1.

Rotational Dynamics

Can you recall? of the right hand along the sense of rotation,
with the thumb outstretched. The outstretched
1. What is circular motion? 
thumb then gives the direction of ω .
2. What is the concept of centre of mass?
3. What are kinematical equations of
motion?
4. Do you know real and pseudo forces,
their origin and applications?
1.1 Introduction:
Fig. 1.1: Directions of angular velocity.
Circular motion is an essential part of our
If T is period of circular motion or periodic
daily life. Every day we come across several 2
time and n is the frequency,   2 n 
revolving or rotating (rigid) objects. During T
Uniform circular motion: During circular
revolution, the object (every particle in the
motion if the speed of the particle remains
object) undergoes circular motion about some
constant, it is called Uniform Circular Motion
point outside the object or about some other
(UCM). In this case, only the direction of its
object, while during rotation the motion is about
velocity changes at every instant in such a way
an axis of rotation passing through the object.
1.2 Characteristics of Circular Motion: that the velocity is always tangential to the
path. The acceleration responsible for this is
1) It is an accelerated motion: As the  2
direction of velocity changes at every the centripetal or radial acceleration a r   r
instant, it is an accelerated motion. For UCM, its 2magnitude is constant and it
v
2) It is a periodic motion: During the motion, is a   2 r   v . It is always directed
r
the particle repeats its path along the same towards the centre of the circular motion

trajectory. Thus, the motion is periodic. (along −r ), hence called centripetal.
1.2.1 Kinematics of Circular Motion:
As seen in XIth Std, in order to describe
a circular motion, we  use the quantities
angular displacement θ , angular velocity
 
 d  d
 and angular acceleration  
dt dt
which are analogous 
to displacement

  ds  dv
s , velocity v = and acceleration a =
dt dt Fig. 1.2: Directions of linear velocity and
used in translational motion.
acceleration.
Also, the tangential velocity is given by
    Illustration: Circular motion of any particle
v    r where ω is the angular velocity.
 of a fan rotating uniformly.
Here, the position vector r is the radius
Non-uniform circular motion: When a fan is
vector from the centre  of the circular motion. switched ON or OFF, the speeds of particles
The magnitude of v is v = ω r.
 of the fan go on increasing or decreasing
Direction of ω is always along the axis of
for some time, however their directions are
rotation and is given by the right-hand thumb
 always tangential to their circular trajectories.
rule. To know the direction of ω , curl the fingers
1
During this time, it is a non-uniform circular 
always change only the direction of ω and
motion. As the velocity is still tangential, the
 never its magnitude thereby continuously
centripetal or radial acceleration a r is still
changing the plane of rotation. (This is
there. However, for non-uniform circular 
 similar to an acceleration a perpendicular
motion, the magnitude of a r is not constant. 
to velocity v changing only its direction).
The acceleration responsible for changing

the magnitude of velocity is directed along If the angular acceleration α is constant
 
or opposite to the velocity, hence always and along the axis of rotation, all  , and
tangential and is called as tangential will be directed along the axis. This makes it

acceleration a T . possible to use scalar notation and write the
 kinematical equations of motion analogous to
As magnitude of tangential velocity v
is changing during a non-uniform circular those for translational motion as given in the

motion, the corresponding angular velocity ω table 1 at the end of the topic.
is also changing at every instant. This is due to Example 1: A fan is rotating at 90 rpm.
 d
the angular acceleration   It is then switched OFF. It stops after 21
dt
Though the motion is non-uniform, the revolutions. Calculate the time taken by it
particles are still in the same plane. Hence, to stop assuming that the frictional torque

the direction of α is still along the axis of is constant.
rotation. For increasing speed, it is along the Solution:
 rad
direction of ω while during decreasing speed, n0  90 rpm  1.5 rps 0  2 n0  3
 s
it is opposite to that of ω .
The angle through which the blades of
the fan move while stopping is θ = 2πN
= 2π (21) = 42 π rad, ω = 0 (fan stops).
Using equations analogous to kinematical
equations of motion
  0  2  02
Fig. 1.3: Direction of angular acceleration.   
t 2
0  3 0   3 
2
Do you know?
   t  28 s
 t 2  42 
If the angular acceleration α is along
any direction other than axial, it will have Remark: One can also use the unit
a component perpendicular to the axis. ‘revolution’ for angle and get rid of π

Thus, it will change the direction of ω also, throughout (for such data). In this case,
which will change the plane of rotation as 0  1.5 rps and   21 rev.

