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Number Theory Revealed:
An Introduction

Andrew Granville
Number Theory Revealed:
An Introduction
Number Theory Revealed:
An Introduction

Andrew Granville
 Cover design by Marci Babineau.
Front cover image of Srinivasa Ramanujan in the playing card: Oberwolfach Photo
Collection, https://opc.mfo.de/; licensed under Creative Commons Attribution Share
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Front cover image of Andrew Wiles in playing card, credit: Alain Goriely.

2010 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primary 11-01, 11A05, 11A07, 11A15, 11A41,
11A51, 11B39, 11D04, 11D07.

For additional information and updates on this book, visit

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c 2019 by the American Mathematical Society. All rights reserved.
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 24 23 22 21 20 19
 Dedicated to my beloved wife, Marci.
Writing this book has had its challenges.
Being the spouse of the author, while writing
this book, has also had its challenges.
The enchanting charms of this sublime science
reveal themselves only to those who have the
courage to go deeply into it.
Carl Friedrich Gauss, 1807
Contents

Preface xiii

Gauss’s Disquisitiones Arithmeticae xix

Notation xxi
The language of mathematics xxii

Prerequisites xxiii

Preliminary Chapter on Induction 1

0.1. Fibonacci numbers and other recurrence sequences 1
0.2. Formulas for sums of powers of integers 3
0.3. The binomial theorem, Pascal’s triangle, and the binomial coefficients 4

Chapter 1. The Euclidean algorithm 11

1.1. Finding the gcd 11
1.2. Linear combinations 13
1.3. The set of linear combinations of two integers 15
1.4. The least common multiple 17
1.5. Continued fractions 17
1.6. Tiling a rectangle with squares 19

Appendix 1A. Reformulating the Euclidean algorithm 23

Chapter 2. Congruences 29
2.1. Basic congruences 29
2.2. The trouble with division 32
2.3. Congruences for polynomials 34
2.4. Tests for divisibility 34

ix
x Contents

Appendix 2A. Congruences in the language of groups 39

Chapter 3. The basic algebra of number theory 43

3.1. The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 43
3.2. Abstractions 45
3.3. Divisors using factorizations 47
3.4. Irrationality 49
3.5. Dividing in congruences 50
3.6. Linear equations in two unknowns 52
3.7. Congruences to several moduli 54
3.8. Square roots of 1 (mod n) 56

Appendix 3A. Factoring binomial coefficients and Pascal’s triangle modulo p 61

Chapter 4. Multiplicative functions 67

4.1. Euler’s φ-function 68
4.2. Perfect numbers. “The whole is equal to the sum of its parts.” 69

Appendix 4A. More multiplicative functions 74

Chapter 5. The distribution of prime numbers 81

5.1. Proofs that there are infinitely many primes 81
5.2. Distinguishing primes 83
5.3. Primes in certain arithmetic progressions 85
5.4. How many primes are there up to x? 86
5.5. Bounds on the number of primes 89
5.6. Gaps between primes 91
5.7. Formulas for primes 93

Appendix 5A. Bertrand’s postulate and beyond 97

Bonus read: A review of prime problems 101

Prime values of polynomials in one variable 101
Prime values of polynomials in several variables 103
Goldbach’s conjecture and variants 105

Chapter 6. Diophantine problems 109

6.1. The Pythagorean equation 109
6.2. No solutions to a Diophantine equation through descent 112
6.3. Fermat’s “infinite descent” 114
6.4. Fermat’s Last Theorem 115

Appendix 6A. Polynomial solutions of Diophantine equations 119

Contents xi

Chapter 7. Power residues 123

7.1. Generating the multiplicative group of residues 124
7.2. Fermat’s Little Theorem 125
7.3. Special primes and orders 128
7.4. Further observations 128
7.5. The number of elements of a given order, and primitive roots 129
7.6. Testing for composites, pseudoprimes, and Carmichael numbers 133
7.7. Divisibility tests, again 134
7.8. The decimal expansion of fractions 134
7.9. Primes in arithmetic progressions, revisited 136

Appendix 7A. Card shuffling and Fermat’s Little Theorem 140

Chapter 8. Quadratic residues 147

8.1. Squares modulo prime p 147
8.2. The quadratic character of a residue 149
8.3. The residue −1 152
8.4. The residue 2 153
8.5. The law of quadratic reciprocity 155
8.6. Proof of the law of quadratic reciprocity 157
8.7. The Jacobi symbol 159
8.8. The squares modulo m 161

Appendix 8A. Eisenstein’s proof of quadratic reciprocity 167

Chapter 9. Quadratic equations 173

9.1. Sums of two squares 173
2 2
9.2. The values of x + dy 176
9.3. Is there a solution to a given quadratic equation? 177
2 2
9.4. Representation of integers by ax + by with x, y rational,
and beyond 180
9.5. The failure of the local-global principle for quadratic equations
in integers 181
2 2
9.6. Primes represented by x + 5y 181

Appendix 9A. Proof of the local-global principle for quadratic equations 184

Chapter 10. Square roots and factoring 189

10.1. Square roots modulo n 189
10.2. Cryptosystems 190
10.3. RSA 192
10.4. Certificates and the complexity classes P and NP 194
xii Contents

10.5. Polynomial time primality testing 196

10.6. Factoring methods 197
Appendix 10A. Pseudoprime tests using square roots of 1 200
Chapter 11. Rational approximations to real numbers 205
11.1. The pigeonhole principle 205
11.2. Pell’s equation 208
11.3. Descent on solutions of x2 − dy 2 = n, d > 0 212
11.4. Transcendental numbers 213
11.5. The abc-conjecture 216
Appendix 11A. Uniform distribution 220
Chapter 12. Binary quadratic forms 227
12.1. Representation of integers by binary quadratic forms 228
12.2. Equivalence classes of binary quadratic forms 230
12.3. Congruence restrictions on the values of a binary quadratic form 231
12.4. Class numbers 232
12.5. Class number one 233
Appendix 12A. Composition rules: Gauss, Dirichlet, and Bhargava 240
Hints for exercises 251
Recommended further reading 261
Index 263
Preface

This is a modern introduction to number theory, aimed at several different audi-

ences: students who have little experience of university level mathematics, students
who are completing an undergraduate degree in mathematics, as well as students
who are completing a mathematics teaching qualification. Like most introductions
to number theory, our contents are largely inspired by Gauss’s Disquisitiones Arith-
meticae (1801), though we also include many modern developments. We have gone
back to Gauss to borrow several excellent examples to highlight the theory.
There are many different topics that might be included in an introductory
course in number theory, and others, like the law of quadratic reciprocity, that surely
must appear in any such course. The first dozen chapters of the book therefore
present a “standard” course. In the masterclass version of this book we flesh out
these topics, in copious appendices, as well as adding five additional chapters on
more advanced themes. In the introductory version we select an appendix for each
chapter that might be most useful as supplementary material.1 A “minimal” course
might focus on the first eight chapters and at least one of chapters 9 and 10.2
Much of modern mathematics germinated from number-theoretic seed and one
of our goals is to help the student appreciate the connection between the relatively
simply defined concepts in number theory and their more abstract generalizations
in other courses. For example, our appendices allow us to highlight how mod-
ern algebra stems from investigations into number theory and therefore serve as
an introduction to algebra (including rings, modules, ideals, Galois theory, p-adic
numbers,. . . ). These appendices can be given as additional reading, perhaps as
student projects, and we point the reader to further references.
Following Gauss, we often develop examples before giving a formal definition
and a theorem, firstly to see how the concept arises naturally, secondly to conjecture
a theorem that describes an evident pattern, and thirdly to see how a proof of the
theorem emerges from understanding some non-trivial examples.

1
In the main text we occasionally refer to appendices that only appear in the masterclass version.
2
Several sections might be discarded; their headings are in bold italics.

xiii
xiv Preface

Why study number theory? Questions arise when studying any subject, some-
times fascinating questions that may be difficult to answer precisely. Number theory
is the study of the most basic properties of the integers, literally taking integers
apart to see how they are built, and there we find an internal beauty and coherence
that encourages many of us to seek to understand more. Facts are often revealed by
calculations, and then researchers seek proofs. Sometimes the proofs themselves,
even more than the theorems they prove, have an elegance that is beguiling and
reveal that there is so much more to understand. With good reason, Gauss called
number theory the “Queen of Mathematics”, ever mysterious, but nonetheless gra-
ciously sharing with those that find themselves interested. In this first course there
is much that is accessible, while at the same time natural, easily framed, questions
arise which remain open, stumping the brightest minds.
Once celebrated as one of the more abstract subjects in mathematics, today
there are scores of applications of number theory in the real world, particularly to
the theory and practice of computer algorithms. Best known is the use of number
theory in designing cryptographic protocols (as discussed in chapter 10), hiding
our secrets behind the seeming difficulty of factoring large numbers which only
have large prime factors.
For some students, studying number theory is a life-changing experience: They
find themselves excited to go on to penetrate more deeply, or perhaps to pursue
some of the fascinating applications of the subject.

Why give proofs? We give proofs to convince ourselves and others that our
reasoning is correct. Starting from agreed upon truths, we try to derive a further
truth, being explicit and precise about each step of our reasoning. A proof must
be readable by people besides the author. It is a way of communicating ideas and
needs to be persuasive, not just to the writer but also to a mathematically literate
person who cannot obtain further clarification from the writer on any point that is
unclear. It is not enough that the writer believes it; it must be clear to others. The
burden of proof lies with the author.
The word “proof” can mean different things in different disciplines. In some
disciplines a “proof” can be several different examples that justify a stated hypoth-
esis, but this is inadequate in mathematics: One can have a thousand examples that
work as predicted by the hypothesis, but the thousand and first might contradict
it. Therefore to “prove” a theorem, one must build an incontrovertible argument
up from first principles, so that the statement must be true in every case, assuming
that those first principles are true.
Occasionally we give more than one proof of an important theorem, to highlight
how inevitably the subject develops, as well as to give the instructor different
options for how to present the material. (Few students will benefit from seeing
all of the proofs on their first time encountering this material.)

