RESPIRATION

•
Energy
Organisms need energy for things such as:
• Chemical reactions to build larger molecules from smaller molecules
• Muscle contraction to allow movement
• Keeping warm (to maintain a constant temperature suitable for enzyme activity)
• Active transport

• Cellular respiration is an exothermic reaction that is continuously occurring in living cells

• The chemical process of cellular respiration releases energy from glucose

• The energy is transferred via the molecule Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

• ATP, produced in respiration in the mitochondria, is required for living processes to

occur within cells and organisms

• There are 2 main types of respiration:

• aerobic (in the presence of oxygen)
• anaerobic (in the absence of oxygen)
• Known as the energy currency of the cell
ATP
• It is composed of
• 1 molecule of adenosine (made up of adenine and ribose sugar)
• 3 phosphate groups

• Chemical energy is stored within the bonds keeping the phosphate groups together
• When a cell requires energy, ATP is broken down by losing one phosphate group, releasing energy
• The molecule is now known as ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
• ATP  ADP + Pi
• The energy released is used to drive metabolic processes
• This reaction is reversible
• ADP + Pi  ATP

WHAT MAKES ATP WELL SUITED FOR ITS ROLE?

• It is small and soluble, so it is easily transported around the cell
• The chemical bond between the phosphate groups can be readily hydrolysed (broken) by the correct enzymes
• It releases enough energy to drive metabolic reactions, but not too much energy that most of it is wasted
• It is quite a stable molecule that is only broken down in the presence of specific enzymes
 Aerobic Respiration
• Aerobic respiration requires oxygen
• It is defined as the chemical reaction in cells that uses oxygen to break down nutrient
molecules to release energy

• Aerobic respiration is the complete breakdown of glucose to release a

relatively large amount of energy for use in cell processes and reactions

• Carbon dioxide and water are produced as waste products as well as releasing useful cellular
energy
 Anaerobic Respiration
• Anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen
• It is defined as the chemical reaction in cells that breaks down nutrient molecules to
release energy without using oxygen

• It involves the incomplete breakdown of glucose and so releases a relatively small amount
of energy for use in cell processes

• Different breakdown products are formed depending on the type of organism that the
anaerobic respiration is taking place in

• You need to know the equations for anaerobic respiration in animals and plants (or fungi)
 Anaerobic Respiration
IN ANIMALS:
• Anaerobic respiration mainly takes place in muscle cells during vigorous exercise
• When we exercise at high intensities, our muscles have a higher demand for energy
• Our bodies can only deliver so much oxygen to our muscle cells for aerobic respiration
• When oxygen runs out, glucose is broken down without it, producing lactate instead
• Glucose has not been fully broken down meaning there is still energy stored within the bonds of lactic
acid molecules
• Anaerobic respiration releases less energy than aerobic respiration

LACTATE AND OXYGEN DEBT

• Lactate builds up in muscle cells and lowers the pH of the muscle tissue (making the conditions more
acidic)
• Acidic conditions can denature the enzymes in cells
• Lactate will eventually be broken down using oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water as waste
products
• The amount of oxygen required to break down the lactate that has built up is referred to as the ‘oxygen
debt’
• The process of breaking down the lactate is known as ‘repaying the oxygen debt’
• This is why we breathe in rapidly and deeply even after exercise – to take in the necessary volume of
oxygen to break down the lactate formed during anaerobic respiration
 Anaerobic Respiration
IN PLANTS AND FUNGI:
• Plants and yeast can respire without oxygen as well, breaking down glucose in the absence
of oxygen to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide

• Anaerobic respiration in yeast cells is called fermentation

• Fermentation is economically important in the manufacture of bread (where the carbon

dioxide produced helps the dough to rise) and in brewing (where the ethanol produced
makes beer)
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration
 Investigating the Production of Carbon Dioxide During Respiration
Apparatus
• Boiling tubes
• Rubber bungs Germinating seeds, in
• Hydrogen carbonate indicator solution this experiment
• Gauze platform or cotton wool
• Glass beads
• Germinating seeds
• Boiled/dead seeds

