an even larger role in shaping
the contents of this book. Nevertheless, this time around there is only one author
to blame for the new material in what you are about to read.

Acknowledgments for the Second Edition

With every edition of this book, we are very fortunate to receive help from many
readers, reviewers, and contributors. Each of these people has helped to make this
book better.
xviii Preface

We are grateful for the assistance of Khaled Benkrid and his colleagues at
ARM Ltd., who carefully reviewed the ARM-related material and provided helpful
feedback.
Special thanks goes to Dr. Rimas Avizenis, who developed the various versions of
matrix multiply and supplied the performance numbers as well. I deeply appreciate
his continued help after he has graduated from UC Berkeley. As I worked with his
father while I was a graduate student at UCLA, it was a nice symmetry to work with
Rimas when he was a graduate student at UC Berkeley.
I also wish to thank my longtime collaborator Randy Katz of UC Berkeley, who
helped develop the concept of great ideas in computer architecture as part of the
extensive revision of an undergraduate class that we did together.
I’d like to thank David Kirk, John Nickolls, and their colleagues at NVIDIA
(Michael Garland, John Montrym, Doug Voorhies, Lars Nyland, Erik Lindholm,
Paulius Micikevicius, Massimiliano Fatica, Stuart Oberman, and Vasily Volkov)
for writing the first in-depth appendix on GPUs. I’d like to express again my
appreciation to Jim Larus, recently named Dean of the School of Computer and
Communications Science at EPFL, for his willingness in contributing his expertise
on assembly language programming, as well as for welcoming readers of this book
with regard to using the simulator he developed and maintains.
I am also very grateful to Jason Bakos of the University of South Carolina,
who updated and created new exercises, based on the exercises created by Perry
Alexander (The University of Kansas); Javier Bruguera (Universidade de Santiago
de Compostela); Matthew Farrens (University of California, Davis); Zachary
Kurmas (Grand Valley State University); David Kaeli (Northeastern University);
Nicole Kaiyan (University of Adelaide); John Oliver (Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo);
Milos Prvulovic (Georgia Tech); Jichuan Chang (Google); Jacob Leverich
(Stanford); Kevin Lim (Hewlett-Packard); and Partha Ranganathan (Google).
Additional thanks goes to Jason Bakos for updating the lecture slides, based on
updated slides from Peter Ashenden (Ashenden Design Pty Ltd).
I am grateful to the many instructors who have answered the publisher’s surveys,
reviewed our proposals, and attended focus groups. They include the following
individuals: Focus Groups: Bruce Barton (Suffolk County Community College), Jeff
Braun (Montana Tech), Ed Gehringer (North Carolina State), Michael Goldweber
(Xavier University), Ed Harcourt (St. Lawrence University), Mark Hill (University
of Wisconsin, Madison), Patrick Homer (University of Arizona), Norm Jouppi
(HP Labs), Dave Kaeli (Northeastern University), Christos Kozyrakis (Stanford
University), Jae C. Oh (Syracuse University), Lu Peng (LSU), Milos Prvulovic
(Georgia Tech), Partha Ranganathan (HP Labs), David Wood (University of
Wisconsin), Craig Zilles (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign). Surveys
and Reviews: Mahmoud Abou-Nasr (Wayne State University), Perry Alexander
(The University of Kansas), Behnam Arad (Sacramento State University), Hakan
Aydin (George Mason University), Hussein Badr (State University of New York at
Stony Brook), Mac Baker (Virginia Military Institute), Ron Barnes (George Mason
University), Douglas Blough (Georgia Institute of Technology), Kevin Bolding
(Seattle Pacific University), Miodrag Bolic (University of Ottawa), John Bonomo
 Preface xix

(Westminster College), Jeff Braun (Montana Tech), Tom Briggs (Shippensburg

University), Mike Bright (Grove City College), Scott Burgess (Humboldt State
University), Fazli Can (Bilkent University), Warren R. Carithers (Rochester
Institute of Technology), Bruce Carlton (Mesa Community College), Nicholas
Carter (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign), Anthony Cocchi (The City
University of New York), Don Cooley (Utah State University), Gene Cooperman
(Northeastern University), Robert D. Cupper (Allegheny College), Amy Csizmar
Dalal (Carleton College), Daniel Dalle (Université de Sherbrooke), Edward W.
Davis (North Carolina State University), Nathaniel J. Davis (Air Force Institute of
Technology), Molisa Derk (Oklahoma City University), Andrea Di Blas (Stanford
University), Nathan B. Doge (The University of Texas at Dallas), Derek Eager
(University of Saskatchewan), Ata Elahi (Souther Connecticut State University),
Ernest Ferguson (Northwest Missouri State University), Rhonda Kay Gaede (The
University of Alabama), Etienne M. Gagnon (L’Université du Québec à Montréal),
Costa Gerousis (Christopher Newport University), Paul Gillard (Memorial
University of Newfoundland), Michael Goldweber (Xavier University), Georgia
Grant (College of San Mateo), Paul V. Gratz (Texas A&M University), Merrill Hall
(The Master’s College), Tyson Hall (Southern Adventist University), Ed Harcourt
(St. Lawrence University), Justin E. Harlow (University of South Florida), Paul F.
Hemler (Hampden-Sydney College), Jayantha Herath (St. Cloud State University),
Martin Herbordt (Boston University), Steve J. Hodges (Cabrillo College), Kenneth
Hopkinson (Cornell University), Bill Hsu (San Francisco State University), Dalton
Hunkins (St. Bonaventure University), Baback Izadi (State University of New
York—New Paltz), Reza Jafari, Abbas Javadtalab (Concordia University), Robert
W. Johnson (Colorado Technical University), Bharat Joshi (University of North
Carolina, Charlotte), Nagarajan Kandasamy (Drexel University), Rajiv Kapadia,
Ryan Kastner (University of California, Santa Barbara), E.J. Kim (Texas A&M
University), Jihong Kim (Seoul National University), Jim Kirk (Union University),
Geoffrey S. Knauth (Lycoming College), Manish M. Kochhal (Wayne State), Suzan
Koknar-Tezel (Saint Joseph’s University), Angkul Kongmunvattana (Columbus State
University), April Kontostathis (Ursinus College), Christos Kozyrakis (Stanford
University), Danny Krizanc (Wesleyan University), Ashok Kumar, S. Kumar (The
University of Texas), Zachary Kurmas (Grand Valley State University), Adrian Lauf
(University of Louisville), Robert N. Lea (University of Houston), Alvin Lebeck
(Duke University), Baoxin Li (Arizona State University), Li Liao (University of
Delaware), Gary Livingston (University of Massachusetts), Michael Lyle, Douglas
W. Lynn (Oregon Institute of Technology), Yashwant K Malaiya (Colorado State
University), Stephen Mann (University of Waterloo), Bill Mark (University of Texas
at Austin), Ananda Mondal (Claflin University), Euripedes Montagne (University
of Central Florida), Tali Moreshet (Boston University), Alvin Moser (Seattle
University), Walid Najjar (University of California, Riverside), Vijaykrishnan
Narayanan (Penn State University), Danial J. Neebel (Loras College), Victor
Nelson (Auburn University), John Nestor (Lafayette College), Jae C. Oh (Syracuse
University), Joe Oldham (Centre College), Timour Paltashev, James Parkerson
(University of Arkansas), Shaunak Pawagi (SUNY at Stony Brook), Steve Pearce,
xx Preface

