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The document outlines the design and development of SQL DDL statements, focusing on various SQL objects such as tables, views, indexes, sequences, and synonyms. It provides syntax and examples for creating and altering tables, defining constraints, and managing database objects. Additionally, it explains the purpose of each SQL object and the rules for their usage in database management.

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5 views

practical 2

The document outlines the design and development of SQL DDL statements, focusing on various SQL objects such as tables, views, indexes, sequences, and synonyms. It provides syntax and examples for creating and altering tables, defining constraints, and managing database objects. Additionally, it explains the purpose of each SQL object and the rules for their usage in database management.

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atharvs7123
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Assignment No. 2 (a) Title: Design and Develop SQL DDL statements which demonstrate the use of SQL objects such as Table, View , Index, Sequence, Synonym Objectives: To study SQL DDL statements Theory: SQL~ Structured Query Language Data Definition in SQLCreating Tables Syntax:- Create table (colume_name 1 datatype size), colume_name 2 datatype size(), colume_name n datatype size()); e.g. Create table student with the following fields(name,roll,class,branch) Create table student (name char(20), Roll number( 5), Class char(10), Branch char(15)); Atable from a table + Synta CREATE TABLE(, )ASSELECT , FROM ; - If the source table contains the records, then new table is also created with the same records present in the source table. Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Page 19 If you want only structure without records then select statement must havecondition. Syntax: CREATE TABLE (, ) ASSELECT , FROM WHERE 1=2; (Or) CREATE TABLE (, ) ASSELECT , FROM WHERE ColumnName JULL; Constraints The definition of a table may include the specification of integrity constraints. Basicallytwo types of constraints are provided: column constraints are associated with a single column whereas table constraints are typically associated with more than one column. Aconstraint can be named. It is advisable to name a constraint in order to get more meaningful information when this constraint is violated due to, e.g,, an insertion of a tuple that violates the constraint. If no name is specified for the constraint, Oracle automatically generates a name of the pattern SYS Ccnumber>.Rules are enforced on data being stored in a table, are called Constraints. Both the Create table & Alter Table SQL can be used to write SQL sentences thatattach constraints. Basically constraints are of three types : 1) Domain - Not Null ~ Check 2) Entity - Primary Key ~ Unique 3) Referential - Foreign key 4) Not Null:-Not null constraint can be applied at column level only. ‘We can define these constraints 1) at the time of table creation Syntax : CREATE TABLE ( datatype(size) NOT NULL, datatype(size),..._); Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Page 20 2) After the table creation ALTER TABLE Modify( datatype(size) NOT NULL); Check constraints Can be bound to column or a table using CREATE TABLE or ALTER TABLEcommand. Checks are performed when write operation is performed . - Insert or update statement causes the relevant check constraint. - Ensures the integrity of the data in tables. ‘Syntax : + Check constraints at column levelSyntax : CREATE TABLE
(data type(size)CHECK(column Namecondition), ( data type(size) CONSTRAINT CHECK (column Name condition)... % * Check constraints at table level Syntax : (CREATE TABLE
( data type(size), data type(size), CONSTRAINT CHECK (column Name condition), Check constraints at table level Syntax: CREATE TABLE
( data type(size), data type(size)....., CHECK (column Name condition));After table creation Alter table tablename Add constraints constraintname Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Page 21 check(condition)The PRIMARY KEY Constraint Aprimary key is one or more column(s) in a table used to uniquely identity each row inthe table. * Atable can have only one primary key. Can not be left blank Data must be UNIQUE. * Not allows null values * Not allows duplicate values. + Unique index is created automatically if there is a primary key. Primary key constraint defined at column level Syntax: (CREATE TABLE
( ()PRIMARY KEY,).....); * Primary key constraint defined at Table levelSyntax: (CREATE TABLE
( () ssPRIMARY KEY( )); * key constraint defined at Table level Syntax: CREATE TABLE