ω is always perpendicular to the plane of
1.2.2 Dynamics of Circular Motion
rotation.
 (Centripetal Force and Centrifugal Force):
If α is
i) Centripetal force (CPF): As seen above,
constant in
the acceleration responsible for circular
magnitude,
motion is the centripetal or radial acceleration
but always  
a r   2 r . The force providing this
perpendicular
 acceleration is the centripetal or radial force,
to ω , it will 2
CPF  m r
2
 It must be understood that centrifugal
Remember this force is a non-real force, but NOT an
imaginary force. Remember, before the merry-
(i) The word centripetal is NOT the name go-round reaches its uniform speed, you were
or type of that force (like gravitational really experiencing an outward pull (because,
force, nuclear force, etc). It is the centrifugal force is greater than the resultant
adjective or property of that force force towards the centre). A force measuring
saying that the direction of this force instrument can record it as well.
is along the radius and towards centre On reaching the uniform speed, in the
(centre seeking). frame of reference of merry-go-round, this
(ii) While performing circular or rotational centrifugal force exactly balances the resultant
motion, the resultant of all the real
of all the real forces. The resultant force in
forces acting upon the body is (or, must
that frame of reference is thus zero. Thus, only
be) towards the centre, hence we call
this resultant force to be centripetal in such a frame of reference we can say that
force. Under the action of this resultant the centrifugal force balances the centripetal
force, the direction of the velocity is force. It must be remembered that in this case,
always maintained tangential to the centrifugal force means the ‘net pseudo force’
circular track. and centripetal force means the ‘resultant of
The vice versa need not be true, all the real forces’.
i.e., the resultant force directed towards There are two ways of writing force
the centre may not always result into a equation for a circular motion:
circular motion. (In the Chapter 7 you 
will know that during an s.h.m. also the Resultant force  m 2 r or

force is always directed to the centre of m 2 r    realforces   0
the motion). For a motion to be circular,
correspondingly matching tangential
velocity is also essential. Activity
(iii) Obviously, this discussion is in an
Attach a suitable mass to spring balance so
inertial frame of reference in which
we are observing that the body is that it stretches by about half is capacity.
performing a circular motion. Now whirl the spring balance so that the
(iv) In magnitude, centripetal force mass performs a horizontal motion. You will
notice that the balance now reads more mass
mv 2
 mr 2   mv for the same mass. Can you explain this?
r
ii) Centrifugal force (c.f.f.): 1.3 Applications of Uniform Circular Motion:
Visualize yourself on a merry-go-round 1.3.1 Vehicle Along a Horizontal Circular
rotating uniformly. If you close your eyes, you Track:
will not know that you are performing a circular
Figure 1.4 shows vertical section of a car
motion but you will feel that you are at rest. In
on a horizontal circular track of radius r. Plane
order to explain that you are at rest, you need
of figure is a vertical plane, perpendicular to
to consider a force equal in magnitude to the
the track but includes only centre C of the
resultant real force, but directed opposite, i.e.,
2

away from the centre. This force,  m r is  track. Forces acting on the car (considered
to be a particle) are (i) weight mg, vertically
the centrifugal (away from the centre) force. It
is a pseudo force arising due to the centripetal downwards, (ii) normal reaction N, vertically
acceleration of the frame of reference. upwards that balances the weight mg and (iii)

3
force of static friction fs between road and the
but above it. Thus, the frictional force
tyres. This is static friction because it prevents
and the centrifugal force result into a
the vehicle from outward slipping or skidding.
torque which may topple the vehicle
This is the resultant force which is centripetal.
(even a two wheeler).
(ii) For a two wheeler, it is a must for
the rider to incline with respect to the
vertical to prevent toppling.

Use your brain power

(I) Obtain the condition for not toppling

for a four-wheeler. On what factors
Fig. 1.4: Vehicle on a horizontal road.
does it depend, and in what way? Think
While working in the frame of reference
about the normal reactions – where are
attached to the vehicle, it balances the
those and how much are those! What
centrifugal force.
mv 2 is the recommendation on loading the
 mg  N andf s  mr 2 
r vehicle for not toppling easily? If a
f s r 2 v 2 vehicle topples while turning, which
  