Motivation. Challenging mathematics courses, such as point-set topology, al-

gebraic topology, measure theory, differential geometry, and so on, tend to be dom-
inated at first by formal language and requirements. Little is given by way of
motivation. Sometimes these courses are presented as a prerequisite for topics that
will come later. There is little or no attempt to explain what all this theory is good
Preface xv

for or why it was developed in the first place. Students are expected to subject
themselves to the course, motivated primarily by trust.
How boring! Mathematics surely should not be developed only for those few
who already know that they wish to specialize and have a high tolerance for bore-
dom. We should help our students to appreciate and cherish the beauty of math-
ematics. Surely courses should be motivated by a series of interesting questions.
The right questions will highlight the benefits of an abstract framework, so that
the student will wish to explore even the most rarified paths herself, as the bene-
fits become obvious. Number theory does not require much in the way of formal
prerequisites, and there are easy ways to justify most of its abstraction.
In this book, we hope to capture the attention and enthusiasm of the reader
with the right questions, guiding her as she embarks for the first time on this
fascinating journey.

Student expectations. For some students, number theory is their first course
that formulates abstract statements of theorems, which can take them outside of
their “comfort zone”. This can be quite a challenge, especially as high school
pedagogy moves increasingly to training students to learn and use sophisticated
techniques, rather than appreciate how those techniques arose. We believe that
one can best use (and adapt) methods if one fully appreciates their genesis, so
we make no apologies for this feature of the elementary number theory course.
However this means that some students will be forced to adjust their personal
expectations. Future teachers sometimes ask why they need to learn material,
and take a perspective, so far beyond what they will be expected to teach in high
school. There are many answers to this question; one is that, in the long term, the
material in high school will be more fulfilling if one can see its long-term purpose. A
second response is that every teacher will be confronted by students who are bored
with their high school course and desperately seeking harder intellectual challenges
(whether they realize it themselves or not); the first few chapters of this book should
provide the kind of intellectual stimulation those students need.

Exercises. Throughout the book, there are a lot of problems to be solved. Easy
questions, moderate questions, hard questions, exceptionally difficult questions. No
one should do them all. The idea of having so many problems is to give the teacher
options that are suitable for the students’ backgrounds:
An unusual feature of the book is that exercises appear embedded in the text.3
This is done to enable the student to complete the proofs of theorems as one goes
along.4 This does not require the students to come up with new ideas but rather to
follow the arguments given so as to fill in the gaps. For less experienced students it
helps to write out the solutions to these exercises; more experienced students might
just satisfy themselves that they can provide an appropriate proof.

3
Though they can be downloaded, as a separate list, from www.ams.org/granville-number-theory.
4
Often students have little experience with proofs and struggle with the level of sophistication
required, at least without adequate guidance.
xvi Preface

Other questions work through examples. There are more challenging exercises
throughout, indicated by the symbol † next to the question numbers, in which the
student will need to independently bring together several of the ideas that have been
discussed. Then there are some really tough questions, indicated by the symbol ‡ ,
in which the student will need to be creative, perhaps even providing ideas not
given, or hinted at, in the text.
A few questions in this book are open-ended, some even phrased a little mis-
leadingly. The student who tries to develop those themes her- or himself, might
embark upon a rewarding voyage of discovery. Once, after I had set the exercises
in section 9.2 for homework, some students complained how unfair they felt these
questions were but were silenced by another student who announced that it was so
much fun for him to work out the answers that he now knew what he wanted to do
with his life!
At the end of the book we give hints for many of the exercises, especially those
that form part of a proof.

Special features of our syllabus. Number theory sometimes serves as an intro-

duction to “proof techniques”. We give many exercises to practice those techniques,
but to make it less boring, we do so while developing certain themes as the book
progresses, for examples, the theory of recurrence sequences, and properties of bi-
nomial coefficients. We dedicate a preliminary chapter to induction and use it to
develop the theory of sums of powers. Here is a list of the main supplementary
themes which appear in the book:
Special numbers: Bernoulli numbers; binomial coefficients and Pascal’s triangle;
Fermat and Mersenne numbers; and the Fibonacci sequence and general second-
order linear recurrences.
Subjects in their own right: Algebraic numbers, integers, and units; compu-
tation and running times: Continued fractions; dynamics; groups, especially of
matrices; factoring methods and primality testing; ideals; irrationals and transcen-
dentals; and rings and fields.
Formulas for cyclotomic polynomials, Dirichlet L-functions, the Riemann zeta-
function, and sums of powers of integers.
Interesting issues: Lifting solutions; polynomial properties; resultants and dis-
criminants; roots of polynomials, constructibility and pre-Galois theory; square
roots (mod n); and tests for divisibility.
Fun and famous problems like the abc-conjecture, Catalan’s conjecture, Egyp-
tian fractions, Fermat’s Last Theorem, the Frobenius postage stamp problem, magic
squares, primes in arithmetic progressions, tiling with rectangles and with circles.

Our most unconventional choice is to give a version of Rousseau’s proof of the

law of quadratic reciprocity, which is directly motivated by Gauss’s proof of Wil-
son’s Theorem. This proof avoids Gauss’s Lemma so is a lot easier for a beginning
student than Eisenstein’s elegant proof (which we give in section 8.10 of appendix
8A). Gauss’s original proof of quadratic reciprocity is more motivated by the in-
troductory material, although a bit more complicated than these other two proofs.
Preface xvii

We include Gauss’s original proof in section 8.14 of appendix 8C, and we also un-
derstand (2/n) in his way, in the basic course, to interest the reader. We present
several other proofs, including a particularly elegant proof using Gauss sums in
section 14.7.

Further exploration of number theory. There is a tremendous leap in the level

of mathematical knowledge required to take graduate courses in number theory,
because curricula expect the student to have taken (and appreciated) several other
relevant courses. This is a shame since there is so much beautiful advanced material
that is easily accessible after finishing an introductory course. Moreover, it can be
easier to study other courses, if one already understands their importance, rather
than taking it on trust. Thus this book, Number Theory Revealed, is designed
to lead to two subsequent books, which develop the two main thrusts of number
theory research:
In The distribution of primes: Analytic number theory revealed, we will discuss
how number theorists have sought to develop the themes of chapter 5 (as well as
chapters 4 and 13). In particular we prove the prime number theorem, based
on the extraordinary ideas of Riemann. This proof rests heavily on certain ideas
from complex analysis, which we will outline in a way that is relevant for a good
understanding of the proofs.
In Rational points on curves: Arithmetic geometry revealed, we look at solu-
tions to Diophantine equations, especially those of degree two and three, extending
the ideas of chapter 12 (as well as chapters 14 and 17). In particular we will prove
Mordell’s Theorem (developed here in special cases in chapter 17) and gain a basic
understanding of modular forms, outlining some of the main steps in Wiles’s proof
of Fermat’s Last Theorem. We avoid a deep understanding of algebraic geometry,
instead proceeding by more elementary techniques and a little complex analysis
(which we explain).

References. There is a list of great number theory books at the end of our
book and references that are recommended for further reading at the end of many
chapters and appendices. Unlike most textbooks, I have chosen to not include a
reference to every result stated, nor necessarily to most relevant articles, but rather
focus on a smaller number that might be accessible to the reader. Moreover, many
readers are used to searching online for keywords; this works well for many themes
in mathematics.5 However the student researching online should be warned that
Wikipedia articles are often out of date, sometimes misleading, and too often poorly
written. It is best to try to find relevant articles published in expository research
journals, such as the American Mathematical Monthly,6 or posted at arxiv.org which
is “open access”, to supplement the course material.

The cover (designed by Marci Babineau and the author).

In 1675, Isaac Newton explained his extraordinary breakthroughs in physics and
mathematics by claiming, “If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders
5
Though getting just the phrasing to find the right level of article can be challenging.
6
Although this is behind a paywall, it can be accessed, like many journals, by logging on from most
universities, which have paid subscriptions for their students and faculty.
xviii Preface

of Giants.” Science has always developed this way, no more so than in the theory
of numbers. Our cover represents five giants of number theory, in a fan of cards,
each of whose work built upon the previous luminaries.
Modern number theory was born from Pierre de Fermat’s readings of the
ancient Greek texts (as discussed in section 6.1) in the mid-17th century, and his
enunciation of various results including his tantalizingly difficult to prove “Last
Theorem.” His “Little Theorem” (chapter 7) and his understanding of sums of two
squares (chapter 9) are part of the basis of the subject.
The first modern number theory book, Gauss’s Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, on
which this book is based, was written by Carl Friedrich Gauss at the beginning
of the 19th century. As a teenager, Gauss rethought many of the key ideas in number
theory, especially the law of quadratic reciprocity (chapter 8) and the theory of
binary quadratic forms (chapter 12), as well as inspiring our understanding of the
distribution of primes (chapter 5).
Gauss’s contemporary Sophie Germain made perhaps the first great effort to
attack Fermat’s Last Theorem (her effort is discussed in appendix 7F). Developing
her work inspired my own first research efforts.
Srinivasa Ramanujan, born in poverty in India at the end of the 19th cen-
tury, was the most talented untrained mathematician in history, producing some
extraordinary results before dying at the age of 32. He was unable to satisfactorily
explain many of his extraordinary insights which penetrated difficult subjects far
beyond the more conventional approaches. (See appendix 12F and chapters 13, 15,
and 17.) Some of his identities are still inspiring major developments today in both
mathematics and physics.
Andrew Wiles sits atop our deck. His 1994 proof of Fermat’s Last Theorem
built on the ideas of the previous four mentioned mathematicians and very many
other “giants” besides. His great achievement is a testament to the success of
science building on solid grounds.