Method
• Measure out 10 cm3 of hydrogencarbonate
indicator into 3 boiling tubes
• Put in a gauze platform or layer of cotton wool
• Place 10 germinating seeds in tube A
• Place 10 boiled/dead seeds in tube B
• Place 10 glass beads in tube C
• Seal each tube with a rubber bung
• After 3 hours, observe the color of the indicator
Hydrogen carbonate indicator
• Hydrogen carbonate indicator is orange in
atmospheric CO2 levels
• In high CO2 levels the indicator absorbs the CO2 and
becomes yellow
• In low CO2 levels it loses CO2 and becomes purple
 Investigating the Production of Carbon Dioxide During Respiration
Results
In this investigation, we would expect to note the following
• Tube A should turn yellow as the seeds are respiring and producing carbon dioxide
• Tube B should remain orange as the dead seeds produce no carbon dioxide
• Tube C should remain orange as there is no living material in there
 Investigating the Production of Heat During Respiration
Apparatus
• Vacuum Flasks
• Thermometer
• Cotton wool
• Germinating seeds
• Dead/boiled seeds

Method
• Set up the flasks as shown in the diagram
• Flask A with the germinating seeds
• Flask B with the dead seeds
• Make sure the cotton wool is plugging the top of each flask
• Hold the thermometer in place with the cotton wool
• Invert the flask
• Record the initial temperature
• After 4 days, record the final temperature
 Investigating the Production of Heat During Respiration
Results
• The thermometer in the flask with the germinating seeds (Flask B) should show an increase
in temperature
• This is because the seeds in flask B are respiring and producing heat energy in the
process
• This shows that respiration is an exothermic reaction

• Flask A should remain at room temperature

• The seeds in flask A are not respiring because they are dead, so the temperature
remains the same
 Diffusion in Gas Exchange
• Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of its higher concentration to a region
of its lower concentration
• Molecules move down a concentration gradient, as a result of their random movement
• Multicellular organisms (such as plants and animals), however, have exchange surfaces and
organ systems that maximise the exchange of materials
• Gills are the gas exchange organs in fish, lungs in humans and leaves or roots in plants

• These organs increase the efficiency of exchange in a number of ways:

• Having a large surface area to increase the rate of transport
• A short diffusion distance for substances to move across.
• This short distance is created because the barrier that separates two regions is
as thin as possible

• In addition, animals have:

• Gas exchange surfaces that are well ventilated and have a constant blood supply to
maintain steep concentration gradients
 Features of Gas Exchange Surfaces
• All gas exchange surfaces have some features in common
• These features allow the maximum amount of gases to be exchanged across the surface in
the smallest amount of time
• They include:
• Large surface area to allow faster diffusion of gases across the surface
• In humans, the gas exchange surfaces are the alveoli
• They have a structure resembling a bunch of grapes, which increases their surface
area
• There are also a lot of alveoli per lung, giving the lungs a massive total surface area
• Thin walls to ensure diffusion distances remain short
• The walls of the alveoli are 1 cell thick
• The walls of the capillaries associated with them are also only 1 cell thick
• The total distance that gases therefore need to travel is only 2 cells in thickness
• Good ventilation with air so that diffusion gradients can be maintained
• Fresh air is breathed in constantly and oxygen is brought in. Likewise, carbon
dioxide that diffuses into the lungs is expelled.
• Good blood supply to maintain a high concentration gradient so diffusion occurs faster
 Features of Gas Exchange Surfaces
The trachea has C-shaped cartilage
rings to keep it from collapsing when
breathing in and out

• The inside of the thorax is

separated from the lungs by 2
thin membranes called pleural
membranes.
• They secrete a fluid called pleural
fluid into the pleural cavity.
• This fluid acts as lubrication so
that the surface of the lungs do
not stick to the insides of the
chest wall when we breathe.
Features of Gas Exchange Surfaces
 Features of Gas Exchange Surfaces
Cilia and mucus
• The passages down to the lungs are
lined with ciliated epithelial cells