Ted Pedersen (University of Minnesota), Lu Peng (Louisiana State University),

Gregory D. Peterson (The University of Tennessee), William Pierce (Hood College),
Milos Prvulovic (Georgia Tech), Partha Ranganathan (HP Labs), Dejan Raskovic
(University of Alaska, Fairbanks) Brad Richards (University of Puget Sound),
Roman Rozanov, Louis Rubinfield (Villanova University), Md Abdus Salam
(Southern University), Augustine Samba (Kent State University), Robert Schaefer
(Daniel Webster College), Carolyn J. C. Schauble (Colorado State University),
Keith Schubert (CSU San Bernardino), William L. Schultz, Kelly Shaw (University
of Richmond), Shahram Shirani (McMaster University), Scott Sigman (Drury
University), Shai Simonson (Stonehill College), Bruce Smith, David Smith, Jeff W.
Smith (University of Georgia, Athens), Mark Smotherman (Clemson University),
Philip Snyder (Johns Hopkins University), Alex Sprintson (Texas A&M), Timothy
D. Stanley (Brigham Young University), Dean Stevens (Morningside College),
Nozar Tabrizi (Kettering University), Yuval Tamir (UCLA), Alexander Taubin
(Boston University), Will Thacker (Winthrop University), Mithuna Thottethodi
(Purdue University), Manghui Tu (Southern Utah University), Dean Tullsen (UC
San Diego), Steve VanderLeest (Calvin College), Christopher Vickery (Queens
College of CUNY), Rama Viswanathan (Beloit College), Ken Vollmar (Missouri
State University), Guoping Wang (Indiana-Purdue University), Patricia Wenner
(Bucknell University), Kent Wilken (University of California, Davis), David Wolfe
(Gustavus Adolphus College), David Wood (University of Wisconsin, Madison),
Ki Hwan Yum (University of Texas, San Antonio), Mohamed Zahran (City College
of New York), Amr Zaky (Santa Clara University), Gerald D. Zarnett (Ryerson
University), Nian Zhang (South Dakota School of Mines & Technology), Xiaoyu
Zhang (California State University San Marcos), Jiling Zhong (Troy University),
Huiyang Zhou (North Carolina State University), Weiyu Zhu (Illinois Wesleyan
University).
A special thanks also goes to Mark Smotherman for making multiple passes to
find technical and writing glitches that significantly improved the quality of this
edition.
We wish to thank the extended Morgan Kaufmann family for agreeing to publish
this book again under the able leadership of Katey Birtcher, Steve Merken, and
Beth LoGiudice: I certainly couldn’t have completed the book without them. We
also want to extend thanks to Janish Paul, who managed the book production
process, and Patrick Ferguson, who did the cover design.
Finally, I owe a huge debt to Yunsup Lee and Andrew Waterman for taking on
the first edition’s conversion to RISC-V in their spare time while founding a startup
company. Kudos to Eric Love as well, who made the original RISC-V versions of
the exercises this book while finishing his Ph.D. We’re all excited to see what will
happen with RISC-V in academia and beyond.
The contributions of the nearly 150 people we mentioned here have helped
make this new edition what I hope will be our best book yet. Enjoy!

David A. Patterson
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

     
 1
Computer
Abstractions and
Civilization advances Technology
by extending the
1.1 Introduction 3
number of important
1.2 Seven Great Ideas in Computer
operations which we Architecture 10
can perform without 1.3 Below Your Program 13
thinking about them. 1.4 Under the Covers 16
1.5 Technologies for Building Processors and
Alfred North Whitehead,
An Introduction to Mathematics, 1911 Memory 25

Computer Organization and Design RISC-V Edition. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820331-6.00001-6

© 2016
2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1.6 Performance 29
1.7 The Power Wall 40
1.8 The Sea Change: The Switch from Uniprocessors to
Multiprocessors 43
1.9 Real Stuff: Benchmarking the Intel Core i7 46
1.10 Going Faster: Matrix Multiply in Python 49
1.11 Fallacies and Pitfalls 50
1.12 Concluding Remarks 53
1.13 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 55
1.14 Self-Study 55
1.15 Exercises 59

1.1 Introduction

Welcome to this book! We’re delighted to have this opportunity to convey the
excitement of the world of computer systems. This is not a dry and dreary field,
where progress is glacial and where new ideas atrophy from neglect. No! Computers
are the product of the incredibly vibrant information technology industry, all
aspects of which are responsible for almost 10% of the gross national product
of the United States, and whose economy has become dependent in part on the
rapid improvements in information technology. This unusual industry embraces
innovation at a breathtaking rate. In the last 40 years, there have been a number
of new computers whose introduction appeared to revolutionize the computing
industry; these revolutions were cut short only because someone else built an even
better computer.
This race to innovate has led to unprecedented progress since the inception
of electronic computing in the late 1940s. Had the transportation industry kept
pace with the computer industry, for example, today we could travel from New
York to London in a second for a penny. Take just a moment to contemplate how
such an improvement would change society—living in Tahiti while working in San
Francisco, going to Moscow for an evening at the Bolshoi Ballet—and you can
appreciate the implications of such a change.
4 Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

Computers have led to a third revolution for civilization, with the information
revolution taking its place alongside the agricultural and industrial revolutions. The
resulting multiplication of humankind’s intellectual strength and reach naturally
has affected our everyday lives profoundly and changed the ways in which the
search for new knowledge is carried out. There is now a new vein of scientific
investigation, with computational scientists joining theoretical and experimental
scientists in the exploration of new frontiers in astronomy, biology, chemistry, and
physics, among others.
The computer revolution continues. Each time the cost of computing improves
by another factor of 10, the opportunities for computers multiply. Applications that
were economically infeasible suddenly become practical. In the recent past, the
following applications were “computer science fiction.”

■ Computers in automobiles: Until microprocessors improved dramatically

in price and performance in the early 1980s, computer control of cars was
ludicrous. Today, computers reduce pollution, improve fuel efficiency via
engine controls, and increase safety through nearly automated driving and
air bag inflation to protect occupants in a crash.
■ Cell phones: Who would have dreamed that advances in computer
systems would lead to more than half of the planet having mobile phones,
allowing person-to-person communication to almost anyone anywhere in
the world?
■ Human genome project: The cost of computer equipment to map and analyze
human DNA sequences was hundreds of millions of dollars. It’s unlikely that
anyone would have considered this project had the computer costs been 10
to 100 times higher, as they would have been 15 to 25 years earlier. Moreover,
costs continue to drop; you will soon be able to acquire your own genome,
allowing medical care to be tailored to you.
■ World Wide Web: Not in existence at the time of the first edition of this book,
the web has transformed our society. For many, the web has replaced libraries
and newspapers.
■ Search engines: As the content of the web grew in size and in value, finding
relevant information became increasingly important. Today, many people
rely on search engines for such a large part of their lives that it would be a
hardship to go without them.

Clearly, advances in this technology now affect almost every aspect of our
society. Hardware advances have allowed programmers to create wonderfully
useful software, which explains why computers are omnipresent. Today’s
science fiction suggests tomorrow’s killer applications: already on their way
are glasses that augment reality, the cashless society, and cars that can drive
themselves.
 1.1 Introduction 5

Traditional Classes of Computing Applications and Their

Characteristics
Although a common set of hardware technologies (see Sections 1.4 and 1.5) is used
in computers ranging from smart home appliances to cell phones to the largest personal computer
(PC) A computer
supercomputers, these different applications have distinct design requirements designed for use by
and employ the core hardware technologies in different ways. Broadly speaking, an individual, usually
computers are used in three dissimilar classes of applications. incorporating a graphics
Personal computers (PCs) in the form of laptops are possibly the best-known display, a keyboard, and a
form of computing, which readers of this book have likely used extensively. Personal mouse.
computers emphasize delivery of good performance to single users at low costs and server A computer
usually execute third-party software. This class of computing drove the evolution of used for running larger
many computing technologies, which is merely 40 years old! programs for multiple
Servers are the modern form of what were once much larger computers, and users, often simultaneously,
are usually accessed only via a network. Servers are oriented to carrying sizable and typically accessed only
workloads, which may consist of either single complex applications—usually a via a network.
scientific or engineering application—or handling many small jobs, such as would supercomputer A class
occur in building a large web server. These applications are usually based on of computers with the
software from another source (such as a database or simulation system), but are highest performance and
often modified or customized for a particular function. Servers are built from the cost; they are configured
same basic technology as desktop computers, but provide for greater computing, as servers and typically
storage, and input/output capacity. In general, servers also place a higher emphasis cost tens to hundreds of
millions of dollars.
on dependability, since a crash is usually more costly than it would be on a single-
user PC. terabyte (TB) Originally
Servers span the widest range in cost and capability. At the low end, a server may be 1,099,511,627,776
little more than a desktop computer without a screen or keyboard and cost a thousand (240) bytes, although
communications and
dollars. These low-end servers are typically used for file storage, small business
secondary storage
applications, or simple web serving. At the other extreme are supercomputers, which systems developers
at the present consist of hundreds of thousands of processors and many terabytes started using the term to
of memory, and cost tens to hundreds of millions of dollars. Supercomputers are mean 1,000,000,000,000
usually used for high-end scientific and engineering calculations, such as weather (1012) bytes. To reduce
forecasting, oil exploration, protein structure determination, and other large-scale confusion, we now use the
problems. Although such supercomputers represent the peak of computing capability, term tebibyte (TiB) for
240 bytes, defining terabyte
they represent a relatively small fraction of the servers and thus a proportionally tiny
(TB) to mean 1012 bytes.
fraction of the overall computer market in terms of total revenue. Figure 1.1 shows the full
Embedded computers are the largest class of computers and span the widest range range of decimal and
of applications and performance. Embedded computers include the microprocessors binary values and names.
found in your car, the computers in a television set, and the networks of processors
that control a modern airplane or cargo ship. A popular term today is Internet of
Things (IoT) which suggests may small devices that all communicate wirelessly over embedded computer
A computer inside
the Internet. Embedded computing systems are designed to run one application or another device used
one set of related applications that are normally integrated with the hardware and for running one
delivered as a single system; thus, despite the large number of embedded computers, predetermined application
most users never really see that they are using a computer! or collection of software.
6 Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

kilobyte KB 103 kibibyte KiB 210 2%

megabyte MB 106 mebibyte MiB 220 5%
gigabyte GB 109 gibibyte GiB 230 7%
terabyte TB 1012 tebibyte TiB 240 10%
petabyte PB 1015 pebibyte PiB 250 13%
exabyte EB 1018 exbibyte EiB 260 15%
zettabyte ZB 1021 zebibyte ZiB 270 18%
yottabyte YB 1024 yobibyte YiB 280 21%
ronnabyte RB 10 27 robibyte RiB 2 90 24%
queccabyte QB 10 30 quebibyte QiB 2 100 27%

FIGURE 1.1 The 2X vs. 10Y bytes ambiguity was resolved by adding a binary notation for
all the common size terms. In the last column we note how much larger the binary term is than its
corresponding decimal term, which is compounded as we head down the chart. These prefixes work for
bits as well as bytes, so gigabit (Gb) is 109 bits while gibibits (Gib) is 230 bits. The society that runs the metric
system created the decimal prefixes, with the last two proposed only in 2019 in anticipation of the global
capacity of storage systems. All the names are derived from the entymology in Latin of the powers of 1000
that they represent.