Thanks. I would like to thank the many inspiring mathematicians who have
helped me shape my view of elementary number theory, most particularly Bela
Bollobas, Paul Erdős, D. H. Lehmer, James Maynard, Ken Ono, Paulo Riben-
boim, Carl Pomerance, John Selfridge, Dan Shanks, and Hugh C. Williams as well
as those people who have participated in developing the relatively new subject of
“additive combinatorics” (see sections 15.3, 15.4, 15.5, and 15.6). Several peo-
ple have shared insights or new works that have made their way into this book:
Stephanie Chan, Leo Goldmakher, Richard Hill, Alex Kontorovich, Jennifer Park,
and Richard Pinch. The six anonymous reviewers added some missing perspec-
tives and Olga Balkanova, Stephanie Chan, Patrick Da Silva, Tristan Freiberg,
Ben Green, Mariah Hamel, Jorge Jimenez, Nikoleta Kalaydzhieva, Dimitris Kouk-
oulopoulos, Youness Lamzouri, Jennifer Park, Sam Porritt, Ethan Smith, Anitha
Srinivasan, Paul Voutier, and Max Wenqiang Xu kindly read subsections of the
near-final draft, making valuable comments.
Gauss’s Disquisitiones
Arithmeticae

In July 1801, Carl Friedrich Gauss published Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, a book

on number theory, written in Latin. It had taken five years to write but was im-
mediately recognized as a great work, both for the new ideas and its accessible
presentation. Gauss was then widely considered to be the world’s leading mathe-
matician, and today we rate him as one of the three greatest in history, alongside
Archimedes and Sir Isaac Newton.
The first four chapters of Disquisitiones Arithmeticae consist of essentially the
same topics as our course today (with suitable modifications for advances made in
the last two hundred years). His presentation of ideas is largely the model upon
which modern mathematical writing is based. There follow several chapters on qua-
dratic forms and then on the rudiments of what we would call Galois theory today,
most importantly the constructibility of regular polygons. Finally, the publisher
felt that the book was long enough, and several further chapters did not appear in
the book (though Dedekind published Gauss’s disorganized notes, in German, after
Gauss’s death).
One cannot overestimate the importance of Disquisitiones to the development
of 19th-century mathematics. It led, besides many other things, to Dirichlet’s
formulation of ideals (see sections 3.19, 3.20 of appendix 3D, 12.8 of appendix 12A,
and 12.10 of appendix 12B), and the exploration of the geometry of the upper
half-plane (see Theorem 1.2 and the subsequent discussion).
As a young man, Dirichlet took his copy of Disquisitiones with him wherever
he went. He even slept with it under his pillow. As an old man, it was his most
prized possession even though it was in tatters. It was translated into French in
1807, German in 1889, Russian in 1959, English only in 1965, Spanish and Japanese
in 1995, and Catalan in 1996!

xix
xx Gauss’s Disquisitiones Arithmeticae

Disquisitiones is no longer read by many people. The notation is difficult. The

assumptions about what the reader knows do not fit today’s reader (for example,
neither linear algebra nor group theory had been formulated by the time Gauss
wrote his book, although Disquisitiones would provide some of the motivation for
developing those subjects). Yet, many of Gauss’s proofs are inspiring, and some
have been lost to today’s literature. Moreover, although the more advanced two-
thirds of Disquisitiones focus on binary quadratic forms and have led to many of
today’s developments, there are several themes there that are not central to today’s
research. In the fourth book in our trilogy (!), Gauss’s Disquisitiones Arithmeticae
revealed, we present a reworking of Gauss’s classic, rewriting it in modern notation,
in a style more accessible to the modern reader. We also give the first English
version of the missing chapters, which include several surprises.
Notation

N – The natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, . . ..

Z – The integers, . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . ..
Throughout, all variables are taken to be integers, unless otherwise specified.
Usually p, and sometimes q, will denote prime numbers.
Q – The rational numbers, that is, the fractions a/b with a ∈ Z and b ∈ N.
R – The real numbers.
C – The complex numbers.

 
summand and summand
Some variables: Some variables:
Certain conditions hold Certain conditions hold

mean that we sum, or product, the summand over the integer values of some vari-
able, satisfying certain conditions.
Brackets and parentheses: There are all sorts of brackets and parentheses in math-
ematics. It is helpful to have protocols with them that take on meaning, so we do
not have to repeat ourselves too often, as we will see in the notation below. But we
also use them in equations; usually we surround an expression with “(” and “)” to
be clear where the expression begins and ends. If too many of these are used in one
line, then we might use different sizes or even “{” and “}” instead. If the brackets
have a particular meaning, then the reader will be expected to discern that from
the context.
A[x] — The set of polynomials with coefficients from the set A, that is, f (x) =
d
i=0 ai x where each ai ∈ A. Mostly we work with A = Z.
i

A(x) —The set of rational functions with coefficients from the set A, in other words,
functions f (x)/g(x) where f (x), g(x) ∈ A[x] and g(x) = 0.
[t] — The integer part of t, that is, the largest integer ≤ t.

xxi
xxii Notation

{t} — The fractional part of (real number) t, that is, {t} = t − [t]. Notice that
0 ≤ {t} < 1.
(a, b) — The greatest common divisor of a and b.
[a, b] — The least common multiple of a and b.
b|a — Means b divides a.
pk a — Means pk divides a, but not pk+1 (where p is prime). In other words, k is
the “exact power” of p dividing a.
I(a, b) — The set {am + bn : m, n ∈ Z}, which is called the ideal generated by a
and b over Z.
log — The logarithm in base e, the natural logarithm, which is often denoted by
“ln” in earlier courses.
Parity – The parity of an integer is either even (if it is divisible by 2) or odd (if it
is not divisible by 2).

The language of mathematics

“By a conjecture we mean a proposition that has not yet been proven but which is
favored by some serious evidence. It may be a significant amount of computational
evidence, or a body of theory and technique that has arisen in the attempt to settle
the conjecture.
An open question is a problem where the evidence is not very convincing one
way or the other.
A theorem, of course, is something that has been proved. There are important
theorems, and there are unimportant (but perhaps curious) theorems.
The distinction between open question and conjecture is, it is true, somewhat
subjective, and different mathematicians may form different judgements concerning
a particular problem. We trust that there will be no similar ambiguity concerning
the theorems.”
—— Dan Shanks [Sha85, p. 2]
Today we might add to this a heuristic argument, in which we explore an open
question with techniques that help give us a good idea of what to conjecture, even
if those techniques are unlikely to lead to a formal proof.
Prerequisites

The reader should be familiar with the commonly used sets of numbers N, Z, and Q,
as well as polynomials with integer coefficients, denoted by Z[x]. Proofs will often
use the principle of induction; that is, if S(n) is a given mathematical assertion,
dependent on the integer n, then to prove that it is true for all n ∈ N, we need only
prove the following:
• S(1) is true.
• S(k) is true implies that S(k + 1) is true, for all integers k ≥ 1.
The example that is usually given to highlight the principle of induction is the
statement “1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = n(n+1)
2 ” which we denote by S(n).1 For n = 1 we
2 and so S(1) is true. For any k ≥ 1, we assume that S(k) is true
check that 1 = 1·2
and then deduce that

1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (k + 1) = (1
 + 2 + 3+ · · · + k) + (k + 1)
k(k + 1)
= + (k + 1) as S(k) is true
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
= ;
2
that is, S(k + 1) is true. Hence, by the principle of induction, we deduce that S(n)
is true for all integers n ≥ 1.
To highlight the technique of induction with more examples, we develop the
theory of sums of powers of integers (for example, we prove a statement which
gives a formula for 12 + 22 + · · · + n2 for each integer n ≥ 1) in section 0.1 and
give formulas for the values of the terms of recurrence sequences (like the Fibonacci
numbers) in section 0.2.

1
There are other, easier, proofs of this assertion, but induction will be the only viable technique
to prove some of the more difficult theorems in the course, which is why we highlight the technique here.

xxiii
xxiv Prerequisites

Induction and the least counterexample: Induction can be slightly disguised. For
example, sometimes one proves that a statement T (n) is true for all n ≥ 1, by
supposing that it is false for some n and looking for a contradiction. If T (n) is
false for some n, then there must be a least integer m for which T (m) is false. The
trick is to use the assumption that T (m) is false to prove that there exists some
smaller integer k, 1 ≤ k < m, for which T (k) is also false. This contradicts the
minimality of m, and therefore T (n) must be true for all n ≥ 1. Such proofs are
easily reformulated into an induction proof:
Let S(n) be the statement that T (1), T (2), . . . , T (n) all hold. The induction
proof then works for if S(m − 1) is true, but S(m) is false, then T (m) is false and
so, by the previous paragraph, T (k) is false for some integer k, 1 ≤ k ≤ m − 1,
which contradicts the assumption that S(m − 1) is true.
A beautiful example is given by the statement, “Every integer > 1 has a prime
divisor.” (A prime number is an integer > 1, such that the only positive integers
that divide it are 1 and itself.) Let T (n) be the statement that n has a prime
divisor, and let S(n) be the statement that T (2), T (3), . . . , T (n) all hold. Evidently
S(2) = T (2) is true since 2 is prime. We suppose that S(k) is true (so that
T (2), T (3), . . . , T (k) all hold). Now:
Either k + 1 is itself a prime number, in which case T (k + 1) holds and therefore
S(k + 1) holds.
Or k+1 is not prime, in which case it has a divisor d which is not equal to either
1 or k + 1, and so 2 ≤ d ≤ k. But then S(d) holds by the induction hypothesis,
and so there is some prime p, which divides d, and therefore divides k + 1. Hence
T (k + 1) holds and therefore S(k + 1) holds.
(The astute reader might ask whether certain “facts” that we have used here deserve
a proof. For example, if a prime p divides d, and d divides k + 1, then p divides
k + 1. We have also assumed the reader understands that when we write “d divides
k + 1” we mean that when we divide k + 1 by d, the remainder is zero. One of our
goals at the beginning of the course is to make sure that everyone interprets these
simple facts in the same way, by giving as clear definitions as possible and outlining
useful, simple deductions from these definitions.)
 Chapter 0

Preliminary Chapter
on Induction

Induction is an important proof technique in number theory. This preliminary

chapter gives the reader the opportunity to practice its use, while learning about
some intriguing number-theoretic concepts.