• Cilia cells have tiny hairs on the end of

them that beat and push mucus up
the passages towards the nose and
throat where it can be removed

• The mucus is made by special mucus-

producing cells called goblet
cells because they are shaped like a
goblet, or cup

• The mucus traps particles, pathogens

like bacteria or viruses, and
dust and prevents them from getting
into the lungs and damaging the cells
there
 Features of Gas Exchange Surfaces
Alveoli
The alveoli are highly specialized for gas
exchange
• There are many rounded alveolar
sacs which give a very large surface
area to volume ratio

• Alveoli (and the capillaries around

them) have thin, single layers of
cells to minimize diffusion distance

• Ventilation maintains high levels

of oxygen and low levels of carbon
dioxide in the alveolar air space
• Maintains a high concentration
gradient
• A good blood supply ensures constant supply of blood high in carbon dioxide and low
in oxygen
• Also helps to maintain a high concentration gradient

• A layer of moisture on the surface of the alveoli helps diffusion as gases dissolve
 Breathing Movements (Ventilation)
• Breathing movements are known as ventilation

• Muscles are only able to pull on bones, not push on them

• This means that there must be two sets of intercostal muscles to work antagonistically to
facilitate breathing
• External intercostal muscles, pull the rib cage up
• Internal intercostal muscles pull the ribcage down

• The diaphragm is a thin sheet of muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdomen
 Breathing Movements (Ventilation)

eg: during
strenuous exercise

• The diaphragm contracts and flattens • The diaphragm relaxes it moves upwards back into its
• The external set of intercostal muscles contract to domed shape
pull the ribs up and out: • The external set of intercostal muscles relax so the
• This increases the volume of the chest cavity ribs drop down and in
(thorax) • This decreases the volume of the chest cavity (thorax)
• Leading to a decrease in air pressure inside the • Leading to an increase in air pressure inside the lungs
lungs relative to outside the body relative to outside the body
• Air is drawn in • Air is forced out
 Breathing Movements (Ventilation)
Forced Exhalation
• The external and internal intercostal muscles work as antagonistic pairs (meaning they work
in different directions to each other)

• When we need to increase the rate of gas exchange (for example during strenuous activity)
the internal intercostal muscles will also work to pull the ribs down and in to decrease the
volume of the thorax more, forcing air out more forcefully and quickly – this is called forced
exhalation
• There is a greater need to rid the body of increased levels of carbon dioxide produced
during strenuous activity

• This allows a greater volume of gases to be exchanged

 Inhaled/Inspired and Exhaled/Expired Air
Comparing the differences between inhaled (atmospheric) and exhaled air gives us a picture of what is
happening during gas exchange

• Nitrogen
• No significant difference because nitrogen is not taken in for direct use in metabolic reactions
• Oxygen
• Decreases from 21% to 16% because oxygen diffuses into the blood and is used in aerobic
respiration
• Carbon dioxide
• Increases from 0.04% to 4% because it is a waste product of cellular respiration
• Water
• Water content is usually higher than atmospheric air because water is also released as a by-product
of aerobic respiration and other metabolic reactions
• Temperature
• Exhaled air is generally warmer than atmospheric air because heat is produced in metabolic
reactions
 Comparing the CO2 Content of Inhaled & Exhaled Air
Set up the apparatus as shown, then breathe in and out slowly.
Inhaled air always comes from the shorter tube connected to the
breathing tube
• This is because a longer tube would suck up limewater or
hydrogen carbonate indicator solution when breathing in

If using limewater:
The limewater in the exhaled air tube changes color from colorless to
milky
• This is because carbon dioxide is produced during respiration and
released during exhalation
The limewater in the inhaled air tube turns milky very slowly because
carbon dioxide from atmospheric air will get in

If using hydrogen carbonate indicator:

The indicator will go from red  yellow in the exhaled air tube
• This is because of the higher concentration of carbon dioxide
entering the solution during exhalation
The indicator may remain red in the inhaled air tube