Embedded applications often have unique application requirements that

combine a minimum performance with stringent limitations on cost or power. For
example, consider a music player: the processor need only to be as fast as necessary
to handle its limited function, and beyond that, minimizing cost and power is the
most important objective. Despite their low cost, embedded computers often have
lower tolerance for failure, since the results can vary from upsetting (when your
new television crashes) to devastating (such as might occur when the computer in a
plane or cargo ship crashes). In consumer-oriented embedded applications, such as
a digital home appliance, dependability is achieved primarily through simplicity—
the emphasis is on doing one function as perfectly as possible. In large embedded
systems, techniques of redundancy from the server world are often employed.
Although this book focuses on general-purpose computers, most concepts apply
directly, or with slight modifications, to embedded computers.

Elaboration: Elaborations are short sections used throughout the text to provide more
detail on a particular subject that may be of interest. Disinterested readers may skip
over an Elaboration, since the subsequent material will never depend on the contents
of the Elaboration.
Many embedded processors are designed using processor cores, a version of a
processor written in a hardware description language, such as Verilog or VHDL (see
Chapter 4). The core allows a designer to integrate other application-specific hardware
with the processor core for fabrication on a single chip.

Welcome to the Post-PC Era

The continuing march of technology brings about generational changes in computer
hardware that shake up the entire information technology industry. Since the
fourth edition of the book, we have undergone such a change, as significant in the
 1.1 Introduction 7

1600
Smart phone
1400

1200

1000
Millions

800

600
Cell phone
400 (excluding smart phones)

PC (excluding tablets)
200
Tablet
0
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018

FIGURE 1.2 The number manufactured per year of tablets and smart phones, which
reflect the post-PC era, versus personal computers and traditional cell phones. Smart Personal mobile
phones represent the recent growth in the cell phone industry, and they passed PCs in 2011. PCs, tablets, and
devices (PMDs) are
traditional cell phone categories are declining. The peak volume years are 2011 for cell phones, 2013 for PCs,
and 2014 for tablets. PCs fell from 20% of total units shipped in 2007 to 10% in 2018. small wireless devices to
connect to the Internet;
past as the switch starting 40 years ago to personal computers. Replacing the PC they rely on batteries for
is the personal mobile device (PMD). PMDs are battery operated with wireless power, and software is
installed by downloading
connectivity to the Internet and typically cost hundreds of dollars, and, like PCs, apps. Conventional
users can download software (“apps”) to run on them. Unlike PCs, they no longer examples are smart
have a keyboard and mouse, and are more likely to rely on a touch-sensitive screen phones and tablets.
or even speech input. Today’s PMD is a smart phone or a tablet computer, but
tomorrow it may include electronic glasses. Figure 1.2 shows the rapid growth over Cloud Computing
refers to large collections
time of tablets and smart phones versus that of PCs and traditional cell phones. of servers that provide
Taking over from the conventional server is Cloud Computing, which relies services over the Internet;
upon giant datacenters that are now known as Warehouse Scale Computers (WSCs). some providers rent
Companies like Amazon and Google build these WSCs containing 50,000 servers and dynamically varying
then let companies rent portions of them so that they can provide software services to numbers of servers as a
PMDs without having to build WSCs of their own. Indeed, Software as a Service (SaaS) utility.
deployed via the Cloud is revolutionizing the software industry just as PMDs and WSCs Software as a Service
are revolutionizing the hardware industry. Today’s software developers will often have a (SaaS) delivers software
portion of their application that runs on the PMD and a portion that runs in the Cloud. and data as a service over
the Internet, usually via
a thin program such as a
What You Can Learn in This Book browser that runs on local
Successful programmers have always been concerned about the performance of client devices, instead of
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installed, and runs wholly
popular software. In the 1960s and 1970s, a primary constraint on computer
on that device. Examples
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followed a simple credo: minimize memory space to make programs fast. In the social networking.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
Joseph Wimpfeling, his contemporary, the latest defenders of the Haarlem
tradition think? The question is still undecided.
The “Speculum,” however, is not the only book of the kind which

Fig. 392.—Fac-simile of the Twenty-eighth Xylographic Page of the “Biblia Pauperum;”

representing, with Texts taken from the Old Testament, David slaying Goliath, and Christ causing the
Souls of the Patriarchs and Prophets to come out of Purgatory.

had appeared in the Low Countries before the period assigned to the
discovery of printing in Holland. Some of these were evidently xylographic,
others show signs of having been printed with movable type of wood, not of
metal. All have engravings of the same character as those of the
“Speculum,” especially the “Biblia Pauperum” (“Poor Men’s Bible”) (Fig.
392), the “Ars Moriendi” (“The Art of Dying”) (Fig. 393) the “Ars
Memorandi” (“The Art of Remembering”), which had a very wide
circulation.
 However this may be, Laurent Coster, notwithstanding the progress he
had made with his invention, was certainly ignorant of its importance. In
those days the only libraries were those belonging to convents and to a few
nobles of literary acquirements; private individuals, with the exception of
some learned men who were richer than their fellows, possessed no books
at all. The copyists and illuminators by profession were employed
exclusively in reproducing “Livres d’Heures” (prayer-books), and school
books: the first were sumptuous volumes, objects of an industry quite
exceptional; the second, destined for children, were always simply
executed, and composed of a few leaves of strong paper or parchment. The
pupils limited themselves to writing passages of their lessons from the
dictation of their teachers; to the monks was assigned the task of
transcribing, at full length, the sacred and profane authors. Coster could not
even have thought of reproducing these works, the sale of which would
have seemed to him impossible, and he at first fell back upon the “Specula,”
religious books which addressed themselves to all the faithful, even to those
who could not read, by means of the stories or illustrations (images) of
which these books were composed; then he occupied himself with the
“Donati,” which he reprinted many times from xylographic plates, if not
with movable type, and for which he must have found a considerable
demand. It was one of these “Donati” that, falling under the eyes of
Gutenberg, revealed to him, according to the “Chronique de Cologne,” the
secret of printing.
This secret was kept faithfully for fifteen or twenty years by the
workmen employed in his printing-house, who were not initiated into the
mysteries of the new art till they had served a certain time of probation and
apprenticeship: a terrible oath bound together those whom the master had
considered worthy of entering into partnership with him; for on the
preservation of the secret depended the prosperity or the ruin of the inventor
and his coadjutors, since all printed books were then sold as manuscripts.
 Fig. 393.—Fac-simile of the fifth Page of the first Xylographic Edition of the “Ars Moriendi,”
representing the Sinner on his Death-bed surrounded by his Family. Two Demons are whispering into
his ear, “Think of thy treasure,” and “Distribute it to thy friends.”