0.1. Fibonacci numbers and other recurrence sequences

The Fibonacci numbers, perhaps the most famous sequence of integers, begin with
F0 = 0, F1 = 1, F2 = 1, F3 = 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, . . . .
The Fibonacci numbers appear in many places in mathematics and its applica-
tions.1 They obey a rule giving each term of the Fibonacci sequence in terms of
the recent history of the sequence:
Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 for all integers n ≥ 2.
We call this a recurrence relation. It is not difficult to find a formula for Fn :
√ n √ n
1 1+ 5 1− 5
(0.1.1) Fn = √ − for all integers n ≥ 0,
5 2 2
√ √
where 1+2 5 and 1−2 5 each satisfy the equation x + 1 = x2 . Having such an explicit
formula for the Fibonacci numbers makes them easy to work with, but there is a
problem. It is not obvious from this formula that every Fibonacci number is an
integer; however that does follow easily from the original recurrence relation.2

1
Typically when considering a biological process whose current state depends on its past, such as
evolution, and brain development.
2
It requires quite sophisticated ideas to decide whether a given complicated formula like (0.1.1) is
an integer or not. Learn more about this in appendix 0F on symmetric polynomials.

1
2 Preliminary Chapter on Induction

Exercise 0.1.1. (a) Use the recurrence relation for the Fibonacci numbers, and induction to
prove that every Fibonacci number is an integer.
(b) Prove that (0.1.1) is correct by verifying that it holds for n = 0, 1 and then, for all larger
integers n, by induction.

Exercise 0.1.2. Use induction on n ≥ 1 to prove that

(a) F1 + F3 + · · · + F2n−1 = F2n and
(b) 1 + F2 + F4 + · · · + F2n = F2n+1 .
√
The number φ = 1+2 5 is called the golden ratio; one can show that Fn is the
√
nearest integer to φn / 5.
Exercise 0.1.3. (a) Prove that φ satisfies φ2 = φ + 1.
(b) Prove that φn = Fn φ + Fn−1 for all integers n ≥ 1, by induction.

Any sequence x0 , x1 , x2 , . . ., for which the terms xn , with n ≥ 2, are defined

by the equation

(0.1.2) xn = axn−1 + bxn−2 for all n ≥ 2,

where a, b, x0 , x1 are given, is called a second-order linear recurrence sequence.
Although this is a vast generalization of the Fibonacci numbers one can still prove
a formula for the general term, xn , analogous to (0.1.1): We begin by factoring the
polynomial
x2 − ax − b = (x − α)(x − β)
√ √
for the appropriate α, β ∈ C (we had x2 − x − 1 = (x − 1+2 5 )(x − 1−2 5 ) for the
Fibonacci numbers). If α = β, then there exist coefficients cα , cβ for which
(0.1.3) xn = cα αn + cβ β n for all n ≥ 0.
√ √
(In the case of the Fibonacci numbers, we have cα = 1/ 5 and cβ = −1/ 5.)
Moreover one can determine the values of cα and cβ by solving the simultaneous
equations obtained by evaluating the formula (0.1.3) at n = 0 and n = 1, that is,
cα + c β = x0 and cα α + cβ β = x1 .
Exercise 0.1.4. (a) Prove (0.1.3) is correct by verifying that it holds for n = 0, 1 (with x0 and
x1 as in the last displayed equation) and then by induction for n ≥ 2.
(b) Show that cα and cβ are uniquely determined by x0 and x1 , provided α = β.
n
−β n
(c) Show that if α = β with x0 = 0 and x1 = 1, then xn = αα−β for all integers n ≥ 0.
(d) Show that if α = β with y0 = 2, y1 = a with yn = ayn−1 + byn−2 for all n ≥ 2, then
yn = αn + β n for all integers n ≥ 0.
The {xn }n≥0 in (c) is a Lucas sequence, and the {yn }n≥0 in (d) its companion sequence

Exercise 0.1.5.3 (a) Prove that α = β if and only if a2 + 4b = 0.

(b)† Show that if a2 + 4b = 0, then α = a/2 and xn = (cn + d)αn for all integers n ≥ 0, for
some constants c and d.
(c) Deduce that if α = β with x0 = 0 and x1 = 1, then xn = nαn−1 for all n ≥ 0.

Exercise 0.1.6. Prove that if x0 = 0 and x1 = 1, if (0.1.2) holds, and if α is a root of x2 − ax − b,

then αn = αxn + bxn−1 for all n ≥ 1.

3
In this question, and from here on, induction should be used at the reader’s discretion.
0.2. Formulas for sums of powers of integers 3

0.2. Formulas for sums of powers of integers

When Gauss was ten years old, his mathematics teacher aimed to keep his class
quiet by asking them to add together the integers from 1 to 100. Gauss did this in
a few moments, by noting if one adds that list of numbers to itself, but with the
second list in reverse order, then one has

1 + 100 = 2 + 99 = 3 + 98 = · · · = 99 + 2 = 100 + 1 = 101.

That is, twice the asked-for sum equals 100 times 101, and so
1
1 + 2 + · · · + 100 = × 100 × 101.
2
This argument generalizes to adding up the natural numbers less than any given
N , yielding the formula4


N −1
(N − 1)N
(0.2.1) n = .
n=1
2

The sum on the left-hand side of this equation varies in length with N , whereas
the right-hand side does not. The right-hand side is a formula whose value varies
but has a relatively simple structure, so we call it a closed form expression. (In the
prerequisite section, we gave a less interesting proof of this formula, by induction.)
Exercise 0.2.1. (a) Prove that 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2N − 1) = N 2 for all N ≥ 1 by induction.
(b) Prove the formula in part (a) by the young Gauss’s method.
(c) Start with a single dot, thought of as a 1-by-1 array of dots, and extend it to a 2-by-2 array
of dots by adding an appropriate row and column. You have added 3 dots to the original
dot and so 1 + 3 = 22 .
◦ ◦ ◦

◦ ◦ ◦

◦ ◦ ◦
1 + 3 + 5 + ···

In general, draw an N -by-N array of dots, and add an additional row and column of dots
to obtain an (N + 1)-by-(N + 1) array of dots. By determining how many dots were added
to the number of dots that were already in the array, deduce the formula in (a).

N −1
Let S = n=1 n2 . Using exercise 0.2.1 we can write each square, n2 , as the
sum of the odd positive integers ≤ 2n. Therefore 2m − 1 appears N − m times in
the sum for S, and so


N −1 
N −1 
N −1
S= (2m − 1)(N − m) = −N 1 + (2N + 1) m − 2S.
m=1 m=1 m=1

4
This same idea appears in the work of Archimedes, from the third century B.C. in ancient Greece.
4 Preliminary Chapter on Induction


Using our closed formula for m m, we deduce, after some rearrangement, that

N −1
(N − 1)N (2N − 1)
n2 = ,
n=1
6
a closed formula for the sum of the squares up to a given point. There is also a
closed formula for the sum of the cubes:
N−1 2
(N − 1)N
(0.2.2) n3 = .
n=1
2
N −1
This is the square of the closed formula (0.2.1) that we obtained for n=0 n. Is
this a coincidence or the first hint of some surprising connection?
Exercise 0.2.2. Prove these last two formulas by induction.

These three examples suggest that there are closed formulas for the sums of the
kth powers of the integers, for every k ≥ 1, but it is difficult to guess exactly what
those formulas might look like. Moreover, to hope to prove a formula by induction,
we need to have the formula at hand.
We will next find a closed formula in a simpler but related question and use this
to find a closed formula for the sums of the kth powers of the integers in appendix
0A. We will go on to investigate, in section 7.34 of appendix 7I, whether there are
other amazing identities for sums of different powers, like
−1 −1 2

N 
N
3
n = n .
n=1 n=1

0.3. The binomial theorem, Pascal’s triangle, and the binomial

coefficients
n

The binomial coefficient m is defined to be the number of different ways of choos-
n
ing m objects from n. (Therefore m = 0 whenever m < 0 or m > n.) From this

definition we see that the binomial coefficients are all integers. To determine 52 we
note that there are 5 choices for the first object and 4 for the second, but then we
have counted  each pair of objects twice (since we can select them in either order),
and so 52 = 5×4 . It is arguably nicer to write 5 × 4 as 5×4×3×2×1
= 5!
3! so that
 2 3×2×1
5
2 = 5!
3!2! . One can develop this proof to show that, for any integers 0 ≤ m ≤ n,
5
one has the very neat formula
n n!
(0.3.1) = , where r! = r · (r − 1) · · · 2 · 1.
m m!(n − m)!
From this formula alone it is not obvious that the binomial coefficients are integers.

  n  n 
Exercise 0.3.1. (a) Prove that n+1 = m + m−1 for all integers m, and all integers n ≥ 0.
 n m
(b) Deduce from (a) that each m is an integer.

5
We prefer to work with the closed formula 27!/(15!12!) rather than to evaluate it as 17383860, since
the three factorials are easier to appreciate and to manipulate in subsequent calculations, particularly
when looking for patterns.
 Another Random Document on
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 CHAPTER V.
Hasta Khan—The Kurds—Their summer depredations—Our Sultan ought to be
Padishah in his own dominions—The English Consul—A story about the Kurds—
The Delsin—Arresting the major—The major's dinner with the chief—
Acknowledge the Padishah—A sore back—The mule which is offered in exchange
—The pack-saddle—The Euphrates—Coal in the neighbourhood—Kemach—The
Caimacan—Djerrid—A National Guard—A miniature Gibraltar—Turkoman horses
—Numerous wells—One of the faithful.