SAFETY PRECAUTION: Each person needs to use a clean mouthpiece to prevent the spread of any diseases
 Measuring Breathing Volumes
A spirometer is used to measure breathing volumes

• The floating box is filled with air or medical-grade oxygen

• The person breathes into the mouthpiece
• Exhaled air enters the spirometer chamber and the lid lifts, moving the pen with it
• The pen draws a trace on the paper around the rotating drum
• The speed of the drum can be set to get a trace (reading) for at least a minute of breathing

Why is carbon dioxide removed using soda lime when breathing out?
This is to prevent the chamber from filling up with carbon dioxide to dangerous levels, since this could
become toxic over time as the person keeps breathing in the air in the chamber
 Measuring Breathing Volumes
The figure below is an example of a spirometer trace
Note that the trace is slanting downwards.
• This indicates that the volume in the spirometer
chamber is decreasing.
• This is because when breathing out, the carbon
dioxide keeps getting absorbed by the soda
lime, and there is no more air/oxygen added to
replace it to the starting volume

Tidal volume = volume of air breathed in and out

with a normal breath (about 0.4 dm3 in healthy
adult)

Vital capacity = difference between maximum

breath in and maximum breath out

Residual volume = volume of air always left in the

lungs even after a forceful exhale

Lung capacity = maximum total volume of the lungs

• vital capacity + residual volume
 Controlling Breathing Rate
• Breathing is an involuntary action and is controlled by the brain
(specifically the medulla)

• During exercise, the muscles respire more to produce energy for

movement
• As a result, more carbon dioxide is released into the blood

• The change in levels of carbon dioxide in the blood are detected by

chemoreceptors in 2 main places:
• The medulla of the brain
• The aorta and carotid arteries leading from the heart

• These receptors send messages to the respiratory center, also located in

the medulla of the brain

• The respiratory center stimulates the

diaphragm and intercostal muscles to:
• Increase breathing rate
• Increase the depth of breathing

• As a result, carbon dioxide is removed from

the blood at a faster rate and the carbon
dioxide levels in the blood return to normal
 Smoking and the Human Gas Exchange System
• Smoking causes chronic obstructive lung disease (COPD), coronary heart disease and increased risks of
several different types of cancer, including lung cancer
• Chemicals in cigarettes include:
• Tar – a carcinogen (a substance that causes cancer)
• Nicotine – an addictive substance which also narrows blood vessels
• Carbon monoxide – reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood

Nicotine
• Nicotine narrows blood vessels leading to an increased blood pressure
• It also increases heart rate
• Both of these effects can cause blood clots to form in the arteries leading to heart attack or stroke

Carbon monoxide
• Carbon monoxide binds irreversibly to haemoglobin, reducing the capacity of blood to carry oxygen
• This puts more strain on the breathing system as breathing frequency and depth need to increase in
order to get the same amount of oxygen into the blood
• It also puts more strain on the circulatory system to pump the blood faster around the body and
increases the risk of coronary heart disease and strokes
• Carbon monoxide can be passed from the mother’s blood to the fetus’s blood through the placenta, so
women who smoke when they are pregnant give birth to babies with low birth weight
 Smoking and the Human Gas Exchange System
Tar
• Tar is a carcinogen and is linked to increased chances of cancerous cells developing in the lungs
• It also contributes to COPD, which occurs when chronic bronchitis and emphysema (two different
diseases which are frequently linked to smoking) occur together
• Chronic bronchitis is caused by tar which stimulates goblet
cells and mucus glands to enlarge, producing more mucus
• It destroys cilia and mucus (containing dirt, bacteria
and viruses) builds up blocking the smallest
bronchioles and leading to infections
• A smoker’s cough is the attempt to move the mucus