But while the secret was so scrupulously maintained by the first Dutch
printer and his partners, a lawsuit was brought before the superior court of
Strasbourg which, though the motives for it were apparently but of private
interest, was nevertheless to give the public the key to the mysterious trade
of the typographer. This lawsuit,—the curious documents relating to which
were found only in 1760, in an old tower at Strasbourg,—was brought
against John Gensfleisch, called Gutenberg (who was born at Mayence, but
was exiled from his native town during the political troubles, and had
settled at Strasbourg since 1420), by George and Nicholas Dritzehen, who,
as heirs of the deceased Andrew Dritzehen, their brother, and formerly
Gutenberg’s partner, desired to be admitted as his representatives into an
association of whose object they were ignorant, but from which they no
doubt knew their brother expected to derive some beneficial results. It was,
in short, printing itself which was on its trial at Strasbourg towards the end
of the year 1439; that is, more than fourteen years before the period at
which printing is known to have been first employed in Mayence.
Here is a summary, as we find them in the documents relating to this
lawsuit, of the facts stated before the judge. Gutenberg, an ingenious but a
poor man, possessed divers secrets for becoming rich. Andrew Dritzehen
came to him with a request that he would teach him many arts. Gutenberg
thereupon initiated him into the art of polishing stones, and Andrew
“derived great profit from this secret.” Subsequently, with the object of
carrying out another art during the pilgrimage of Aix-la-Chapelle,[60]
Gutenberg agreed with Hans Riffen, mayor of Lichtenau, to form a
company, which Andrew Dritzehen and a man named Andrew Heilman
desired to join. Gutenberg consented to this on condition that they would
together purchase of him the right to a third of the profits, for a sum of 160
florins, payable on the day of the contract, and 80 florins payable at a later
date. The agreement being made, he taught them the art which they were to
exercise at the proper period in Aix-la-Chapelle; but the pilgrimage was
postponed to the following year, and the partners required of Gutenberg that
he should not conceal from them any of the arts and inventions of which he
was cognisant. New stipulations were entered upon whereby the partners
pledged themselves to pay an additional sum, and in which it was stated
that the art should be carried on for the benefit of the four partners during
the space of five years; and that, in the event of one of them dying, all the
implements of the art, and all the works already produced, should belong to
the surviving partners; the heirs of the deceased being entitled to receive no
more than an indemnity of 100 florins at the expiration of the said five
years.
Gutenberg accordingly offered to pay the heirs of his late partner the
stipulated sum; but they demanded of him an account of the capital invested
by Andrew Dritzehen, which, as they alleged, had been absorbed in the
speculation. They mentioned especially a certain account for lead, for
which their brother had made himself responsible. Without denying this
account, Gutenberg refused to satisfy their demands.
Numerous witnesses gave evidence, and their depositions for and against
the object of the association show us a faithful picture of what must have
been the inner life of four partners exhausting themselves and their money
in efforts to realise a scheme the nature of which they were very careful to
conceal, but from which they expected to derive the most splendid results.
We find them working by night; we hear them answering those who
questioned them on the object of their work, that they were “mirror-makers”
(spiegel-macher); we find them borrowing money, because they had in hand
“something in which they could not invest too much money.” Andrew
Dritzehen, in whose care the press was left, being dead, Gutenberg’s first
object was to send to the deceased’s house a man he could trust, who was
commissioned to unscrew the press, so that the pieces (or forms), which
were fixed closely together by it, might become detached from each other,
and then to place these forms in or on the press “in such a manner that no
one might be able to understand what they were.” Gutenberg regrets that his
servant did not bring him back all the forms, many of which “were not to be
found.” Lastly, we find figuring among the witnesses a turner, a timber-
merchant, and a goldsmith who declared that he had worked during three
years for Gutenberg, and that he had gained more than 100 florins by
preparing for him “the things belonging to printing” (das zu dem Trucken
gehoret).
Trucken—printing! Thus the grand word was pronounced in the course
of the lawsuit, but certainly without producing the least effect on the
audience, who wondered what was this occult art which Gutenberg and his
partners had carried on with so much trouble, and at such great expense.
However, it is quite certain that, with the exception of the indiscretion,
really very insignificant, of the goldsmith, Gutenberg’s secret remained
undiscovered, for it was supposed it had to do with the polishing of stones
and the manufacture of mirrors. The judge, being informed as to the good
faith of Gutenberg, pronounced the offers he made to the plaintiffs
satisfactory, decided against the heirs of Andrew Dritzehen, and the three
other partners remained sole proprietors of their process, and continued to
carry it out.
If we study with some attention the documents relating to this singular
trial at Strasbourg, and if we also notice, that our word mirror is the
translation of the German word spiegel and of the Latin word speculum, it
is impossible not to recognise all the processes, all the implements made
use of in printing, with the names they have not ceased to bear, and which
were given to them as soon as they were invented; the forms, the screw
(which is not the printing-press, for they printed in those days with the
frotton, or rubber, but the frame in which the types were pressed), the lead,
the work, the art, &c. We see Gutenberg accompanied by a turner who
made the screw for the press, the timber merchant who had supplied the
planks of box or of pear wood, the goldsmith who had engraved or cast the
type. Then we ascertain that these “mirrors,” in the preparation of which the
partners were occupied, and which were to be sold at the pilgrimage of Aix-
la-Chapelle, were no other than the future copies of the “Speculum
Humanæ Salvationis,” an imitation more or less perfect of the famous book
of illustrations of which Holland had already published three or four
editions, in Latin and in Dutch.
We know, on the other hand, that these “Mirrors” or “Specula” were, in
the earliest days of printing, so much in request, that in every place the first
printers rivalled each other in executing and publishing different editions of
the book with illustrations. Here, there was the reprint of the “Speculum,”
abridged by L. Coster; there, the “Speculum” of Gutenberg, taken entirely
from manuscripts; now it was the “Speculum Vitæ Humanæ,” by Roderick,
Bishop of Zamora; then the “Speculum Conscienciæ,” of Arnold
Gheyloven; then the “Speculum Sacerdotum,” or again, the voluminous
“Speculum” of Vincent de Beauvais, &c.
It cannot now any longer be assumed that Gutenberg really made mirrors
or looking-glasses at Strasbourg, and that those pieces “laid in a press,”
those “forms which came to pieces,” that lead sold or wrought by a
goldsmith, were, as they wished it to be supposed, only intended to be used
“for printing ornaments on the frames of looking-glasses!”

Fig. 394.—Interior of a Printing-office in the Sixteenth Century, by J. Amman.