( ()constraint constraint namePRIMARY KEY()); After table creation Alter table table name Add(constraint constraint name primary key(column name)); The Unique Key Constraint ~The unique column constraint permits multiple entries of NULL into thecolumn. Unique key not allowed duplicate values Unique index is automatically created. Table can have more than one unique key. UNIQUE constraint defined at Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Page 22 column levelSyntax : Create table tablename( ( UNIQUE), datatype().. UNIQUE constraint defined at table levelSyntax: CREATE TABLE tablename ( (), —_(), UNIQUE(, )); After table creation Alter table tablename ‘Add constraint constraintname unique(columnname); The Foreign Key (Self Reference) Constraint Foreign key represents relationshipsbetween tables. A foreign key is @ column( or group of columns) whose values are derived from primarykey or unique key of some other table. Foreign key constraint defined at column levelSyntax: () REFERENCES [()][ON DELETE CASCADE] * Ifthe ON DELETE CASCADE option is set, a DELETE operation in the + master table will trigger a DELETE operation for corresponding records in all detailtables. * If the ON DELETE SET NULL option is set, a DELETE operation in the master table will set the value held by the foreign key of the detail tablesto null. Foreign key: ALTER TABLE ADD CONSTRAINT FOREIGNKEY () REFERENCES ; FOREIGN KEY constraint at table level 1) FOREIGN KEY constraint defined with ON DELETE CASCADE FOREIGN KEY([,]) REFERENCES [(, ) ON DELETE CASCADE Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Page 23 * FOREIGN KEY constraint defined with ON DELETE SET NULL * FOREIGN KEY([.]) REFERENCES [(, ) ON DELETE SETNULL To view theconstraint ‘Syntax: Select constraint_name, constraint type,search_condition from user_constraints where table name=; Select constraint_name, column_name from user_cons_columns wheretable_name=; To drop the constraintsSyntax:- Drop constraint constraint name; Describe commands To view the structure of the table created use the DESCRIBE command.Thecommand displays the column names and datatypes Syntax- Desc{ribe] e.g desc student Restrictions for creating a table: 1. Table names and column names must begin with letter. 2. Table names and column names can be 1 to 30characters long. 3. Table names must contain only the characters A-Z,a-z,0-9,underscore_$ and # 4. Table name should not be same as the name of another database object. 5. Table name must not be an ORACLE reserved word. 6. Column names should not be duplicate within a table definition. Alteration of TABLE:-Alter table command Syntax: Case1:- Alter table ‘Add{( colume_name 1 datatype size(), colume_name 2 datatype size0, colume_name n datatype size); Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Page 24 Case2:- Alter table Modify(colume_name 1 datatype size), colume_name 2 datatype sizeQ, colume_name n datatype size()); After you create a table, you may need to change the table structures because you need to havea column definition needs to be changed. Alter table statement can be used for this purpose. You can add columns to a table using the ater table statement with the ADD clause. Eg. Suppose you want to add enroll_no in the student table then we write Alter table student Add(enroll_no number(10)); You can modify existing column in a table by using the alter table statement with modify clause. Eg, Suppose you want to modify or chang the size of previously defined field name in the student table then we write Alter table student modify (name char(25));Dropping a column from a table Syntax: ALTER TABLE DROP COLUMN ; Drop table command Syntax:- Drop table Drop table command remnoves the definitions of an oracle table. When you drop a table ithe database loses all the data in the table and all the indexes associated with it e.g drop table student; ‘Truncate table commandSyntax:- Trunc table The truncate table statement is used to remove all rows from a table and to release the storagespace used by the table. e.g, Trunctable student; Rename table commandSyntax: Rename to Rename statement is used to rename a table,view,sequence,or synonym. Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Page 25 e.g. Rename student to stud; Database objects:-Index ‘An index is a schema object that can speed up retrieval of rows by using pointer. ‘An index provides direct & fast access to rows in a table, Index can be created explicitly or automatically. Automatically :- A unique index is created automatically when you define a primary key or unique key constraint in a table definition. Manually :- users can create non unique indexes or columns to speed up access time to the rows. Syntax: Create index On table(columnf , column]... Eg. Create index emp_ename_idx On emp(ename); When to create an index a) The column is used frequently in the WHERE clause or in a join condition. b) The column contains a wide range of values. ©) The column contains a large number of values. To display created index of a table user_indexes ix, user_ind_columns ic where iciindex_nami Removing an Index ‘Syntax:- Drop index ; eg. Dropindex emp_name_idx; Note: 1) we cannot modify indexes. 