• Emphysema develops as a result of frequent infection,

phagocytes that enter the lungs release elastase, an
enzyme that breaks down the elastic fibers in the alveoli
• This means the alveoli become less elastic and cannot
stretch so many burst
• The breakdown of alveoli reduces the surface area for
gas exchange
• As it progresses, patients become breathless and
wheezy – they may need a constant supply of oxygen
to stay alive
 Gas Exchange in Plants
• The structure of the leaf is adapted to carry out both photosynthesis and gas exchange
• The different cell types (palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll etc.) and tissues are arranged
in a specific way to facilitate these processes
 Leaf Structure and Gas Exchange
• The leaf is specifically adapted to maximize gas exchange
• There are 3 key gases which we must consider
• Carbon dioxide – released in respiration but used in photosynthesis
• Oxygen – released in photosynthesis but used in respiration
• Water vapor – released in respiration and transpiration
• The route of diffusion of carbon dioxide into the leaf can be seen in the diagram below
• Gases will always diffuse down a concentration gradient (from where there is a high concentration to
where there is a low concentration)

atmosphere

Air spaces around

spongy mesophyll
tissue

Leaf mesophyll cells

chloroplasts
 Adaptations of Leaves for Gas Exchange
• Adaptations of leaves to maximize gas exchange:
• They are thin which gives a short diffusion distance
• They are flat which provides a large surface area to volume ratio
• They have many stomata which allow movement of gases in and out of the air spaces
inside the leaf to maintain a steep concentration gradient

• Other adaptations of the internal leaf structure/tissues include:

• Air spaces to allow gas movement around the loosely packed mesophyll cells
• Many stomata in the lower epidermis open in sunlight to allow gas movement in and
out of the leaf
• Thin cell walls allow gases to move into the cells easily
• The close contact between the cells and the air spaces allows efficient gas exchange
for photosynthesis and respiration
 Stomata
• Stomata are spaces found between two guard cells predominantly on the lower epidermis
of the leaf
• The guard cells are responsible for the opening and closing of the stomatal
pore which controls gas exchange and water loss
• Stomata open when water moves (by osmosis) into the guard cells causing them to
become turgid
• This allows gases to diffuse in and out of the leaf through the stomatal pore
• Stomata tend to open when there is plenty of water and sunlight
• Stomata close when the guard cells lose water (by osmosis) to the neighboring epidermal
cells and they become flaccid
• This prevents any diffusion into or out of the leaf
• Stomata tend to close due to low water availability or low sunlight
 Investigating the Effect of Light on Gas Exchange in Plants
Apparatus
• Boiling tubes
• Cotton wool
• Aluminium foil
• Gauze
• Rubber bungs
• Hydrogencarbonate indicator
• Leaves

Method
• Measure out 20 cm3 hydrogencarbonate indicator into 4 boiling tubes
• Put some cotton wool into each boiling tube
• Label the boiling tubes A-D and set them up as follows:
• Tube A – No leaf (control tube)
• Tube B – Place a leaf in the tube and leave in the light
• Tube C – Place a leaf in the tube and wrap it in aluminium foil to block out the light
• Tube D – Place a leaf in the tube and wrap it in gauze to allow partial light
• Put a bung into the top of each tube
• Leave all 4 tubes in the light for 30 minutes
 Investigating the Effect of Light on Gas Exchange in Plants
Results
After 30 minutes, we would expect the following results:
Tube A – The control tube should remain an orange/red colour to show that the carbon dioxide is
at atmospheric levels
• There has been no net movement
Tube B – This tube was placed in the light with a leaf which is photosynthesizing and respiring
• Because the rate of photosynthesis is greater than the rate of respiration, the hydrogencarbonate
indicator will turn purple as there is less carbon dioxide than atmospheric levels
Tube C – This tube had a leaf inside, but was wrapped in aluminium foil meaning that no sunlight could reach
the leaf
• No light means that this leaf will not photosynthesize but will still be respiring and therefore
producing carbon dioxide. The indicator will turn yellow as carbon dioxide levels increase above
atmospheric levels
Tube D – This tube had a leaf inside and was
wrapped in gauze allowing partial light
• This means that the rate of photosynthesis
equals the rate of respiration so there was
no net change in carbon dioxide levels and
the indicator remained orange/red