N g rg wheels leave the contact? Why? How
For a given track, radius r is constant. For does it affect the tyres? What is the
given vehicle, mg = N is constant. Thus, as the recommendation for this?
speed v increases, the force of static friction fs (II) Determine the angle to be made with
also increases. However, fs has an upper limit the vertical by a two wheeler rider while
 f s max   s .N , where µ s is the coefficient of turning on a horizontal track.
static friction between road and tyres of the Hint: For both (I) and (II) above, find the
vehicle. This imposes an upper limit to the torque that balances the torque due
speed v. to centrifugal force and torque due to
At the maximum possible speed vs, we can static friction force.
write (III)We have mentioned about static friction
 f s max 2
v max
between road and the tyres. Why is it
 s   v max   s rg static? What about the kinetic friction
N rg
between road and the tyres?
(IV) What do you do if your vehicle is
Do you know?
trapped on a slippery or a sandy road?
(i) In the discussion till now, we had What is the physics involved?
assumed the vehicle to be a point. 1.3.2 Well (or Wall) of Death: (मौत का कुआँ):
In reality, if it is a four wheeler, the This is a vertical cylindrical wall of radius
resultant normal reaction is due to all r inside which a vehicle is driven in horizontal
the four tyres. Normal reactions at all circles. This can be seen while performing
the four tyres are never equal while stunts.
undergoing circular motion. Also, the As shown in the Fig. 1.5, the forces acting
centrifugal force acts through the centre on the vehicle (assumed to be a point) are (i)
of mass, which is not at the ground level, Normal reaction N acting horizontally and
4
 due to the weight. What about a four-
wheeler?
(iv) In this case, the angle made by the road
surface with the horizontal is 90°, i.e., if
the road is banked at 90°, it imposes a
lower limit on the turning speed. In the
Fig. 1.5: Well of death. previous sub-section we saw that for an
towards the centre, (ii) Weight mg acting unbanked (banking angle 0) road there
vertically downwards, and (iii) Force of static is an upper limit for the turning speed.
friction fs acting vertically upwards between It means that for any other banking
vertical wall and the tyres. It is static friction angle (0 < θ < 90°), the turning speed
because it has to prevent the downward will have the upper as well as the lower
slipping. Its magnitude is equal to mg, as this limit.
is the only upward force.
Example 2: A motor cyclist (to be treated
Normal reaction N is thus the resultant
as a point mass) is to undertake horizontal
centripetal force (or the only force that can
circles inside the cylindrical wall of a well
balance the centrifugal force). Thus, in
of inner radius 4 m. Coefficient of static
magnitude,
mv 2 friction between the tyres and the wall is
N  mr  2
andmg  f s 0.4. Calculate the minimum speed and
r
frequency necessary to perform this stunt.
Force of static friction f s is always less than
(Use g = 10 m/s2)
or equal to µ s N .
Solution:
 mv 2 
 f s   s N  mg   s   rg 4  10
 r  v min    10 m s 1
s 0.4 and
s v 2 rg
g   v2  v min 10
r s nmin    0.4 rev s 1
2 r 2    4
rg
 v min 
s 1.3.3 Vehicle on a Banked Road:
As seen earlier, while taking a turn on
Remember this a horizontal road, the force of static friction
mv 2 between the tyres of the vehicle and the road
(i) N should always be equal to provides the necessary centripetal force (or
mv 2min mg r
 N min   balances the centrifugal force). However, the
r s frictional force is having an upper limit. Also,
(ii) In this case, fs = isN is valid only for the its value is usually not constant as the road
minimum speed as fs should always be
surface is not uniform. Thus, in real life, we
equal to mg.
should not depend upon it, as far as possible.
(iii) During the derivation, the vehicle is
For this purpose, the surfaces of curved roads
assumed to be a particle. In reality, it
is not so. During revolutions in such are tilted with the horizontal with some angle
a well, a two-wheeler rider is never θ . This is called banking of a road or the road
horizontal, else, the torque due to her/ is said to be banked.
his weight will topple her/him. Think Figure 1.6 Shows the vertical section of
of the torque that balances the torque a vehicle on a curved road of radius r banked

5
 Use your brain power

As a civil engineer, you are given contract

to construct a curved road in a ghat. In order
to obtain the banking angle θ , you need to
decide the speed limit. How will you decide
the values of speed v and radius r ?
Fig 1.6: Vehicle on a banked road. are (i) weight mg acting vertically downwards
at an angle θ with the horizontal. Considering and (ii) normal reaction N acting perpendicular
the vehicle to be a point and ignoring friction to the road. As seen above, only at this speed,
(not eliminating) and other non-conservative the resultant of these two forces (which is
forces like air resistance, there are two forces Nsin θ ) is the necessary centripetal force (or
acting on the vehicle, (i) weight mg, vertically balances the centrifugal force). In practice,
downwards and (ii) normal reaction N, vehicles never travel exactly with this speed.
perpendicular to the surface of the road. As For speeds other than this, the component of
the motion of the vehicle is along a horizontal force of static friction between road and the
circle, the resultant force must be horizontal tyres helps us, up to a certain limit.
and directed towards the centre of the track. It
means, the vertical force mg must be balanced.
Thus, we have to resolve the normal reaction
N along the vertical and along the horizontal.
Its vertical component Ncos θ balances weight
mg. Horizontal component Nsin θ being
the resultant force, must be the necessary
centripetal force (or balance the centrifugal
force). Thus, in magnitude,
Fig 1.7: Banked road : lower speed limit.
N cos   mg  and
mv 2 v2
N sin   mr 2   tan   --- (1.1)
r rg
(a) Most safe speed: For a particular road, r
and θ are fixed. Thus, this expression gives
us the expression for the most safe speed (not
a minimum or a maximum speed) on this road
as v s  rg tan 
(b) Banking angle: While designing
a road, this expression helps us in Fig 1.8: Banked road : upper speed limit.
knowing the angle of banking as mv12
For speeds v1  rg tan  ,  N sin 
 v2  r
  tan 1   --- (1.2) (or N sin θ is greater than the centrifugal force
rg
  mv12
). In this case, the direction of force of
(c) Speed limits: Figure 1.7 and 1.8 show r
vertical section of a vehicle on a rough static friction fs between road and the tyres
curved road of radius r, banked at an angle is directed along the inclination of the road,
θ . If the vehicle is running exactly at the speed upwards (Fig. 1.7). Its horizontal component
v s  rg tan  , the forces acting on the vehicle is parallel and opposite to Nsin θ . These two
6
forces take care of the necessary centripetal Example 3: A racing track of curvature
force (or balance the centrifugal force). 9.9 m is banked at tan −1 0.5 . Coefficient
 mg  f s sin   N cos  and of static friction between the track and
mv12 the tyres of a vehicle is 0.2. Determine the
 N sin   f s cos 
r speed limits with 10 % margin.
For minimum possible speed, fs is Solution:
maximum and equal to µsN. Using this in the
equations above and solving for minimum  tan    s 
v min  rg  
possible speed, we get  1   s tan  
 tan    s   0.5  0.2 
 v1 min  v min  rg   --- (1.3)  9.9 10 
 1   0.2  0.5  
 1   s tan    
For  s  tan  ,vmin = 0. This is true for most  27  5.196 m / s
of the rough roads, banked at smaller angles. Allowed vmin should be 10% higher than
mv 22
(d) For speeds v 2  rg tan  ,  N sin  this.
r 110
(or N sinθ is less than the centrifugal force   v min allowed  5.196 
100
mv 22
). In this case, the direction of force m
r  5.716
of static friction fs between road and the s
tyres is directed along the inclination of the  tan    s 
v max  rg  
road, downwards (Fig. 1.8). Its horizontal  1   s tan  
component is parallel to Nsin θ . These two
forces take care of the necessary centripetal  0.5  0.2 
 9.9 10 
force (or balance the centrifugal force).  1   0.2  0.5  
 