 Would it not have been surprising that the pilgrims who were to visit
Aix-la-Chapelle on the occasion of the grand jubilee of 1440, should be so
anxious to buy ornamented mirrors? As to the art “of polishing stones,”
which Gutenberg had taught at first to Andrew Dritzehen, who derived from
it “so much profit,” having anything to do with printing was, no doubt, also
questionable; but we have not been able to solve the enigma, and wait to
clear up the difficulty till a new incunable (incunabula, “a cradle,” the word
is applied to the first editions ever printed) is discovered, the work of some
Peter (πἑτρος “a stone”) or other; as, for example, the Latin sermons of
Hermann de Petra on the Lord’s Prayer; for Gutenberg, when speaking of
polishing stones, might have enigmatically designated a book he was
printing; just as his partner, in answer to the judge, after having raised his
hand on high and sworn to give true evidence, could call himself a maker of
mirrors, without telling a falsehood, without committing perjury. The secret
of printing was to be religiously kept by those who knew it.
In short, it results from all this that Gutenberg, “an ingenious man and a
man of invention,” having seen a xylographie “Donatus,” had endeavoured
to imitate it, and had succeeded in doing so, the secret being confided to
Andrew Dritzehen; that the other arts, which Gutenberg at first kept to
himself, but which he subsequently communicated to his partners, consisted
in the idea of substituting movable type for tabular printing; a substitution
that could only be effected after numerous experiments had been made, and
which were just about to be crowned with success when Andrew Dritzehen
died. We may then consider it as nearly certain that printing was in some
sort discovered twice successively—the first time by Laurent Coster, whose
small printed books, or books in letterpress (en moule), attracted the
attention of Gutenberg; and the second time by Gutenberg, who raised the
art to a degree of perfection such as had never been attained by his
predecessor.
It was after the Strasbourg lawsuit between the years 1440 or 1442, as
stated by many historians, that Gutenberg went to Holland, and there
became a workman in the establishment of Coster; this is asserted in order
that they might be able to accuse him of the theft which Junius has laid to
the account of a certain man whose name was John. Only—and the
coincidence is not, in this case, unworthy of remark—two unedited
chronicles of Strasbourg and the Alsatian Wimpfeling relate, almost at the
same time, a robbery of type and implements used in printing, but
mentioning Strasbourg instead of Haarlem, Gutenberg instead of Laurent
Coster, and naming the thief John Gensfieisch. But, according to the
Strasbourg tradition, this John Gensfieisch the elder, related to and
employed by Gutenberg, robbed him of his secret and his tools, after having
been his rival in the discovery of printing, and established himself at
Mayence, where, by a just visitation of Providence, he was soon struck
blind. It was then, adds the tradition, that in his repentance he sent for his
former master to come to Mayence, and gave up to him the business he had
founded. But this last part of the tradition seems to savour too much of the
moral deductions of a story; and as it is very improbable, moreover, that
two thefts of the same kind were committed at the same period, and under
the same circumstances, we are inclined to believe that the John mentioned
by Junius was, in fact, Gutenberg’s relative, who went to Haarlem to perfect
himself in the art of printing, and robbed Coster; for there really existed at
Mayence, at the time mentioned, a John Gensfleisch, who might have
printed, before Gutenberg went to join him there, the two school books,
“Doctrinale Alexandri Galli,” and “Petri Hispani Tractatus.” This is
rendered still more probable from the fact that, after search had been long
made for these books, which were absolutely unknown when Junius
mentioned them, three fragments of the “Doctrinale,” printed on vellum
with the type of the Dutch “Speculum,” were at length found.
However, Gutenberg had not succeeded with his printing at Strasbourg.
When he quitted the town, where he left such pupils as John Mentell and
Henry Eggestein, he removed to Mayence, and established himself in the
house of Zum Jungen. There he again printed, but he exhausted his means
in experiments, alternately taking up and laying aside the various processes
he had employed—xylography, movable types of wood, lead, and cast iron.
He used, for printing, a hand-press which he had made on the same
principle as a wine-press; he invented new tools; he began ten works and
could finish none. At last, his resources all gone, and himself in a state of
despair, he was just going to give up the art altogether, when chance sent
him a partner, John Fust or Faust, a rich goldsmith of Mayence.
This partnership took place in 1450. Fust, by a deed properly drawn up
by a notary, promised Gutenberg to advance him 800 gold florins for the
manufacture of implements and tools, and 300 for other expenses—
servants’ wages, rent, firing, parchment, paper, ink, &c. Besides the
“Specula” and “Donati” already in circulation, which Gutenberg probably
continued to print, the object of the partnership was the printing of a Bible
in folio of two columns, in large type, with initial letters engraved on wood;
an important work requiring a great outlay.
A caligrapher was attached to Gutenberg’s printing establishment, either
to trace on wood the characters to be engraved, or to rubricate the printed
pages; in other words, to write in red ink, to paint with a brush or to
illuminate (au frottou) the initials, the capital letters, and the headings of
chapters. This caligrapher was probably Peter Schœffer or Schoiffer, of
Gernsheim, a small town in the diocese of Darmstadt, a clerk of the diocese
of Mayence, as he styles himself, and perhaps a German student in the
University of Paris; since a manuscript copied by him, and preserved at
Strasbourg, is terminated by an inscription in which he testifies that he
himself wrote it in the year 1449, in “the very glorious University of Paris.”
Schœffer was not only a literary man, but was also a man of ingenuity and
prudence (ingeniosus et prudens). Having entered Gutenberg’s
establishment, on whom Fust had forced him, in 1452, to take part in the
new association they were then forming, Schœffer invented an improved
mould with which he could cast separately all the letters of the alphabet in
metal, whereas up to this time they had been obliged to engrave the type
with a burin. He concealed his discovery from Gutenberg, who would
naturally have availed himself of it; but he confided the secret to Fust, who,
being very experienced in casting metals, carried out his idea. It was
evidently with this cast type, which resisted the action of the press, that
Schœffer composed and executed a “Donatus,” of which four leaves, in
parchment, were found at Treves in 1803, in the interior of an old
bookcover, and were deposited in the Imperial Library of Paris. An
inscription in this edition, printed in red, announces formally that Peter
Schœffer alone had executed it, with its type and its initial letters, according
to the “new art of the printer, without the help of the pen.”
That was certainly the first public disclosure of the existence of printing,
which up to this time had passed off its productions as the work of
caligraphers. It seems that Schœffer thus desired to mark the date and to
appropriate to himself the invention of Gutenberg. It is certain that Fust,
allured by the results Schœffer had obtained, secretly entered into
partnership with him, and, in order to get rid of Gutenberg, profited by the
power which his bond gave him over that unfortunate individual.
Gutenberg, summoned to dissolve the partnership and to return the sums he
had received, which he was quite incapable of paying, was obliged, in order
to satisfy the demands of his pitiless creditor, to give up to him his printing
establishment with all the materials it contained; among them was included
this same Bible, the last leaves of which were, perhaps, in the press at the
moment when they robbed him of the fruits of his long-protracted labours.
Gutenberg evicted, Peter Schœffer, and Fust, who had given Schœffer
his daughter in marriage, completed the great Bible, which was ready for
sale in the early months of 1456. This Bible, being passed off as a
manuscript, must have commanded a very high price. This accounts for the
non-appearance on it of any inscription to show by what means this
immense work had been executed; let us add that in any case we may well
suppose Schœffer and Fust were not willing to give to Gutenberg a share of
the glory which they dared not yet appropriate to themselves.

Fig. 395.—Fac-simile of the Bible of 1456 (1 Samuel xix, 1-5), printed at Mayence by Gutenberg.

The Latin Bible, without date, which all bibliographers agree in

considering as that of Gutenberg, is a large in-folio of six hundred and
forty-one leaves, divided into two, or three, or even four volumes. It is
printed in double columns, of forty-two lines each in the full pages, with the
exception of the first ten, which consisted of only forty or forty-one lines
(Fig. 395). The characters are Gothic; the leaves are all numbered, and have
neither signatures nor catchwords. Some copies of it are on vellum, others
on paper. The number of copies which were printed of this Bible may be
estimated at one hundred and fifty—a considerable number for that period.
The simultaneous publication of so many Bibles, exactly alike, did not
contribute less than the lawsuit of Gutenberg and Fust to make known the
discovery of printing. Besides which, Fust and his new partner, although
they had mutually agreed to keep the secret as long as possible, were the
first to reveal it, in order to get all the credit of the invention for themselves,
when public rumour allowed them no longer to conceal it within their
printing-office.
It was then they printed the “Psalmorum Codex” (Collection of Psalms),
the earliest book bearing their names, and which fixed, in a manner, for the
first time, a date for the new art they had so much improved. The colophon,
or inscription at the end of the “Psalmorum Codex,” announces that the
book was executed “without the help of the pen, by an ingenious process, in
the year of our Lord, 1457.”
This magnificent Psalter, which went through three editions without any
considerable alterations being made in it in the space of thirty-three years, is
a large in-folio volume of one hundred and seventy-five leaves, printed in
red and black characters, imitated from those used in the liturgical
manuscripts of the fifteenth century. There exists, however, of the rarest
edition of this book but six or seven copies on vellum (Fig. 396).
From this period printing, instead of concealing itself, endeavoured, on
the contrary, to make itself generally known. But it does not as yet seem to
have occurred to any one that it could be applied to the reproduction of
other books than Bibles, psalters, and missals, because these were the only
books that commanded a quick and extensive sale. Fust and Schœffer then
undertook the printing of a voluminous work, which served as a liturgical
manual to the whole of Christendom, the celebrated “Rationale Divinorum
Officiorum” (“Manual of Divine Offices”), by William Durand, Bishop of
Mende, in the thirteenth century. It suffices to glance over this “Rationale,”
and to compare it with the coarse “Specula” printed in Holland, to be
convinced that in the year 1459 printing had reached the highest degree of
perfection. This edition, dated from Mayence (Moguntiæ), was no longer
intended for a small number of buyers; it was addressed to the entire
Catholic world, and copies of it on vellum and on paper were disseminated
so rapidly over the whole of Europe as to cause the belief, thenceforward,
that printing was invented at Mayence.
 Fig. 396.—Fac-simile of a page of the Psalter of 1459, second edition, or the second copy that was
struck off. Printed at Mayence, by J. Fust and P. Schœffer.

The fourth work printed by Fust and Schœffer, and dated 1460, is the
collection of the Constitutions of Pope Clement V., known by the name of
“Clementines”—a large in-folio in double columns, having superb initial
letters painted in gold and colours in the small number of copies still extant.
But Gutenberg, though deprived of his typographic apparatus, had not
renounced the art of which he considered himself, and with reason, the
principal inventor. He was, above all, anxious to prove himself as capable
as his former partners of producing books “without the help of the pen.” He
formed a new association, and fitted up a printing-office which, we know
by tradition, was actively at work till 1460, the year wherein appeared the
“Catholicon” (a kind of encyclopædia of the thirteenth century), by John
Balbi, of Genoa, the only important work the printing of which can be
attributed to Gutenberg (Fig. 397), and which can bear comparison with the
editions of Fust and Schœffer. Gutenberg, who had imitated the Dutch
“Donati” and “Specula,” doubtless felt a repugnance at appropriating to
himself the credit of an invention he had only improved; accordingly, in the
long and explicit anonymous inscription placed at the end of the volume, he
attributed to God alone the glory of this divine invention, declaring that the
“Catholicon” had been printed without the assistance of reed, stylus, or pen,
but by a marvellous combination of points, matrices, and letters.

Fig. 397.—Fac-simile of the “Catholicon” at 1460, printed at Mayence by Gutenberg.