2)To change an index, we must drop it and the re-create it. Views View is a logical representation of subsets of data from one or more tables. A view takes the output of a query and treats it as a table therefore view can be called as stored query or a virtual table.The tables upon which a view is based are called base tables, In Oracle the SQL command to create a view (virtual table) has the form Create [or replace] view [()] as [with check option [constraint ]; ‘The optional clause or replace re-creates the view ifit already exists. names the columns of the view. If is not specified in the view definition, the columns of the Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Page 26 view get the same names as the attributes listed in the select statement (if possible). Example: The following view contains the name, job title and the annual salary of employees working in the department 20: Create view DEPT20 as select ENAME, JOB, SAL 12 ANNUAL SALARY from EMP where DEPTNO = 20; In the select statement the column alias ANNUAL SALARY is specified for the expressionSAL*12 and this alias is taken by the view. An alternative formulation of the above view definition is Create view DEPT20 (ENAME, JOB, ANNUAL SALARY) as select ENAME, JOB, SAL A view can be used in the same way as a table, that is, rows can be retrieved from a view(also respective rows are not physically stored, but derived on basis of the select statement inthe viewdefinition), or rows can even be modified. A view is evaluated again each time it is accessed. In Oracle SQLno insert, update, or delete modifications on views are allowed that use one of the following constructs in the view definition: *Joins * Aggregate function such as sum, min, max etc. * set-valued sub queries (in, any, all) or test for existence (exists) * group by clause or distinct clause In combination with the clause with check option any update or insertion of a row into the view is rejected if the new/modified row does not meet the view definition, ie, these rows would notbe selected based on the select statement. A with check option can be named using the constraintclause. A view can be deleted using the command delete _. Todescribe the structure of a view e.g. Describe stud; To display the contents of view e.g. Select * from stud Removing a view: Syntax:- Drop view e.g. Drop view stud Create [or replace] view [()] as [with check option [constraint ]; Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Page 27 The optional clause or replace re-creates the view if it already exists. names the columns of the view. If is not specified in the view definition, the columns of the view get the same names as the attributes listed in the select statement (if possible), Example: The following view contains the name, job title and the annual salary of employees working in the department 20: Create view DEPT20 as select ENAME, JOB, SAL 12 ANNUAL SALARY from EMP where DEPTNO = 20; In the select statement the column alias ANNUAL SALARY is specified for the expression ‘SAL*12 and this alias is taken by the view. An alternative formulation of the above view definition i 12 from EMP where DEPTNO = 20; Create view DEPT20 (ENAME, JOB, ANNUAL SALARY) as select ENAME, JOB, SAL A view can be used in the same way as a table, that is, rows can be retrieved from a view(also respective rows are not physically stored, but derived on basis of the select statement in the viewdefinition), or rows can even be modified. Sequence: ‘A sequence is a database object, which can generate unique, sequential integer values. It can be used to automatically generate primary key or unique key values. A sequence can be either in anascending or descending order. {start with n] [imaxvalue n | nomaxvalue}] [{minvalue n|nominvalue}] [cycle |nocycle}] {cache n| nocache}: Increment by n Specifies the interval between Jsequence number where n isan integer. If this clause is omitted, the |sequence is increment by 1. Start with n Specifies the first sequence number tobe generated. If this [clause is omitted , [the sequence is start with 1. Manvalue n Specifies the maximum value, the [sequence can generate Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Page 28 Nomax value n Specifies the maximum value of 10e27-1 for an ascending sequence & -1 for descending sequence. This is a default option. Minvalue n Specifies the minimum sequence value. Nominvalue n Specifies the minimum value of 1 for an ascending & 10e26-1 for Jdescending sequence. This isa default option. Cycle Specifies that the sequence continues ito generate values from the beginning After creating a sequence we can access its values with the help of pseudo columnslike curval & nextval. Nextval : nextval returns initial value of the sequence when reference to for the firsttime. Last references to the nextval will increment the sequence using the increment by clause & returns the new value. Curval : curval returns the current value of the