 mg  N cos   f s sin  and  77  8.775 m / s
mv 22
 N sin   f s cos  Allowed vmax should be 10% lower than
r this.
For maximum possible speed, f s is
90
maximum and equal to µ s N . Using this in the ∴  v max allowed  8.775   7.896 m / s
equations above, and solving for maximum 100
possible speed, we get
Use your brain power
 tan    s 
 v 2 max  v max  rg   --- (1.4)
 1   s tan   • If friction is zero, can a vehicle move on
If µ s = cot θ , vmax = ∞. But ( µ s )max = 1. the road? Why are we not considering
the friction in deriving the expression
Thus, for θ ≥ 45°, vmax = ∞. However, for
for the banking angle?
heavily banked road, minimum limit may • What about the kinetic friction between
be important. Try to relate the concepts used the road and the tyres?
while explaining the well of death. 1.3.4 Conical Pendulum:
(e) For µ s = 0, both the equations 1.3 and 1.4 A tiny mass (assumed to be a point object
give us v  rg tan  which is the safest speed and called a bob) connected to a long, flexible,
on a banked road as we don’t take the help of massless, inextensible string, and suspended
friction. to a rigid support is called a pendulum. If the
7
string is made to oscillate in a single vertical g sin 
plane, we call it a simple pendulum (to be 2 
r cos 
studied in the Chapter 5).
Radius r of the circular motion is r  L sin  .
We can also revolve the string in such a
If T is the period of revolution of the bob,
way that the string moves along the surface of
2 g
a right circular cone of vertical axis and the  
point object performs a (practically) uniform T L cos 
horizontal circular motion. In such a case the L cos 
 Period T  2 --- (1.7)
system is called a conical pendulum. g
Frequency of revolution,
1 1 g --- (1.8)
n 
T 2 L cos 
In the frame of reference attached to the
bob, the centrifugal force should balance the
resultant of all the real forces (which we call
CPF) for the bob to be at rest.
Fig. 1.9 (a): In an inertial frame ∴ T0 sin θ = mr ω 2 --- (in magnitude). This is
the same as the Eq. (1.5)

Do you know?

(i) For a given set up, L and g are constant.

Thus, both period and frequency
Fig. 1.9 (b): In a non- inertial frame depend upon θ .
Figure 1.9 shows the vertical section of (ii) During revolutions, the string can
NEVER become horizontal. This can
a conical pendulum having bob (point mass) be explained in two different ways.
of mass m and string of length L. In a given (a) If the string becomes horizontal,
position B, the forces acting on the bob are (i) the force due to tension will also be
its weight mg directed vertically downwards horizontal. Its vertical component will
and (ii) the force T0 due to the tension in the then be zero. In this case, nothing will
string, directed along the string, towards be there to balance mg.
the support A. As the motion of the bob is a (b) For horizontal string, i = 90°. This will
horizontal circular motion, the resultant force indicate the frequency to be infinite
must be horizontal and directed towards the and the period to be zero, which are
impossible. Also, in this case, the tension
centre C of the circular motion. For this, all mg
the vertical forces must cancel. Hence, we T0  in the string and the kinetic
cos 
shall resolve the force T0 due to the tension.
1 1 2 2
If θ is the angle made by the string with the energy  mv  mr  of the bob
2