On we went, fortunately not down any more glaciers, and, after

being upset about twenty times in the snow-drifts, reached Hasta
Khan. This was a house built on the road-side for travellers. It was
kept by an old Turk. According to him, the Kurds in the
neighbourhood were engaged all the summer in robbing their
neighbours, and were hardly ever brought to justice.

"They take our cattle," said the man, "and they bribe the police.
There is no sort of order here. What we want is our Sultan to be
Padishah in his own dominions."

I subsequently heard from the English Consul at Erzeroum a

story which rather corroborated the Turk's account of the Kurds.

It appeared that in the Delsin, not far from Erzingan, a major

commanding a battalion of infantry received orders to apprehend a
Kurdish chief. Somehow or other the Kurd heard of this. One day,
taking with him about five thousand followers, he managed to
surround the place where the troops were encamped. Riding up to
the commander's tent, he accosted the officer—who was much
surprised at the unexpected presence of the culprit—with the words,
—

"Peace be with you! I have come to dine here this evening."

It was a very disagreeable position for the major, but what could
he do? His battalion had been taken unawares; it was surrounded by
the Kurd's followers, and all of them were armed men. He put on the
best face he could about the matter, and gave his guest an excellent
dinner. The following morning the Kurd said to him,—

"I dined very well last night, and slept comfortably. I have
accepted your hospitality, and now you must accept mine. I am
going to take you to dine with me. Nay, I am!" he continued, to the
officer, who appeared a little indignant at the proposal, "and every
man under your command as well. They shall all dine and sleep in
my encampment this evening."

"It was a disagreeable position for the major," observed the

Consul at Erzeroum, when he related the story to me. "He was
ordered to arrest the Kurd, and now the Kurd was about to arrest
him! However, resistance was useless. His battalion was surrounded
by Kurds, who, at a sign from their chief, would have massacred
every Turk on the spot. The only thing for the officer to do was to
accept the invitation. The Kurd, when the soldiers arrived at his
mountain home, commanded his servants to make preparation for a
feast. Several hundred sheep were killed, to be cooked for the
occasion, and the stream on the hill-side ran red with the blood of
the slaughtered animals."

After dinner the major tried very hard to persuade the Kurd to
recognize the Sultan as his lord.
 "You need only nominally acknowledge our Padishah," remarked
the officer; "you have 30,000 sheep; give 1500 piastres (10l.) a year
to the Sultan. You have 10,000 retainers; give him 10 to serve in his
army. I can arrange the rest. You are a very rich man, but this need
not be known at Constantinople."

"I have never given any one of my children to serve another

master," replied the chieftain, proudly. "Your Padishah is Sultan at
Stamboul, but I am Sultan here!"

The following morning, the Kurd allowed the battalion to return

to their quarters, and presented the major with an Arab charger as a
memento of his visit.

"All the circumstances were reported to the military authorities

at Erzeroum," added the Consul when he related the story, "and the
officer was afterwards promoted."

Shortly before leaving Hasta Khan, Mohammed came to me with

a smile on his countenance. I at once thought that something
disagreeable had happened. The Turk seldom indulged in a smile.
Radford, too, in spite of his illness, seemed rather more cheerful
than usual. I began to be a little alarmed.

"What is the matter?" I inquired.

"At—the horse!" said Mohammed.

"Yes, sir," said Radford, who had accompanied him, and had
acquired the habit of sometimes interlarding his English with a few
words of Turkish; "the At has a hawful sore back, and all the 'air is
off it."

"Which horse?"

"The old pack-horse, the roarer."

 Mohammed shook his head mournfully.

"We had better sell him," he said. "One of the Zaptiehs has a
mule; he is not a big mule, but he is a nice animal, sleek and
comely, besides being strong. The man says that if the Effendi will
give him five liras and the horse which makes a noise, that we may
have his mule."

The animal in question was a brute which the gendarme rode,

and which was always trying to run away. I had previously gathered
from the fellow that his mule had escaped three times whilst he was
being saddled. However, the gendarme had forgotten that he had
told me of this, and in all probability had offered Mohammed a share
of the five liras, should I be fool enough to accept the proposal.

"Let me see the pack-saddle!" I exclaimed.

On looking at it I found that by cutting out a considerable

portion of the lining, it would be possible to prevent any weight
pressing upon the horse's sore place.

"He can carry his pack," I remarked to Mohammed.

"If I cut the saddle he can," replied my servant; "but it will cost
twenty piastres to mend it again."

"Yes," I observed, "and it will cost five liras to exchange the

horse, besides which we should have a worse animal than at
present."

"The Effendi knows best," said the Zaptieh, with a grin.

"He knows," said Mohammed.

"Shall I have a little backsheesh?" remarked the gendarme,

rather alarmed lest his endeavour to deceive me might have done
away with his chance of a present.
 "Inshallah!" I replied; and, this matter being arranged, we
continued our march across the mountains.

Presently we had to descend almost to the bed of the Euphrates.

Here there were traces of copper ore. A little farther on we came to
a place where what seemed to be iron ore was lying strewn along
the mountain side; I was informed by the guide that a few miles to
the east there is a substance in the earth which the villagers use as
fuel. According to my informant it is hard and black, and gives a
bright flame; so in all probability coal is also to be met with in these
regions.

As we approached Kemach, the Euphrates became narrower; in

many places it was not more than thirty yards wide. The stream was
very rapid. Any man, no matter how good a swimmer he might be,
would have a poor chance for his life if he were to fall into the
torrent. Here and there large rocks and loose stones, which have
been washed down from the mountain sides, block up the channel;
they check the waters for a second. The river bubbles and roars; it
lashes furiously against the boulders, and, leaping over them, rushes
headlong with a fall of at least four thousand feet to the ocean.

The Caimacan of Kemach and a few of his friends were engaged

in playing at Djerrid near the outskirts of the town. It was a lovely
scene. The sun was setting on the snow-capped mountains; the river
ran at my feet; bright-coloured vegetation and many-tinted rocks
looked down upon us from either hand; cascades and waterfalls
dashed over the rugged crags; whilst the Caimacan and his party,
who were immensely excited with their game, shouted "Allah! Allah!"
as they rode at each other and hurled the wooden missile.

The governor stopped playing when he saw our party, and,

riding up, asked the Zaptieh who I was. He then introduced himself
and the company to me. They had been busily engaged in learning
drill all the morning. An order had been received from
Constantinople for the Caimacan to form a National Guard. Every
able-bodied man in the district had at once enrolled himself as a
volunteer. On entering Kemach I was struck by a high rock, which
might have been a miniature Gibraltar, and which stands
immediately behind the town. The rock was about 500 feet in
height, and a ruined citadel on the summit towers above the
Euphrates and the town.

The Caimacan and his friends were well mounted, their horses
being of a very different stamp to those which I had seen during my
march from Constantinople. They were most of them fifteen hands
high, and one or two over sixteen. On inquiry, I found that they
were Turkoman horses. I also learnt that most of the animals in the
district had been bought by Government agents for the use of the
army at Erzeroum.

A large proportion of the houses in Kemach are constructed of

dried mud. Numerous wells, with high cross-bars and long iron
chains for the buckets, were to be seen along our path. One of the
faithful, on a tower above our heads, was calling the Mohammedans
to prayer. His loud but melancholy strains were being listened to with
great attention by Mohammed and my English servant. It appeared
that Mohammed, through some strange inadvertence, had omitted
praying at mid-day. Radford was a little alarmed lest the Turk might
make up for his shortcoming by an extra-long prayer that evening,
which would have kept him from attending to the horses.
 CHAPTER VI.
Kemach—Its population—Barley is very cheap—An English traveller—Conversation
about the impending war—If we beat Russia, will England permit us to take
back the Caucasus?—Yakoob Khan—The Poles to be freed—Germany to have
the Baltic Provinces—What about the Crimea?—We ought to cripple Russia—The
floggers of women—Crossing the Euphrates—Radford is poorly—Erzingan—The
intendant of Issek Pacha—Pretty Armenian women—An intelligent Turk—Iron,
silver, gold—Coal—Lead-mines worked by the Kurds—The peasantry and coal—
The Government and the mines—A relation of the Pacha of Sivas—The old
doctor—Firing a patient for gout.

There are 800 houses or about 4000 inhabitants in Kemach, and

barley is very plentiful throughout the district, the price for the
maintenance of my five horses not exceeding sevenpence per day.

This town had been visited by an English traveller about five

years previous; whereas no Englishman, so far as I could learn, had
been in Divriki or Arabkir in the memory of the oldest inhabitant.

The Caimacan, who informed me about my compatriot having

been in Kemach, was very curious to learn my opinion about the
impending war; and when I told him that I believed England would
remain neutral, remarked,—

"Yes; but if we beat Russia, will England permit us to take back

the Caucasus?"

"I really do not know, but I should hope so."

 "Well," continued the governor, "if we beat Russia this time, we
ought to cripple her. We must take back the districts she has
conquered in Central Asia, and give them to the original possessors,
or else form one Mohammedan empire in Central Asia, under Yakoob
Khan, who nominally acknowledges the Sultan. We ought to free the
Poles in Poland, and give Germany the Baltic Provinces."

"You seem to know a little about political geography," I

observed.

"Yes," said the Caimacan, "I take an interest in the subject, and
I love my country. Until we can hem Russia in on every side, she will
always be a thorn, not only in our side, but also in that of Europe."

"Well, what should you do about the Crimea?" I inquired.

"That we should keep ourselves. Russia would then have to be

more or less an inland power, and Moscow would become her
capital."

"Do you like the Russian system of Government?" inquired the

Caimacan.

"No."

"I am not surprised," said the official. "Foreigners say that there
is no liberty in Turkey, but I should like to know which Government is
the most liberal. Mohammedans tolerate every religion, whilst the
Russians make converts by force, and flog women and children to
induce them to change their faith.[1] The Russian faith is very
different to the English religion, is it not?" he added.