sequence which is the value returned by the last reference to last value Modifyning a sequence: The sequence can be modified when we want to perform the following : Set or eliminate minvalue or maxvalue + Change the increment value. Change the number of cache sequence number. Syntax : Alter sequence [increment by n] {start with n] [{maxvalue n | nomaxvalue}] [(minvalue n| nominvalue}] {cycle | nocycle}] [{cache n| nocache}]; Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Page 29 A synonym isa database object which is used as an alias(alternative name)for a table,view or sequence. Tables In relational database systems (DBS) data are represented using tables (relations). ‘Aquery issuedagainst the DBS also results in a table. A table has the following structure: Column 1 —Tuple ‘Acolumn is made up of a column name and a data type, and it describes an attribute of the tuples. The structure of a table, also called relation schema, thus is defined by its attributes. The type of information to be stored in a table is defined by the data types of the attributes at table creation time.SQL uses the terms table, row, and column for relation, tuple, and attribute,respectively. Atable can have up to 254 columns which may have different or same data types and sets ovalues (domains), respectively. Possible domains are alphanumeric data (strings), numbers and date formats. Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Page 30 Variable length character stringhaving VARCHARQ(s | aximum » . » VARCHAR ize) length size bytes. Variable length] national character STRING NVARCHAR2 setstring VARCHAR, (size) having maximum length size bytes. Now deprecated - VARCHAR is VARCHAR | Synonym for VARCHAR2 but this usage may change in future versions, Fixed length character data oflength size bytes | bytes. This Default. | CHARAC CHAR(size) minimum | and TER minimu bizeis 1 byte) minimum data. Such as Im size is] sizeis 1 codes A100, byte. byte. B102.. Fixed length 2000 bytes national Default and character set minimum size Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Page 31 data of length size bytes. Thisshould be used for fixed lengthdata. Such as codes ‘A100, B10: Number NUMBER(ps| having ) precision p andscale s. PLSNTEG | pLs INTEGER ER values require less storage and The precisionp can range from 1 to 28. The scales can range from -84 to 127. Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune land minimufis 1 byte} m size ist byte. The precision p can range from 1 10 38. The scale s can range from -84 to 127. and minimum size is 1 10E125 maximum 38 decimal digits The scales can range from -84 Ito 127. For floating point don't specifyps REAL has a maximum precision of 63 binary digits, which is roughly magnitud e range is - 21474836 floating- point: DOUBLE PRECISIO. NFLOAT binary_do uble binary_flo at integers: INTEGER SMALLIN Page 32 provide better 47. performance 21474836 than NUMBER 47 values. So.use PLS_INTEGER where you can! BINARY_INT signed integers magnitude | NATURAL EGER (older slower rangeis | NATURA version of ~ 21474836 LN PLS_INTEGER) 47... | positive 21474836 | POSITIVEN 47 SIGNTYP (Character data 2 32760 of variable 2 Icigabytes |Gigabytes | bytes Note length (A |igabytes| this is biggerversion |smalller than the maximum width of a LONG to December 31,4712 AD. timestamp | the number off (fractional se | _“gits in the < fractional part onds_precisio | fhe SECOND] n) datetime field.| Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Accepted values of ractional_s} ec londs_preci sion are 0 woo (default = 6) and months, where year precision is the number of digits in the YEAR datetime field. Time in days, hours, minutes, and seconds. day precision is the maximum number of digits in DAY’ fractional_secon lds_precision is the max numberof fractional digits i the SECOND field] LDAY (day_precisi on)TO SECOND (fractional_ sec londs_precis ion ) Raw binary data of length size bytes. You must specify size fora RAW value. Raw binary data of variable length. (not intrepreted by PL/SQL) LONG RAW Hexadecimal string representing the unique address of arow inits table. Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Maximum: size is2000 bytes Note this| is smalller than ‘the maximum width of a LONG RAW pseudocol umn.) Page 34 universal rowid - Hex string representi ng the Hex string logical representing address of } CHARTO thelogical i ja row of an} ROWID address of a is | index- row of an organized | package: index- table, organizedtable either physical, logical, or foreign (non- Oracle) Binary format o' an operating system MLSLABEL | — label.This datatype is used with Trusted Oracle7. (Character Large[4Gigabyt Object s National Character ASI9aby) Gigabytes | *193byt tes es LargeObject The size lof a BFILE pointer to binaryfile on disk Binary Large 4Gigaby| ‘4Gigabyt Department of Computer Engineering, SCOE, Pune Page 35

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