2 2
vertical, at any position (semi-vertical angle will be infinite.
of the cone), the vertical component T0 cos
θ balances the weight mg. The horizontal
component T0 sinθ then becomes the resultant Activity
force which is centripetal. A stone is tied to a string and whirled
 T0 sin   centripetalforce  mr 2 --- (1.5) such that the stone performs horizontal
Also, T0 cos θ = mg --- (1.6) circular motion. It can be seen that the string
Dividing eq (1.5) by Eq. (1.6), we get, is NEVER horizontal.
8
 Example 1.4: A merry-go-round usually mv 2
Solution: N sin   mg and N cos  
consists of a central vertical pillar. At the r
top of it there are horizontal rods which can rg v 2 tan 
 tan   2  r
rotate about vertical axis. At the end of this v g
horizontal rod there is a vertical rod fitted v 2max tan 
like an elbow joint. At the lower end of  rmax   0.3m

g
each vertical rod, there is a horse on which v  r  2 rn
the rider can sit. As the merry-go-round is
set into rotation, these vertical rods move If we go for the lower
away from the axle by making some angle limit of the speed (while
with the vertical. rotating),
v  0  r  0 , but the
frequency n increases.
Hence a specific upper
limit is not possible in the case of frequency.
Thus, the practical limit on the frequency of
rotation is its lower limit. It will be possible
The figure above shows vertical section for r = rmax
of a merry-go-round in which the ‘initially v 1
 nmin  max   1rev / s
vertical’ rods are inclined with the vertical at 2 rmax 0.3
370, during rotation. Calculate the frequency
of revolution of the merry-go-round.
(Use g = π2 m/s2 and sin 37° = 0.6) Activity
Solution: Length of the horizontal rod,
Using a funnel and a marble or a ball bearing
H = 2.1 m
try to work out the situation in the above
Length of the ‘initially vertical’ rod,
question. Try to realize that as the marble
V = 1.5 m, θ = 37°
goes towards the brim, its linear speed
∴ Radius of the horizontal circular motion
increases but its angular speed decreases.
of the rider = H + V sin 37° = 3.0 m
When nearing the base, it is the other way.
If T is the tension along the inclined rod,
T cos θ = mg and T sin θ = mr ω 2 = 4π2 mrn2 1.4 Vertical Circular Motion:
4 2 rn 2 Two types of vertical circular motions are
 tan   
g commonly observed in practice:
tan  1 (a) A controlled vertical circular motion such
n   revs 1  as g   2 as a giant wheel or similar games. In this
4r 4
Example 1.5: Semi-vertical angle of the case the speed is either kept constant or
conical section of a funnel is 370. There is a NOT totally controlled by gravity.
small ball kept inside the funnel. On rotating (b) Vertical circular motion controlled only
the funnel, the maximum speed that the ball by gravity. In this case, we initially
can have in order to remain in the funnel is 2 supply the necessary energy (mostly) at
m/s. Calculate inner radius of the brim of the the lowest point. Then onwards, the entire
funnel. Is there any limit upon the frequency kinetics is governed by the gravitational
of rotation? How much is it? Is it lower or force. During the motion, there is
upper limit? Give a logical reasoning. (Use interconversion of kinetic energy and
g = 10 m/s2 and sin 370 = 0.6) gravitational potential energy.
9
1.4.1 Point Mass Undergoing Vertical realized with minimum possible energy),
Circular Motion Under Gravity: TA = 0   v A min  rg --- (1.10)
Case I: Mass tied to a string: Lowermost position (B): Force due to the
The figure 1.10 shows a bob (treated as tension, TB is vertically upwards, i.e., towards
a point mass) tied to a (practically) massless, the centre, and opposite to mg. In this case also
inextensible and flexible string. It is whirled their resultant is the centripetal force. If vB is
along a vertical circle so that the bob performs the speed at the lowermost point, we get,
a vertical circular motion and the string rotates mv 2B
TB  mg  --- (1.11)
in a vertical plane. At any position of the bob, r
there are only two forces acting on the bob: While coming down from the uppermost to
A the lowermost point, the vertical displacement
is 2r and the motion is governed only by
gravity. Hence the corresponding decrease in
the gravitational potential energy is converted
into the kinetic energy.
1 1
 mg  2r   mv 2B  mv 2A 
2 2
 v B  v A  4 rg
2 2 --- (1.12)