"Yes, we do not worship idols, or venerate mummified bodies."

"What do you worship?"

"The one true God, and Jesus Christ His Son."

 "We worship the one true God, and worship Him through
Mohammed His Prophet. But Mohammedans dislike idols and all that
sort of thing, quite as much as you do."

The following morning the Caimacan was up at daybreak to see

me off. He accompanied us a little way on the road. The moon was
throwing her pale beams on the old citadel as we rode beneath the
turrets. In a few minutes we crossed the Euphrates on a narrow
wooden bridge, and, continuing for a short distance over mountains,
came again upon the valley of the river. Here there were green fields
in abundance. The country in summer-time is said to be rich in corn
and barley. Hundreds of cattle and sheep, grazing on some rich
pasture-lands, testified to the wealth of the inhabitants.

It was an eleven hours' march to Erzingan. By the time we

neared that city our horses showed symptoms of being thoroughly
exhausted. Indeed, there was no reason to be surprised at this.
They had marched a thousand miles since we left Constantinople.
The last two hundred miles had been exceptionally fatiguing, not
only on account of the snow and constant mountain-climbing, but
also owing to our high elevation and the rarefied nature of the
atmosphere. Radford was weak, and from being a fourteen-stone
man had come down to about eleven. His clothes hung on his
wasted limbs. Some rest would be absolutely necessary to enable
him to reach Erzeroum.

The road became much better as we entered the suburbs of

Erzingan, and, to my surprise, I was met by a man in a four-wheeled
chaise. He announced that he was the intendant of Issek Pacha, the
governor of Sivas. The governor had written to him to say that I had
promised to reside in his house during my stay at Erzingan. A
servant advanced and took my horse; I dismounted, and getting into
the vehicle, drove to the Pacha's residence.
 Some pretty Armenian women were standing on the roofs of
their houses. They were not so particular about veiling themselves
as their compatriots in Sivas. They stared at the procession with
wondering eyes. The Pacha's carriage was not often seen in the
streets of Erzingan. It was the only vehicle of the kind within an area
of 150 miles. It was only brought out on state occasions, religious
ceremonies, or when some very important visitor arrived. This was
quite enough to set the ladies in Erzingan on the qui-vive; the
European dresses of my servant and self whetted their curiosity still
more.

Erzingan is different to either Egin or Arabkir, both of which

towns are built upon the sides of a mountain. Erzingan stands in the
middle of a large plain, the Kara Su—Black Water—as the Euphrates
is here called, running through the plain a few miles south of the
city.

I now made the acquaintance of a very intelligent Turk. He was

an officer with the rank of major, but employed as the
superintendent of a large manufactory, which had been established
to supply the troops in Asia Minor with boots. He had spent three
years in France, where he had studied everything connected with
the trade in question. In addition to this he was a fair chemist and
mineralogist.

He informed me that there were ebony forests in the

neighbourhood of Erzeroum. A great deal of this wood used formerly
to be bought by Armenian merchants and despatched to France. Of
late years this branch of industry has been neglected. Iron, silver,
and gold, could be found here, but the people were much too idle to
search for these metals. The lead-mines were worked to a small
extent by the Kurds. These mountaineers required this substance for
bullets and shot. The lead in the towns of Asia Minor was all brought
from Constantinople. It was, consequently, very dear; this had led
the Kurds to make use of the metal beneath their feet. According to
my informant, there is coal of a good quality in the neighbourhood
of Kemach. However, the peasantry do not like the idea, that this
mineral may some day replace wood as an article of fuel. Cutting
down trees is easy work in comparison with mining. The villagers do
their best to keep the people in the towns from burning coal; and
they make their livelihood by bringing firewood from the mountains,
and selling it at a large profit to the citizens.

The Government take twenty per cent. of the net produce of all
mines which are worked in Anatolia, and only two-and-a-half per
cent. from the price fetched by sheep, oxen, and horses in the
market. The result is that the people think it more profitable, and
less laborious to breed cattle, than to dig in the earth for treasure.

I called upon a relation of the Pacha at Sivas. He was a stout,

middle-aged man, and at that time ill in bed. I was shown into his
room. During my conversation with him, an Italian doctor came to
see the patient. The medical gentleman was the only European in
Erzingan, he had been there half a century; his age, according to
himself, being ninety-two years. The old man's appearance belied his
assertion. He at once commenced talking with me in his native
tongue.

"What is the matter with the invalid?" I inquired.

"Drink, my good sir, drink!" said the old gentleman. "He is forty,
and I am over ninety, but, please God, as the Turks say, I shall
outlive him. If the upper classes of Mohammedans were only sober,
they would live for ever in this delightful climate. But what with their
women, and what with their wine, they shorten their existence by at
least thirty years. This man would have been dead ten years ago if
he had lived in Constantinople."

"Why so?"
 "Because of the climate. He would have drunk himself into a
dropsy."

"What are you talking about?" said the sick man.

"I was saying, Bey Effendi," said the doctor, "how very popular
you are in the neighbourhood, and how much every one loves you!"

The sick man smiled benignantly, and the old gentleman

continued,—

"I should have been sorry if he had divined the topic of our
conversation. He would never have employed me again, and might
have called in the Turkish practitioner, an ignorant ass, who does not
know so much about anatomy as a butcher in the market, and who
treats cases of inflammation by firing his patient."

"What! would he fire the Bey's foot?" I inquired.

"God knows! but he is quite capable of doing so, if the Bey

would let him."

The doctor now felt his patient's pulse, and administered a few
words of consolation; then, promising to send some medicine, he
left the room.
 CHAPTER VII.
Erzingan—The Mutasarraf Pacha—Widdin—Russian official documents—Names of
high functionaries—General Ignatieff—Your Indian frontier—The Kurds will be
excited to massacre the Armenians—The probable final result of the war—If
Turkey were to join Russia—The boot manufactory—The shoe-makers being
drilled—The gaol—Coiners—A jealous woman in prison—The unfortunate
shopkeeper.

I next visited the Mutasarraf Pacha, the civil governor of

Erzingan. He was an active little man, of about sixty years of age,
full of energy. He seemed to have more of the Gaul than the Osmanli
in his disposition. Formerly he had been civil governor at Widdin.
Whilst he occupied this post some of his Zaptiehs had arrested a
Russian. The latter had documents on his person which clearly
showed that he was an agent of a society in Moscow, formed with
the object of creating a revolution in Bulgaria. Abdul Aziz was then
Sultan, and the Mutasarraf Pacha forwarded the documents to
Constantinople. Ignatieff's influence was at that time paramount
with the Sultan. No notice was taken of the papers. Very shortly
afterwards the Pacha was removed from Widdin to Erzingan.

"Were there any names upon the document?" I inquired.

"Yes, names implicating some very high Russian functionaries. I

hope that we shall soon be engaged in hostilities with Russia," said
the Pacha. "Ever since the battle of Sedan she has been secretly at
war with Turkey, and trying to stab us under the guise of friendship.
[2] Ignatieff encouraged Abdul Aziz in his extravagance. He knew
that this would lead to bankruptcy, and to a rupture of the alliance
with England; and you may depend upon it, that the Russian
Ambassador was one of the first men to advise his majesty to
repudiate the debt. They are very clever, these Russian diplomats,"
continued the Pacha; "and however poor Russia may be, she has
always enough gold to sow the seeds of sedition and rebellion in her
neighbour's territory. You will find this out for yourselves one day."

"How so?"

"When she touches your Indian frontier; by that time you will
have enough to do to keep your native troops in order. Will England
help us in this war?"

"I do not know; but it is not likely. You see the Turkish
Government is very unpopular with us, because it does not pay the
interest of its debt, and also because of the massacres which have
taken place in Bulgaria."

"Say for the first reason," replied the Pacha, "and I agree with
you, for you English, by all accounts, dearly love your gold. However,
I should have thought that by this time your people had learned that
we were not the originators of the massacres in Bulgaria."

"Who caused them, the Russians?"

The Pacha nodded his head affirmatively.

"If there be a war in Asia Minor, they will do their best to excite
our Kurds to massacre the Armenians in the neighbourhood of Van,
and will then throw all the blame upon our shoulders."

"Do you think that the Russians will be able to conquer you in
Asia Minor?" I inquired.

"No, we are the strongest in this part of the world. The

Georgians, Tartars, and Circassians hate the Russians, and will rise
against them; besides that there are no roads."

"But Russia has taken Kars before."

"Yes, but she will not do so this time, and I should not be
surprised if we were to go to Tiflis instead."

This I subsequently found to be the prevailing opinion amidst all

the civil and military Pachas in Asia Minor.

"What do you think will be the final result of the war?" I now
inquired of the Pacha.

He shook his head sorrowfully.

"If we have no ally, it will go hard with us; but your countrymen
will be mad if they do not help us."

"Why so?"

"Because, when we find that we have no chance against our foe,

what is to prevent us from turning round and allying ourselves with
him; that alternative might be preferable to annihilation. And when
Russia has our fleet, the Dardanelles, Batoum, and another port or
so in the Black Sea, she might leave us alone at Constantinople.
Anyhow, if she has once crushed us, we shall no longer have the
power of lifting our heads, and however much we may dislike the
alternative of slavery or destruction, shall end by being menials of
the Russians."

The following day I walked with the Turkish major to see his
boot manufactory; a large building on the outskirts of the town. Four
hundred and fifty men were employed in the business.

An order had arrived from Constantinople for all the workmen to

be drilled. Two hours per day had been allotted for this purpose.
 The shoemakers were drawn up in two ranks outside the
building.

The officer who was instructing them commenced putting his

men through the bayonet exercise. Many of the townspeople were
amongst the spectators. They were greatly pleased at the eager way
in which the men gave their thrusts into the air.

"If we only had some Russians to run through!" said a corpulent,

middle-aged Turk.