This undertaking brought to a happy termination, Gutenberg, no doubt

weary of the annoyances incident to business, transferred his printing-office
to his workmen, Henry and Nicholas Bechtermuncze, Weigand Spyes, and
Ulric Zell. Then, having retired near to Adolphus II., elector and archbishop
of Mayence, where he occupied the post of gentleman of the ecclesiastical
court of that prince, he contented himself with the modest stipend attached
to that office, and died at a date not authentically determined, but which
cannot be later than February 24, 1468. His friend, Adam Gelth, erected in
the Church of the Récollets at Mayence, a monument to his memory, with
an epitaph styling him formally “the inventor of the typographic art.”
Fust and Schœffer did not the less continue to print books with
indefatigable ardour. In 1462 they completed a new edition of the Bible,
much more perfect than that of 1456, and of which copies were probably
sold, as were those of the first edition, as manuscripts, especially in
countries where, as in France, printing did not already exist. It seems that
the appearance in Paris of this Bible, (called the Mayence Bible), greatly
excited the community of scribes and booksellers, who saw in the new
method of producing books, without the aid of the pen, “the destruction of
their trade.” They charged, it is said, the sellers of these books with magic;
but it is more probable the latter were proceeded against, and condemned to
fine and imprisonment, for having omitted to procure from the University
authority for the sale of their Bible; such permission being then
indispensable for the sale of every kind of book.
In the meantime the town of Mayence had been taken by assault and
given up to pillage (October 27, 1462). This event, in consequence of which
the printing-office of Fust and Schœffer remained shut up for two years,
resulted in the dissemination over the whole of Europe of printers and the
art of printing. Cologne, Hamburg, and Strasbourg appear to have been the
first towns in which the emigrants established themselves.
When these printers left Mayence, and carried their art elsewhere, it had
never produced any book of classic literature; but it had proved by
important publications, such as the Bible and the “Catholicon,” that it could
create entire libraries, and thus propagate, ad infinitum, the masterpieces of
human genius. It was reserved for the printing-office of Fust and Schœffer
to set the example in that direction, and of printing the first classical work.
In 1465, Cicero’s treatise “De Officiis,” issued from the press of these two
faithful associates, and marked, as we may say, the commencement of the
printing of books for libraries, and with so great success that in the
following year a new edition of the treatise was published, in quarto.
At this period, Fust himself came to Paris, where he established a dépôt
of printed books, but left the management of the concern to one of his own
fellow-countrymen. This person dying soon afterwards, the books found in
his house, being the property of a foreigner, were sold by right of forfeiture,
for the king’s benefit. But upon the petition of Peter Schœffer, backed up by
the Elector of Mayence, the King, Louis XI., granted to the petitioners a
sum of 2,425 golden dollars, “in consideration of the trouble and labour
which the said petitioners had taken for the said art and trade of printing,
and of the benefit and utility which resulted and may result from this art to
the whole world, as well by increasing knowledge as in other ways.” This
memorable decree of the King of France bears date April 21, 1475.
We must mention, however, that about the year 1462, Louis XI.,
inquisitive and uneasy at what he had heard of the invention of Gutenberg,
sent to Mayence Nicholas Jenson, a clever engraver, attached to the mint at
Tours, “to obtain secret information of the cutting of the points and type, by
means of which the rarest manuscripts could be multiplied, and to carry off
surreptitiously the invention and introduce it into France.” Nicholas Jenson,
after having succeeded in his mission, did not return to France (it was never
known why), but went to Venice and established himself there as a printer.
It would seem, however, that Louis XI., not discouraged at the ill success of
his attempt, despatched, it is said, another envoy, less enterprising but more
conscientious than the first, to discover the secrets of printing. In 1469,
three German printers, Ulric Gering, Martin Crantz, and Michael Friburger,
began to print in Paris, in a room of the Sorbonne, of which their fellow-
countryman, John Heylin, named De la Pierre, was then the prior; in the
following year they dedicated to the king, “their protector,” one of their
editions, revised by the learned William Fichet; and in the space of four
years they published about fifteen works, quartos and folios, the majority
being printed for the first time. Then, when they were forced to leave the
Sorbonne, because John de la Pierre, who had returned to Germany, had no
longer authority over the institution, they set up in the Rue Saint-Jacques a
new printing establishment, whose sign-board was the “Soleil d’Or,” from
which, during the next five years, were issued twelve other important
works.
The Sorbonne then, like the University, was the cradle and the foster-
mother in Paris of the art of printing, which soon attained to a nourishing
condition, and produced, during the last twenty years of the fourteenth[61]
century, numerous fine books of history, poetry, literature, and devotion,
under the direction of the able and learned Pierre Caron, Pasquier
Bonhomme, Anthony Vérard, Simon Vostre (Fig. 398), &c.
After the capture of Mayence, two workmen, who had been dismissed
from the establishment of Fust and Schœffer, Conrad Sweynheim and
Arnold Pannartz, carried beyond the Alps the secret that had been confided
to them under the guarantee of an oath. They remained for a time in the
Convent of Subiaco, near Rome, in which were some German monks, and
there they organised a printing apparatus, and printed many fine editions of
Lactantius, Cicero, St. Augustine, &c. They were soon invited to Rome, and
met with an asylum in the house of the illustrious family of Massimi; but
they found an opponent in the city in one of their own workmen from the
convent, who had come to Rome and engaged himself as printer to the
cardinal John of Torquemada. Henceforward sprang up between the two
printing establishments a rivalry which showed itself in unparalleled zeal
and activity on both sides. In ten years the greater number of the writings of
the ancient Latin authors, which had been preserved in manuscripts more or
less rare, passed through the press. In 1476 there were in Rome more than
twenty printers, who employed about a hundred presses, and whose great
object was to surpass each other in the rapidity with which they produced
their publications; so that the day soon arrived when the most precious
manuscripts retained any value only because they contained what had not
been already made public by printing. Those of which printed editions
already existed were so universally disregarded, that we must refer to this
period the destruction of a large number. They were used, when written on
parchment, for binding the new books; and to this circumstance may be
attributed the loss of certain celebrated works which printing in nowise
tended to preserve from the knife of the binder.
While printing was displaying such prodigious activity in Rome, it was
 Fig. 398.—Fac-simile of a page of a “Livre d’Heures” printed in Paris, in 1512, by Simon Vostre.

not less active in Venice, where it seems to have been imported by that
Nicholas Jenson whom Louis XI. had sent to Gutenberg, and whom for a
long time even the Venetians looked on as the inventor of the art with which
he had clandestinely become acquainted at Mayence. From the

Fig. 399.—The Mark of Gérard Lecu, Printer at Gouwe (1482).

Fig. 400.—The Mark of Fust and Schœffer, Printers. (Fifteenth Century.)
year 1469, however, Jenson had no longer the monopoly of printing in
Venice, where John de Spire had arrived, bringing also from Mayence all
the improvements Gutenberg and Schœffer had obtained. This art having
ceased to be a secret in the city of the Doges, great

Fig. 401.—Mark of Arnold de Keyser, Printer at Ghent.

(1480.)

competition arose among printers, who flocked to Venice, where they found
a market for their volumes which a thousand ships carried to all parts of the
world. At this period important and admirable publications issued from the
numerous rival printing establishments in Venice. Christopher Waltdorfer,
of Ratisbon, published in 1471 the first edition of the “Decameron” of
Boccaccio, of which a copy was sold for £2,080 at the Roxburgh sale; John
of Cologne published, in the same year, the first dated edition of “Terence;”
Adam of Amberg reprinted, from the Roman editions, “Lactantius” and
“Virgil,” &c. Finally, Venice already possessed more than two hundred
printers, when in 1494 the great Aldo Manuzio made his appearance, the
precursor of the Estiennes,[62] who were the glory of French printing. From
every part of Europe printing spread itself and flourished (Figs. 399 to 411);
the printers, however, often neglected, perhaps intentionally, to date their

Fig. 402.—Mark of Colard Mansion, Printer at Bruges. (1477.)

 Fig. 403.—Mark of Trechsel, Printer at Lyons. (1489.)

productions. In the course of 1469 there were only two towns, Venice and
Milan, that revealed, by their dated editions, the time at which printing was
first established within their walls; in 1470, five towns—Nuremberg, Paris,
Foligno, Treviso, and Verona; in 1471, eight towns—Strasbourg, Spires,
Treviso, Bologna, Ferrara, Naples, Pavia, and Florence; in 1472, eight
others—Cremona, Felizzano, Padua, Mantua, Montreuil, Jesi, Munster, and
Parma; in 1473, ten—Brescia, Messina, Ulm, Bude, Lauingen, Mersebourg,
Alost, Utrecht, Lyons, and St. Ursio, near Vicenza; in 1474, thirteen towns,
among which are Valentia (in Spain) and London; in 1475, twelve towns,
&c. Each year we find the art gaining ground, and each year an increase in
the number of books newly edited, rendering science and literature popular
by considerably diminishing the price of books. Thus, for example, at the
beginning of the fifteenth century, the illustrious Poggio sold his fine
manuscript of “Livy,” to raise money enough to buy himself a villa near
Florence; Anthony of Palermo mortgaged his estate in order to be able to
purchase a manuscript of the same historical writer, valued at a hundred and
twenty-five dollars; yet a few years later the “Livy,” printed at Rome by
Sweynheim and Pannartz, in one folio volume on vellum, was worth only
five golden dollars.