B   v A min
Using this in the eq (1.11), and using min rg
from Eq. (1.10) we get,
 v B min  5rg --- (1.13)
Subtracting eq (1.9) from eq (1.11) , we can
Fig 1.10: Vertical circular motion. write,
(a) its weight mg, vertically downwards, which m
is constant and (b) the force due to the tension TB  TA  2 mg   v 2B  v 2A  --- (1.14)
r
along the string, directed along the string and
Using eq (1.12) and rearranging, we get,
towards the centre. Its magnitude changes TB  TA  6 mg --- (1.15)
periodically with time and location. Positions when the string is horizontal (C
As the motion is non uniform, the resultant and D): Force due to the tension is the only
of these two forces is not directed towards force towards the centre as weight mg is
the center except at the uppermost and the perpendicular to the tension. Thus, force due
lowermost positions of the bob. At all the other to the tension is the centripetal force used to
positions, part of the resultant is tangential and change the direction of the velocity and weight
is used to change the speed. mg is used only to change the speed.
Uppermost position (A): Both, weight mg and Using similar mathematics, it can be shown
force due to tension TA are downwards, i.e., that
TC  TA  TD  TA  3mg and
towards the centre. In this case, their resultant
is used only as the centripetal force. Thus, if  v C min   v D min  3rg
vA is the speed at the uppermost point, we get, Arbitrary positions: Force due to the tension
mv 2A and weight are neither along the same line,
mg  TA  --- (1.9)
r nor perpendicular. Tangential component of
Radius r of the circular motion is the weight is used to change the speed. It decreases
length of the string. For minimum possible the speed while going up and increases it while
speed at this point (or if the motion is to be coming down.
10
 1.4.2 Sphere of Death (मृत्‍यु गोल):
Remember this This is a popular show in a circus. During
this, two-wheeler rider (or riders) undergo
1. Equation (1.15) is independent of v and r. rounds inside a hollow sphere. Starting with
2. TA can never be exactly equal to zero in small horizontal circles, they eventually
the case of a string, else, the string will perform revolutions along vertical circles. The
slack. ∴ TB > 6 mg.
dynamics of this vertical circular motion is
3. None of the parameters (including the the same as that of the point mass tied to the
linear and angular accelerations) are
string, except that the force due to tension T is
constant during such a motion. Obviously,
kinematical equations given in the table1 replaced by the normal reaction force N.
are not applicable. If you have seen this show, try to visualize
4. We can determine the position vector or that initially there are nearly horizontal circles.
velocity at any instant using the energy The linear speed is more for larger circles but
conservation. But as the function of the angular speed (frequency) is more for smaller
radius vector is not integrable (definite circles (while starting or stopping). This is as
integration is not possible), theoretically per the theory of conical pendulum.
it is not possible to determine the period 1.4.3 Vehicle at the Top of a Convex Over-
or frequency. However, experimentally Bridge:
the period can be measured.
5. Equations (1.10) and (1.13) give only
the respective minimum speeds at the
uppermost and the lowermost points. Any
higher speeds obeying the equation (1.14)
are allowed.
6. In reality, we have to continuously
supply some energy to overcome the air
resistance.
Fig. 1.11: Vehicle on a convex over-bridge.
Case II: Mass tied to a rod: Consider a bob Figure shows a vehicle at the top of a
(point mass) tied to a (practically massless and convex over bridge, during its motion (part
rigid) rod and whirled along a vertical circle. of vertical circular motion). Forces acting on
The basic difference between the rod and the the vehicle are (a) Weight mg and (b) Normal
string is that the string needs some tension at reaction force N, both along the vertical line
all the points, including the uppermost point. (topmost position). The resultant of these two
Thus, a certain minimum speed, Eq. (1.10), is must provide the necessary centripetal force
necessary at the uppermost point in the case (vertically downwards) if the vehicle is at the
of a string. In the case of a rod, as the rod is uppermost position. Thus, if v is the speed at
rigid, such a condition is not necessary. Thus the uppermost point,
(practically) zero speed is possible at the mv 2
mg  N 
uppermost point. r
Using similar mathematics, it is left to the As the speed is increased, N goes on
readers to show that decreasing. Normal reaction is an indication
 v lowermost min  4 rg  2 rg of contact. Thus, for just maintaining contact,
vmin at the rod horizontal position = 2rg N = 0. This imposes an upper limit on the speed
Tlowermost  Tuppermost  6 mg as v max = rg
11
 1
 0.02  8   K.E.min   0.02 10 1.8 
2
Do you know? ∴
2
Roller coaster is a common event in the  K.E.min  0.28 J
1
K.E.max   0.02  8    0.02 10 1.8 
amusement parks. During this ride, all 2