"Ah! if we had," replied his friend. "Our bootmakers alone would

be enough to make all the Cossacks turn pale and run!"

The manufactory was clean, and great order prevailed in the

arrangements. Forty thousand pairs of boots had been made during
the previous two months, my companion had received instructions
from the authorities to forward 12,000 more to Erzeroum. The order
had only just been issued, and was urgent. The result was that the
leather which under ordinary circumstances would have been left in
the tan for four months could only be soaked for five weeks. The
major complained that he had not been supplied either with a
machine to triturate the bark, or with a steam cutter's machine,
which would have very much facilitated the work.

"I have written to the authorities at Constantinople about the

matter," remarked the officer; "a reply has come to say that the
articles in question are on their way. They will probably arrive when
the war is over," added the officer despondently. "In the meantime
some of our soldiers will have to march barefoot."

The thread used in the manufacture came from an English firm,

Finlayson, Bousfield, and Co., of Glasgow; and the officer, as he
showed me some of the packets, observed,—"that formerly he had
been supplied with French thread. It was a little cheaper than the
sort now employed; but after some trials he had discovered that the
English article was three times as durable, and consequently far
more economical in the long-run."

The boots manufactured in the establishment were made to lace

high up over the ancle, and with very thick soles. They are much
heavier than those furnished to English troops, and would be apt to
tire the soldiers during a long day's march. In one room a number of
Armenian and Turkish lads were working sewing-machines.

All the hands in the manufactory were paid by piecework. The

boys could earn from one to five piastres per day, and some of the
men forty. Owing to the pressure of business, the work-people were
employed sixteen hours per day, fourteen hours in the manufactory,
and two at drill.

I now went to the gaol. Here there were nineteen prisoners.

They were made up of seventeen Mohammedans and two
Christians; the latter had been arrested, one for coining money, the
other for murdering his wife. Whilst walking through the building, I
heard a great noise in one of the cells, and a woman's voice.

"What is she doing?" I inquired of the gaoler.

"Effendi, it is a curious case," said the man; "she has a husband,

but is very much in love with a young Armenian shopkeeper. The
latter is a married man, and does not return the enamoured female's
affection; however, she is continually leaving her husband's house
and invading the Armenian's premises. The husband became
annoyed and complained—he thinks that the Armenian encourages
his wife. Any how," continued the official, "the affair created a
scandal, the Cadi did not like it; he has ordered the woman to be
shut up for a day or two, and the Armenian as well."

"What, together?"
 "No, Effendi, apart; it is rather hard upon the man," he added;
"but who knows? perhaps he encouraged her."

"Why is she making that noise?"

"Because she has learnt that the Armenian is in the prison, and
she wishes to be confined in the same cell with him. He does not
want it himself, and of course it would not do; for what would the
husband say? A jealous female is a first cousin of the devil,"
continued the gaoler: "it is bad enough when she is jealous of her
own husband, but when she is jealous of some other woman's, that
is ten times worse."
 CHAPTER VIII.
Russia's conduct in Servia—The Hodja—We have a great many troops—If the
Circassians will rise—The Pacha—Raw cotton—The Mohammedan school—The
Hodja's sum—Three jealous husbands—The mosque—Issek Pacha—A
comparison between Mohammedan Imaums and Christian priests—Provisions—
The old doctor—The road to Erzeroum—Want of sport—Soldiers frost-bitten.

Later in the day, the Mutasarraf called at my house, and at once

commenced his favourite theme, politics.

"What do the people in your country say about Russia's conduct

in Servia?"

"Many of them do not like it," I replied.

"It was a cowardly act on the part of the Tzar, was it not?" said
the Pacha; "he pretended to be at peace with our Sultan, and
allowed Russian officers and soldiers to take part in the fight against
us. I tell you what it is," added the speaker, "Ignatieff wishes to cut
off another arm from Turkey, by making Bulgaria independent, like
Servia. If we are to die, better to perish at once than be torn to
pieces limb by limb!"

"But I thought you told me this morning that in your opinion,

sooner than that this should occur, your Government ought to join
Russia?"

"Yes, I did," said the Pacha, "and if we were to join Russia and
attack Europe, who will do nothing for us now, what would happen
then?"

"Yes; what would happen then?" said the Hodja, or

schoolmaster, a friend of the Pacha, and who had accompanied him
during his visit.

"Europe would probably swallow up both Turkey and Russia!"

"You do not really think so," said the Pacha.

"We have a great many troops," said the Hodja.

"Yes; but not many officers."

"He is right," said the Pacha sadly; "our officers have not much
brain, but we have one chance," he added.

"What is it?"

"If the Circassians were to rise, the Russians would have so

much on their hands that they would be unable to advance."

"Is it likely that there will be a rising?"

"There is sure to be one," said the Pacha; "but it is doubtful

whether it will be general, or confined to some districts;" and
shaking hands with me he left the room with his companion.

The Pacha was an energetic man, and very popular with the
inhabitants. He had been at Erzingan but a few months. He had
found time to put the streets in tolerable order, and to make the
town one of the cleanest in Anatolia. He was desirous of purchasing
some machinery with the object of making cloth from the cotton
which grows in this district. As it is, the raw cotton is sent to
England, and is then manufactured into the articles required. The
Pacha would have liked to save all this expense, and have the work
done on the spot. He had tried to form a company, with the object
of realizing his idea; but there was no energy in Erzingan—the
people were afraid of risking the little money they possessed; it was
impossible to carry the project into execution.

I now went to the Mohammedan School.

"Will you ask the boys some questions?" said the Hodja.

I remembered the success which I had obtained with the sum

put by me to the lads at Yuzgat, and at once gave it. The
schoolmaster was at his wits' end for a solution. However, later in
the day he came to my house and said—

"You set me a sum this morning—I cannot do it. I should like to

ask you one."

"Go on," I remarked.

"Three men," said the Hodja, "who were accompanied by their

three wives, arrived at a river. The husbands were all jealous of their
wives. There was one boat in which to take the party. The bark
would only hold two persons, and no woman could be trusted by her
husband unless there were two men with her. How did they cross
the river?"

"Can you do it?" said the schoolmaster.

"I will think it over," I replied.

"This sum has puzzled our Mutasarraf for six months," said the
Hodja; "it is a beautiful sum!"

"Do you know the answer?" I inquired.

"Unfortunately, I have forgotten it," he replied.

I proceeded to visit the Mosque, which was being built at the

expense of Issek Pacha, Governor of Sivas. It had been in the course
of construction for three years, and was only half finished. The walls
were made of stone and marble, which had been brought from some
quarries, about eight miles from the town. It was said that when the
mosque was finished, it would be the handsomest one in Anatolia.

I met the Italian doctor as I was returning to my quarters.

"So you have seen the mosque?" he said.

"Yes."

"Well," he continued, "the Turks in some ways resemble us

Catholics. Issek Pacha probably thinks that by building a magnificent
mosque, he will be less likely to be fried in a future state of
existence; and we are told that if we leave money to the priests, to
say masses for our souls, we shall not have to remain so long in
purgatory."

"It all comes to the same thing," said the old gentleman. "It is
no matter where a man is born, whether in the Mohammedan East
or in the Christian West, his Imaum or Priest will always get money
out of him in some manner or other."

"In this instance," I remarked, "the money has gone to build a

mosque and not to Imaums."

"Yes," said the Italian, "but whenever a priest or dervish asks a

good Mohammedan for anything the latter will never refuse. The
result is that the religious profession in Turkey is made up of as
many idlers and beggars as can be seen in my own country."

Provisions, according to the doctor, were not very dear in

Erzingan. A good sheep could be bought for six shillings; 80 eggs for
a shilling; two pounds and a half of bread, or rather of the thin
unleavened cake which takes the place of the staff of life in Anatolia,
for a penny; whilst eight pounds of potatoes could be purchased for
the same price. A nice-looking horse would not cost more than 10l.
Fuel was dear in proportion to the other articles of consumption—
charcoal costing a farthing the pound.

"Erzingan is not a bad place for poor people to live in," added
the old doctor. "I have resided here nearly half a century. A man can
get on very well if he has 50l. a year."

On leaving the town I found a fair carriage road, which led in the
direction of Erzeroum. This state of things was not to last long, and
after marching two or three miles we were riding once more along a
track.

Marshes extended for some distance on either side of our route.

A number of geese and ducks, some of the latter of a very peculiar
breed and different to any I had hitherto seen, were feeding in the
fields around us. I tried to approach them, so as to have a shot, as
goose or duck would have been an agreeable change to the chicken
fare which awaited us in every village. But the wild geese in Anatolia
are quite as wary as their kindred on this side the Channel. It was
impossible to stalk them.

I began to disbelieve in the stories which have been written

about the amount of sport which can be obtained in Anatolia. With
the exception of a few snipe, partridges, and hares, I had seen
literally nothing in the shape of game since our departure from
Constantinople. Deer were said to exist in some of the forests, but I
had never even heard of any being exposed for sale in the different
markets.

Should an Englishman ever think of undertaking a journey

through Anatolia, and have the idea that he will be able to combine
shooting with the pleasure of travel, he will find himself very much
mistaken.
 Now we overtook three hundred Kurds—redif soldiers on the
march to Erzeroum. There were no officers with them. The men had
to find their way as best they could to their destination. They were
armed with needle rifles, but had no uniform, and were clad for the
most part in rags and tatters. Many of them had no shoes or even
slippers, but were walking with bare feet through the snow. A few
men were riding on mules, and on a closer inspection I found that
these poor fellows had been frost-bitten. Some of them had lost
their toes on the march.
 CHAPTER IX.
Climbing the mountains—It is bitterly cold—Delan—The soldiers—Kargan—A bridge
over the Euphrates—Mohallata—Our Padishah is poor now—The Captain of the
Zaptiehs—He wishes to be married—Promotion wanted—The Erzingan track
meets the Trebizond road—Bashi Bazouks—The Kara Su—Zaptiehs—Erzeroum—
The fortifications of Erzeroum—Ismail Pacha's residence—A pacific speech made
by Lord Derby—A decoration sent by the Tzar to the Armenian Bishop of
Erzeroum—An Armenian demonstration—Caravan trade—Timbaki—Duties
increased—The price of Timbaki—The Kurds—Russian agents—A massacre of
the Christians to be brought about by Russian agents.