Fig. 404.—Mark of Simon Vostre, Printer at Paris, in 1531, living in the Rue Neuve Nostre-Dame, at
the Sign of St. John the Evangelist.
Fig. 405.—Mark of Galliot du Pré, Bookseller at Paris. (1531.)

The largest number of the early editions resembled each other, for they
were generally printed in Gothic characters, or lettres de somme—letters
which bristled with points and angular appendices. These characters, when
printing was only just invented, had preserved in Holland and in Germany
their original form; and the celebrated printer of Bruges, Colard Mansion,
only improved on them in his valuable publications, which were almost
contemporaneous with Gutenberg’s “Catholicon;” but they had already
under-gone in France a semi metamorphosis in getting rid of their
angularities and their most extravagant features. These lettres de somme
were then adopted under the name of bâtarde (bastard) or ronde (round), in
the first books printed in France, and when Nicholas Jenson established
himself in Venice

Fig. 406.—Mark of Philippe le Noir, Printer, Bookseller, and Bookbinder, at Paris, 1536, living in the
Rue St. Jacques, at the sign of the “Rose Couronnée.”
Fig. 407.—Mark of Temporal, Printer at Lyons, 1550-1559, with two devices; one in Latin, “And in
the meanwhile time flieth, flieth irreparably;” the other in Greek, “Mark, or know, Time.” (Observe
the play upon the words tempus, καιρὁς and Temporal.)

he used the Roman, which were only an elegant variety of the lettres de
somme of France (Gothic characters). Aldo Manuzio, with the sole object of
insuring that Venice should not owe its national type to a Frenchman,
adopted the Italic character, renewed from the writing called cursive or de
chancellerie (of the chancellor’s office), which was never generally used in
printing, notwithstanding the fine editions of Aldo. Hereafter the
Ciceronean character was to come into use, so called because it had been
employed at Rome in the first edition of the “Epistolæ Familiares”
(Familiar Letters) of Cicero, in 1467. The character called “St.
Augustinian,” which appeared later, likewise owes its name to the large
edition of the works of St. Augustine, published at Basle in 1506. Moreover,
during this first period in which each printer engraved, or caused to be
engraved under his own directions,

Fig. 408.—Mark of Robert Estienne, Printer at Paris, 1536.

“Do not aspire to know high things.”
Fig. 409.—Mark of Gryphe, Printer at Lyons, 1529.
“Virtue my Leader, Fortune my Companion.”

the characters he made use of, there was an infinite number of different
types. The register, a table indicative of the quires which composed the
book, was necessary to point out in what order these were to be arranged

Fig. 410.—Mark of Plantin, Printer, at Antwerp, 1557.

“Christ the true Vine.”
Fig. 411.—Mark of J. Le Noble, Printer at Troyes. (1595.)

and bound together. After the register came the catchwords, which, at the
end of each quire or of each leaf, were destined to serve an analogous
purpose; and the signatures, indicating the place of quires or of leaves by
letters or figures; but signatures and catchwords existed already in the
manuscripts, and typographers had only to reproduce them in their editions.
There was at first a perfect identity between the manuscripts and the books
printed from them. The typographic art seems to have considered it
imperative to respect the abbreviations with which the manuscripts were so
encumbered as often to become unintelligible; but, as it was not easy to
transfer them precisely from the manuscripts, they were soon expressed in
such a way, and in so complicated a manner, that in 1483 a special
explanatory treatise had to be published to render them intelligible. The
punctuation was generally very capriciously presented: here, it was nearly
nil; there, it admitted only of the full stop in various positions; the rests
were often indicated by oblique strokes; sometimes the full stop was round,
sometimes square, and we find also the star or asterisk employed as a sign
of punctuation. The new paragraphs, or breaks, are placed indifferently in
the same line with the rest of the text, projecting beyond it or not reaching
to it.

Fig. 412.—Border from the “Livre d’Heures” of Anthony Vérard (1488), representing the
Assumption of the Virgin in the presence of the Apostles and Holy Women, and at the bottom of the
page two Mystical Figures.
 The book, on leaving the press, went, like its predecessor the manuscript,
first into the hands of the corrector, who revised the text, rectifying wrong
letters, and restoring those the press had left in blank; then into the hands of
the rubricator, who printed in red, blue, or other colours, the initial letters,
the capitals, and the new paragraphs. The leaves, before the adoption of
signatures, were numbered by hand.
At first, nearly all books were printed in folio and quarto sizes, the result
of folding the sheet of paper in two or in four respectively; but the length
and breadth of these sizes varied according to the requirements of
typography and the dimensions of the press. At the end of the fifteenth
century, however, the advantages of the octavo were already appreciated,
which soon became in France the sex-decimo, and in Italy the duo-decimo.

Fig. 413.—Border taken from the “Livre d’Heures” of Geoffroi Tory (1525).
 Paper and ink employed by the earliest printer seem to have required no
improvement as the art of printing progressed.

Fig. 414—“Livre d’Heures,” by Guillaume Roville (1551), a composition in the style of the school of
Lyons, with Caryatides representing female Saints semi-veiled.

The ink was black, bright, indelible, unalterable, penetrating deeply into
the paper, and composed, as already were the colours, of oil-paint. The
paper, which was certainly rather grey or yellow, and often coarse and
rough, had the advantage of being strong, durable, and was almost fit, in
virtue of these qualities, to replace parchment and vellum, both of which
materials were scarce and too expensive. Editors contented themselves with
having struck off on membrane (a thin and white vellum) a small number of
copies of each edition; never exceeding three hundred. These sumptuous
copies, rubricated, illuminated, bound with care, resembling in every
respect the finest manuscripts, were generally presented to kings, princes,
and great personages, whose patronage or assistance the printer sought. Nor
was any expense spared to add to typography all the ornaments which
wood-engravings could confer upon it; and from the year 1475, numerous
illustrated editions, of which an example was found in the first “Specula,”
especially those printed in Germany, were enriched with figures, portraits,
heraldic escutcheons, and a multitude of ornamented margins (Figs. 412 to
415). For more than a century the painters and engravers worked hand in
hand with the printers and booksellers.

Fig. 415.—Border employed by John of Tournes, in 1557, ornamented with Antique Masks and
Allegorical Personages bearing Baskets containing Laurel Branches.

The taste for books spread over the whole of Europe; the number of
buyers and of amateurs was every day increasing. In the libraries of princes,
scholars, or monks, printed books were collected as formerly were
manuscripts. Henceforth printing found everywhere the same protection,
the same encouragements, the same rivalry. Typographers sometimes
travelled with their apparatus, opened a printing-office in a small town, and
then went on elsewhere after they had sold one edition. Finally, such was
the incredible activity of typography, from its origin till 1500, that the
number of editions published in Europe in the space of half a century
amounted to sixteen thousand. But the most remarkable result of printing
was the important part it played in the movement of the sixteenth century,
from which resulted the transformation of the arts, of literature, and science;
the discoveries of Laurent Coster and of Gutenberg had cast a new light
over the world, and the press made its appearance to modify profoundly the
conditions of the intellectual life of peoples.

Fig. 416.—Mark of Bonaventure and Abraham Elsevier, Printers at Leyden, 1620.

LONDON: PRINTED BY VIRTUE AND CO., CITY ROAD.