the parts of the vertical circular motion 2

described above can be experienced. The 1 2
major force that we experience during this is  K . E . max  mvmax  1J
2
the normal reaction force. Those who have
2(K . E .) max
experienced this, should try to recall the = ∴ v max = 10 m s-1
changes in the normal reaction experienced m
by us during various parts of the track. at the lowermost position, for which θ = 0.
mv 2
T  mg cos   --- at any angle θ ,
Use your brain power r
where the speed is v.
• What is expected to happen if one travels Thus, if T = mg, we get,
mv 2
fast over a speed breaker? Why? mg  mg cos   
• How does the normal force on a concave r
suspension bridge change when a vehicle  rg 1  cos    v 2 --- (A)
is travelling on it with constant speed? Vertical displacement at the angular
position θ is r 1 cos   . Thus, the energy
Example 1.6: A tiny stone of mass 20 g is equation at this position can be written as
tied to a practically massless, inextensible, 1 1
m 10   mv 2  mg  r 1  cos   
2
flexible string and whirled along vertical 2 2
circles. Speed of the stone is 8 m/s when
By using Eq. A, we get
the centripetal force is exactly equal to the
1
force due to the tension. 50  rg 1  cos    rg 1  cos  
Calculate minimum and maximum kinetic 2
3
energies of the stone during the entire circle.  50  rg 1  cos  
Let θ = 0 be the angular position of the 2
string, when the stone is at the lowermost 23
 cos     1480 25' 
position. Determine the angular position of 27
the string when the force due to tension is
numerically equal to weight of the stone. 1.5 Moment of Inertia as an Analogous
Use g = 10 m/s2 and length of the string = Quantity for Mass:
1.8 m In XIth Std. we saw that angular
Solution: When the string is horizontal, the
displacement, angular velocity and
force due to the tension is the centripetal
force. Thus, vertical displacements of the angular acceleration respectively replace
bob for minimum and maximum energy displacement, velocity and acceleration for
positions are radius r each. various kinematical equations. Also, torque is
If K.E.max and K.E.min are the respective an analogous quantity for force. Expressions of
kinetic energies at the uppermost and the linear momentum, force (for a fixed mass) and
lowermost points, kinetic energy include mass as a common term.
1
K.E.max  m  8   mgr  and
2
In order to have their rotational analogues, we
2 need a replacement for mass.
1
m  8   K.E.min  mgr 
2
If we open a door (with hinges), we give a
2 certain angular displacement to it. The efforts
12
 If I  mi ri replaces mass m and angular
needed for this depend not only upon the mass 2

of the door, but also upon the (perpendicular)

speed ω replaces linear speed v, rotational
distance from the axis of rotation, where we
1 2
apply the force. Thus, the quantity analogous K.E.  I  is analogous to translational
2
to mass includes not only the mass, but also 1
K.E. = mv . Thus, I is defined to be the
2
takes care of the distance wise distribution of
2
the mass around the axis of rotation. To know rotational inertia or moment of inertia (M.I.)
the exact relation, let us derive an expression of the object about the given axis of rotation.
for the rotational kinetic energy which is the It is clear that the moment of inertia of an
sum of the translational kinetic energies of all object depends upon (i) individual masses and
the individual particles. (ii) the distribution of these masses about the
given axis of rotation. For a different axis, it
will again depend upon the mass distribution
around that axis and will be different if there is
no symmetry.
During this discussion, for simplicity, we
assumed the object to be consisting of a finite
number of particles. In practice, usually, it
Fig. 1.12: A body of N particles. is not so. For a homogeneous rigid object of
Figure 1.12 shows a rigid object rotating mathematically integrable mass distribution,
with a constant angular speed ω about an the moment of inertia is to be obtained by
axis perpendicular to the plane of paper. integration as I  r 2 dm . If integrable mass
For theoretical simplification let us consider distribution is not known, it is not possible to
the object to be consisting of N particles obtain the moment of inertia theoretically, but
of masses m1, m2, …..mN at respective it can be determined experimentally.
perpendicular distances r1, r2, …..rN from the
axis of rotation. As the object rotates, all these
particles perform UCM with the same angular
speed ω , but with different linear speeds
v1  r1 ,v 2  r2 , 
 v N  rN .
Translational K.E. of the first particle is
1 1
K .E.1  m1v12  m1r12 2 Fig. 1.13: Moment of Inertia of a ring.
2 2 1.5.1 Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Ring:
Similar will be the case of all the other An object is called a uniform ring if
particles. Rotational K.E. of the object, is its mass is (practically) situated uniformly
the sum of individual translational kinetic on the circumference of a circle (Fig 1.13).
energies. Thus, rotational K.E. Obviously, it is a two dimensional object of
1 1 1
 m1r12 2  m2 r22 2  mN rN2 2 negligible thickness. If it is rotating about its
2 2 2 own axis (line perpendicular to its plane and
 RotationalK.E. passing through its centre), its entire mass M
1 1
 