It was bitterly cold as we gradually climbed the mountains which

lie between Erzingan and Erzeroum, and after a nine hours' march
we halted for the night at a little village called Delan. There were
only twelve mud hovels. The three hundred Kurds stowed
themselves away as best they could. I was fortunate enough to
obtain a resting-place in a stable. My horses were packed together
as closely as possible on one side of the building. There was just
room for my followers and myself on the other.

The inhabitants of this little hamlet were Kurds, and the people
did their best to make the newly-arrived soldiers comfortable. The
latter were all fed at the expense of the villagers; each inhabitant
giving as much bread as he could spare towards the rations of his
countrymen. So far as I could learn, none of the soldiers had any
money with them, and it was a five days' march to Erzeroum. But
they evidently had solved the problem of how to get on without
money; a week later I saw them arrive at their destination, and, with
the exception of a few men laid up with frost-bite, they were not
much the worse for their journey.

It was very slippery as we descended the slope which leads from

Delan. We drove our horses before us; the little animals tacking from
side to side, like ships beating against the wind, and putting their
feet down with the greatest caution, so as to make sure of the
ground before them. We then had to lead the animals up the
mountains, Radford having great difficulty in wading through the
snow, owing to his state of debility. Fortunately we soon arrived at a
place where it was possible to ride. Here another path branched off
to the village of Kargan, but continuing by our old track we shortly
came to a fine stone bridge, called the Kutta Kupri. It is about
seventy-five yards wide, and spans the river Euphrates.

We passed through a series of natural basins, each of them two

or three miles in diameter, and after an eight hours' tiring march put
up for the night in the village of Mohallata. It contains about 100
houses, and a small barracks, with quarters for a squadron of
Zaptiehs.

A battalion of redifs had also halted here. The men had marched
from Erzingan without having had anything to eat since they left that
town—the soldiers had gone more than thirty hours without food.
There were no grumblers in the ranks.

One of the sergeants appeared rather an intelligent fellow; I

spoke to him about the matter.

"We came to a village," he said; "there was nothing to eat, and

so we went without our dinners."

"Did the men make any remarks?"

"No, Effendi, they knew that the people would have given them
food if they had any to spare. When we beat the Russians, go to St.
Petersburg and conquer all their country for our Padishah," said the
sergeant, "we shall have many paras, there will be plenty to eat. But
our Padishah is poor now," continued the man sorrowfully, "he
cannot give us any pay, there is no money in Stamboul."

The captain of the Zaptiehs accompanied me in my walk through

the barracks. This officer was anxious to obtain his promotion.

"I am forty years of age," he remarked, "and a captain's pay is

very little. It is not enough for me to keep a wife. I want to be
married, but before that event can take place I must be a major.
Shall you see the Pacha at Erzeroum?" he added.

"Yes."

"Will you speak to him for me, and recommend me for

promotion?"

"How can I? I do not belong to your army, and am only here as

a traveller."

"But you are an Englishman!" exclaimed the Zaptieh excitedly.

"That is quite sufficient. The Pacha would know that no Englishman
would recommend any one without a reason. I should be
promoted!"

"My good sir," I observed, "I have only seen you for a few
minutes; how could I solicit your promotion on the ground of your
merits?"

The captain was not to be rebuffed.

"I will write down my name," he said, "and then you will speak
to the Pacha."

Taking a dirty piece of paper from his pocket, he scribbled

something and handed it to me.
 Forward again for twelve more hours, our horses slipping up, or
varying the performance by falling into snow-drifts, and we came to
a spot where the Erzingan track meets the Trebizond and Erzeroum
road. Here most of the snow had been cleared away. There was but
little to impede our progress. Large caravans of several hundreds of
horses and mules were bringing cartridges from Trebizond; bands of
Bashi Bazouks were with them and on the march to Kars.

We rode along the left bank of the Kara Su (Black Water), the
name given to the Euphrates in this district, and presently were met
by some Zaptiehs. Their leader, advancing a few steps, said that he
had been ordered by the Pacha to meet me, and escort my party
into the town.

Erzeroum lies at one end of a large plain. It is surrounded on the

north, south, and east sides by hills. A few detached forts had been
thrown up on these heights. The town itself is encircled by an
intrenchment of loose earth—this defence was in no place more than
three quarters of a mile from the city.

I rode to Ismail Pacha's residence. It is a large building in the

middle of the town, and is also used as an office by the military
Pacha.

Ismail, the civil governor, is a Kurd by birth. Some of his female

relatives have made influential marriages: this, added to the talents
which the Pacha possesses, has raised him to his present high
position.

He did not think that war would take place between Turkey and
Russia. A pacific speech made by Lord Derby had been telegraphed
from London to Erzeroum. It was the opinion of many of the
townspeople that the Tzar did not mean to break the peace.
 "It will be much better for us if we fight now," said the Pacha,
when he gave me the above-mentioned information. "If war is
postponed, Russia will continue her intrigues[3] amidst our Christian
population."

A few months previous the Tzar had sent a decoration to the

Armenian Bishop of Erzeroum. The order had been forwarded
through the Russian Consul. The latter, instead of asking Ismail to
give the decoration to the Bishop, had ignored the Pacha altogether,
and had not even invited him to the ceremony.

This had been converted into an Armenian demonstration. The

relations between the Mohammedans and Christians were not so
friendly as could be desired.

Erzeroum is the principal depôt for the caravan trade which is

carried on by the merchants in Teheran and their confrères in
Constantinople. Timbaki, the tobacco used in nargilehs, is exported
from Persia to this part of Asia Minor. Of late, the Turkish authorities
have increased the duty on timbaki from eight to seventy-six per
cent. This has been done in consequence of many Turks liking the
Persian plant better than that which is grown in their own country.
The price of ordinary timbaki was formerly only twenty-five piastres
an oke at Constantinople, whilst Turkish tobacco of the same quality
costs as much as sixty-one.

Ismail Pacha was doubtful whether in the event of war he would

be able to keep the Kurds quiet in the neighbourhood of Erzeroum.
Russian agents had been busily engaged for some time past in
attempting to suborn these mountaineers. Money had been lavished
upon their chiefs. Anxiety was expressed as to which side they
would take.

"The Russians are nearly as poor as we are," continued the

Pacha, "but they have enough money left for the purpose of
intrigue. If the war breaks out, it is not at all improbable that they
will bring about a massacre of Christians in Asia Minor. Some of the
Kurds would obey any order they might receive from St. Petersburg.
It would go very hard with us in the court of European public
opinion, if any fresh rebellions had to be suppressed by strong
measures on our part."
 CHAPTER X.
The Pacha's interpreter—The Russian Consul—The telegram—Un ennemi acharné
of Russia—Mr. Zohrab—The Russian Government encourages photography—The
paternal Government—Spies—Pregnant women massacred—How to frighten the
mountaineers—Go and complain to the Kralli of the English. Ask her to send you
an oculist—A blood-stained placard—A proof of Russian civilization—Two
Circassian chiefs—Their statement—The value of the Caucasus—A Memoir drawn
up by the Emperor Nicholas for the instruction of the present Emperor Alexander
—Our inheritance is the East—The Circassians must be freed.

An Armenian, the Pacha's interpreter, now entered the room.

Presently he observed that the Russian Consul at Erzeroum had just
received a telegram.

"He read it to me himself," said the Armenian. "He wants its

contents to be made known to you. It is from the Russian Authorities
in the Caucasus, and has come viâ Batoum. It runs as follows: 'Two
months ago, an Englishman, a certain Captain Burnaby, left
Constantinople with the object of travelling in Asia Minor. He is a
desperate enemy (un ennemi acharné) of Russia. We have lost all
traces of him since his departure from Stamboul. We believe that the
real object of his journey is to pass the frontier, and enter Russia. Do
your best, sir, to discover the whereabouts of this aforesaid Captain.
Find means to inform him that in the event of his entering our
territory, he will be immediately expelled.'"

The following day I went to the English Consulate. Mr. Zohrab is

our Consul in Erzeroum. He is a good Turkish scholar, besides
knowing most of the European languages.

I soon learnt that there was no exaggeration in the interpreter's

story. It was said that the Russians had procured my photograph,
and hung it up in all the frontier stations, so as to enable their
officers to recognize me should I attempt to enter Russian territory.

I must say that I was rather surprised to find that the Paternal
Government still took so much interest in my movements. From the
fact of the Russian agents having lost all trace of me since I left
Constantinople, I presume that my movements were watched during
our journey on the steamer, and also in the capital. This was
doubtless done with a kind motive, and to prevent my being
assaulted by any fanatical Mussulmans. When I was in St.
Petersburg, only twelve months previous, General Milutin, the
Russian Minister of War, had shown a most fatherly interest in my
safety; he was much alarmed lest I might be assassinated by the
Khivans or Turkomans in Central Asia. It was very kind of him. I had
evidently not sufficiently appreciated the philanthropy of that gallant
officer, and of the Government which he serves.

I could hardly believe that the Russian Authorities were so

interested in my welfare as to set spies to travel with me on board a
steamer or to track my steps in Constantinople.

I much regret that my short stay in that city had not permitted
me to call upon an old acquaintance, General Ignatieff, the Russian
Ambassador to the Porte. I should then have been able to give his
Excellency my solemn assurances that I had not the slightest
intention to cross the Russo-Turkish frontier. However, possibly the
term "solemn assurances" does not convey quite the same meaning
to a Muscovite Diplomate as to an English officer; it might have been
that his Excellency would not have placed any reliance on my
promises.
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