FOOTNOTES:
[1] Dorserets, covers to backs of chairs, beds, &c.
[2] Richard I., surnamed Sans-peur, third Duke of Normandy, was natural son of
William I., and grandson of Rollo. He died in 996.—[Ed.]
[3] Charles le Brun, a distinguished painter of the French school, flourished during
the seventeenth century. The son of a sculptor, who placed him under Simon Vouet,
the young artist made such progress that at the age of fifteen he painted a remarkable
picture, “Hercules Destroying the Horses of Diomede,” which brought him at once
into public notice. Le Brun’s patron, the Chancellor Seguier, sent him to Italy, with an
introduction to Nicholas Poussin, whose pure and correct taste, however, seems to
have had little influence on the French artist, who, though possessing an inventive
and somewhat elevated genius, often showed himself a mannerist.—[Ed.]
[4] “Historical Topography of Ancient Paris in the district of the Louvre and
Tuileries.” By Berty and Legrand.
 [5] Probably an abbreviation, or corruption, of cap-mail.—[Ed.]
[6] Or brassarts—pieces to protect the upper part of the arms.—[Ed.]
[7] This title is not chronologically correct. Henry of Bolingbroke had been
created Duke of Hereford nearly a year before his intended combat with Norfolk, at
Coventry, in 1398; when the king, Richard II., interfered, and banished both nobles
from the kingdom.—[Ed.]
[8] Anglicè, partisan—a kind of pike or lance.—[Ed.]
[9] Martel-de-fer—a weapon combining a hammer and pick; used by cavalry in
the Middle Ages, to damage and destroy armour. It was generally hung at the saddle-
bow.—[Ed.]
[10] Tassets—parts of the cuirass.
[11] Morion—a kind of helmet, usually worn by foot-soldiers.—[Ed.]
[12] So called, it may be presumed, from its form and make.—[Ed.]
[13] Latin, Luteus—muddy.—[Ed.]
[14] Quincunx order is a method of arranging five objects, or pieces, in the form of
a square; one being in the centre, and one at each corner.—[Ed.]
[15] Limousine—a term applied to enamelling, and derived, as some writers
assume, from Leonard Limousin, a famous artist in this kind of work, resident at
Limoges. It is, however, more probable it came from the province Limousin, or
Limosin, of which Limoges was the capital; and that Leonard acquired the surname
of Limousin from his place of birth or residence; just as many of the old painters are
best known by theirs.—[Ed.]
[16] Ogivale—a term used by French architects to denote the Gothic vault, with its
ribs and cross-springers, &c. It is also employed to denote the pointed arch.—
Gwilt’s Encyclopædia of Architecture.—[Ed.]
[17] This is a literal rendering of the text of M. Labarte; but the artists to whom
allusion is made were only two, Niccola and Giovanni, sculptors and architects of
Pisa. According to Vasari, Niccola, father of Giovanni (Jean or John), first worked
under certain Greek sculptors who were executing the figures and other sculptural
ornaments of the Duomo of Pisa and the Chapel of San Giovanni.—[Ed.]
[18] Andrea di Cione Orcagna.—[Ed.]
[19] Autochthone—relating to the aboriginal inhabitants of a country: the use of
the word here is not very intelligible.—[Ed.]
[20] Gnomon—literally the upright piece of wood or metal which projects the
shadow on the plane of the dial.—[Ed.]
[21] This clock, as many readers doubtless know, was removed some years ago,
when St. Dunstan’s Church, in Fleet Street, was rebuilt.—[Ed.]
 [22] The reader will notice a discrepancy between this description of the chorus
and that given in a preceding paragraph. We have retained both, mainly because it is
now impossible to determine what the instrument really was: no mention of it appears
in any book we have consulted.—[Ed.]
[23] Nabulum—a name evidently derived from the Hebrew word nebel, generally
translated in the Scriptures as a psaltery.—[Ed.]
[24] The Welsh or Scotch Crwd.—[Tr.]
[25] In German Geige, “fiddle.”—[Tr.]
[26] Henry IV., born at Pau, in the Béarn.—[Ed.]
[27] The English “knave” is only our old equivalent for the German knabe, and
had originally the same meaning of servant; it is also nearly similar in sense to the
French valet.—[Tr.]
[28] Paul, the Silentiary, is so named from holding in the court of Justinian the
office of chief of the Silentiarii, persons who had the care of the palace. He wrote a
poem on the rebuilding of St. Sophia, at Constantinople, which was translated from
Greek into Latin, and published with notes, by Du Cange, of Paris, in 1670. It is this
to which M. Lecroix refers in the text.—[Ed.]
[29] Amandaire—almond-shaped. Strictly speaking, the aureola is the nimbus of
the whole body, as the nimbus is the aureola of the head. In Fairholt’s “Dictionary of
Terms in Art” is an engraving showing a saint standing in the centre of an almond-
shaped aureola—[Ed.]
[30] Grisaille—white and black.—[Ed.]
[31] Probably Alfonso is thus designate!.—[Ed.]
[32] This is obviously a misconception. Lanzi, alluding to the picture, says, “Had
Leonardo desired to follow the practice of his age in painting in distemper, the art at
this time would have been in possession of this treasure. But being always fond of
attempting new methods, he painted this masterpiece upon a peculiar ground, formed
of distilled oils, which was the reason that it gradually detached itself from the wall,”
&c. And a later authority, Kugler, thus writes: “The determination of Leonardo to
execute the work in oil-colours instead of fresco, in order to have the power of
finishing the minutest details in so great an undertaking, appears to have been
unfortunate.” Distemper differs from fresco in that it is painted on a dry, and not a
damp, wall; but in both the vehicle used is of an aqueous, and not an oily, nature.—
[Ed.]
[33] Deacon of the Church at Aquila, and afterwards attached to the court of
Charlemagne. Paul, who died about the year 799, was distinguished as a poet and
historian.—[Ed.]
[34] Or San-Gemignano, a small town between Florence and Siena.—[Ed.]
 [35] Giorgione studied under Giovanni Bellini, younger brother of Gentile, and
son of Jacopo. M. Lacroix does not even mention Giovanni Bellini, though he is
generally esteemed before his father and brother, besides being the master of two of
the greatest painters of the Venetian school, Titian and Giorgione; who, however,
soon cast aside the antiquated style of their early instructor.—[Ed.]
[36] The famous picture, an altar-piece, representing “Christ bearing his Cross,”
known by the name of Lo Spasimo di Sicilia, from its having been painted for the
convent of Santa Maria della Spasimo at Palermo, in Sicily. It is now in the Museum
of Madrid.—[Ed.]
[37] We can find no authority to support this statement.—[Ed.]
[38] Holbein died of the plague which prevailed in London in 1554.—[Ed.]
[39] This name is generally written Jeannet, and, according to Wornum’s “Epochs
of Painting,” seems to have been applied indiscriminately almost to the two painters,
Jehannet or Jehan Clouet, father and son. M. Lacroix appears also to include François
under the same general cognomen; which, indeed, appears to have been a species of
surname.—[Ed.]
[40] Buziack is the name by which this old wood-engraver is generally known.—
[Ed.]
[41] The legend which accompanies this engraving is in old Italian; it relates to the
famous prophecy of Isaiah as to the birth of Christ (Isaiah vii. 14).
[42] We presume this plate to be that commonly known among collectors of prints
as “Death’s Horse;” it represents a knight on horseback followed by Death. The best
impressions of this plate are prior to the date 1513. It is also called “The Christian
Knight,” and “The Knight, Death, and the Devil.”—[Ed.]
[43] That Marc Antonio studied painting under Raphael, as is here implied, is
more than doubtful, though he engraved a very large number of his various
compositions, and was highly esteemed by the great master.—[Ed.]
[44] Giovanni B. B. Ghisi; Giorgio and Adams, his two sons; and Diana, his
daughter.—[Ed.]
[45] This engraver, generally known by the single name of George, usually signed
his plates with the surname Peins or Pentz.—[Ed.]
[46] He was born at Prague, although most of his works were executed in England.
—[Tr.]
[47] Ambons—a kind of pulpit in the early Christian churches.—[Ed.]
[48] Strasbourg spire is 468 feet in height, the highest in the world. Amiens, the
next, a mere flèche, is 422 feet.—[Tr.]
[49] M. Lacroix uses the word Romane throughout, with reference to this style of
architecture: we have adopted Norman as that most commonly associated with it, and
because it is a generic term comprehending Romanesque, Lombardic, and even
Byzantine.—[Ed.]
[50] Oculus (eye).—This word is not known in the vocabulary of English
architects; but it is evidently intended to signify a circular window.—[Ed.]
[51] Officers who had jurisdiction over, and were inspectors of, works of masonry
and carpentry.
[52] The word is derived from vellus, which merely signifies the skin of any beast,
not of a calf only.—[Ed.]
[53] The word is derived from the Latin uncialis, and is applied to letters of a
round or hook-shaped form: such were used by the ancients as numerals, or for words
in abbreviated inscriptions.—[Ed.]
[54] Minuscule.—Less or little. The term is evidently here intended to distinguish
small letters from capitals.—[Ed.]
[55] Palimpsest—a kind of parchment from which anything written could easily
be erased.—[Ed.]
[56] Librarian probably; though libraire means only a bookseller, bibliothécaire
being the French for a librarian.—[Tr.]
[57] Translation: “This is Monseigneur St. Louis’ Psalter, which belonged to his
mother.”
[58] Antiphonaries—books containing the responses, &c., used in Catholic
church-services.—[Ed.]
[59] “Garni de deux fermaulx d’argent, dorez, armoiez d’azur à une aigle d’or à
deux testes, onglé de gueulles, auquel a ung tuyau d’argent doré pour tourner les
feuilles, à trois escussons desdites armes, couvert d’une chemise de veluyau vermeil.”
[60] Probably this “pilgrimage” refers to some one of the great European Councils
or Diets held in the city during the Middle Ages, as were Congresses in later times.—
[Ed.]
[61] Sic; but it should evidently be the fifteenth century.—[Ed.]
[62] Anglicè, Stephens, by which name this illustrious family of scholars and
printers is most popularly known in England. They were ten in number, who
flourished between 1512 and about 1660. Anthony, the last distinguished
representative of the family, died in poverty at the Hôtel Dieu, Paris, in 1674, at the
age of eighty-two.—[Ed.]
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