 m1r12  m2 r22  mN rN2  2  I  2
2 2
is practically at a distance equal to its radius
R form the axis. Hence, the expression for the
N
moment of inertia of a uniform ring of mass M
Where I  m1r12  m2 r22  mN rN2   mi ri 2
i 1 and radius R is I = MR2.
13
1.5.2 Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Disc: of inertias of objects of several integrable
Disc is a two dimensional circular object geometrical shapes can be derived. Some of
of negligible thickness. It is said to be uniform those are given in the Table 3 at the end of the
if its mass per unit area and its composition is topic.
the same throughout. The ratio   m  mass 1.6 Radius of Gyration:
is called the surface density. A area As stated earlier, theoretical calculation
Consider a uniform disc of mass M and of moment of inertia is possible only for
radius R rotating about its own axis, which is mathematically integrable geometrical shapes.
the line perpendicular to its plane and passing However, experimentally we can determine
M the moment of inertia of any object. It depends
through its centre   .
 R2 upon mass of that object and how that mass
As it is a uniform circular object, it can
is distributed from or around the given axis
be considered to be consisting of a number
of rotation. If we are interested in knowing
of concentric rings of radii increasing from
only the mass distribution around the axis of
(practically) zero to R. One of such rings of
rotation, we can express moment of inertia
mass dm is shown by shaded portion in the
of any object as I = MK 2 , where M is mass
Fig. 1.14.
of that object. It means that the mass of that
object is effectively at a distance K from the
given axis of rotation. In this case, K is defined
as the radius of gyration of the object about
the given axis of rotation. In other words, if K
is radius of gyration for an object, I = MK 2 is
the moment of inertia of that object. Larger the
value of K, farther is the mass from the axis.
Fig .1.14: Moment of Inertia of a disk.
Consider a uniform ring and a uniform
Width of this ring is dr, which is so small
disc, both of the same mass M and same
that the entire ring can be considered to be
radius R. Let Ir and Id be their respective
of average radius r. (In practical sense, dr is moment of inertias.
less than the least count of the instrument that If Kr and Kd are their respective radii
measures r, so that r is constant for that ring). of gyration, we can write,
dm
  Ir = MR2 = MK r ∴Kr = R and
2
Area of this ring is A = 2πr.dr  
2 r .dr 1 R
Id = MR2 = MK d ∴ Kd = ∴ Kd <Kr
2
∴ dm = 2πσr.dr.
2 2
As it is a ring, this entire mass is at a It shows mathematically that K is
distance r from the axis of rotation. Thus, the decided by the distribution of mass. In a
moment of inertia of this ring is Ir = dm (r2) ring the entire mass is distributed at the
Moment of inertia (I) of the disc can now distance R, while for a disc, its mass is
be obtained by integrating Ir from r = 0 to distributed between 0 and R. Among any
r = R. R R R R
objects of same mass and radius, ring has
 I   I r  dm  r 2   2 r  dr  r 2  2 r 3  dr  the largest radius of gyration and hence
0 0 0 0 maximum M.I.
R   M  R  1
4 4
 I  2  1.7 Theorem of Parallel Axes and Theorem
  2     MR
2
2 
 4    R  4  2 of Perpendicular Axes:
Using similar method, expressions for moment Expressions of moment of inertias of
14
regular geometrical shapes given in the table 3
are about their axes of symmetry. These are
 
   DC  2 NC.h  h 2 dm
2

derived by integration. However, every time   ( DC) 2 dm  2 h NC.dm  h 2 dm

the axis need not be the axis of symmetry. In
Now,   DC  dm  I C and dm  M .
2

simple transformations it may be parallel or

NC is the distance of a point from the
perpendicular to the symmetrical axis. For
centre of mass. Any mass distribution is
example, if a rod is rotated about one of its
symmetric about the centre of mass. Thus,
ends, the axis is parallel to its axis of symmetry.
from the definition of the centre of mass,
If a disc or a ring is rotated about its diameter,
the axis is perpendicular to the central axis. NC.dm  0 .
In such cases, simple transformations are  I O  I C  M .h 2
This is the mathematical form of the
possible in the expressions of moment of
theorem of parallel axes.
inertias. These are called theorem of parallel
It states that, “The moment of inertia (IO)
axes and theorem of perpendicular axes.
of an object about any axis is the sum of its
1.7.1 Theorem of Parallel Axes:
moment of inertia (IC) about an axis parallel to
In order to apply this theorem to any
the given axis, and passing through the centre
object, we need two axes parallel to each other
of mass and the product of the mass of the
with one of them passing through the centre of
object and the square of the distance between
mass of the object.
the two axes (Mh2).”

Use your brain power

In Fig. 1.15, the point D is chosen such that

we have to extend OC for the perpendicular
DN to fall on it. What will happen to the final
expression of I0, if point D is so chosen that
the perpendicular DN falls directly on OC?
1.7.2 Theorem of Perpendicular Axes:
This theorem relates the moment of
Fig. 1.15: Theorem of parallel axes. inertias of a laminar object about three
Figure 1.15 shows an object of mass M. mutually perpendicular and concurrent axes,
Axis MOP is any axis passing through point two of them in the plane of the object and
O. Axis ACB is passing through the centre the third perpendicular to the object. Laminar
of mass C of the object, parallel to the axis object is like a leaf, or any two dimensional
MOP, and at a distance h from it (∴ h = CO). object, e.g., a ring, a disc, any plane sheet, etc.
Consider a mass element dm located at point
D. Perpendicular on OC (produced) from point
D is DN. Moment of inertia of the object about
the axis ACB is I C   ( DC) 2 dm , and about
the axis MOP it is I O   DO 2 dm . N
 M
2

 I O    DO  dm    DN    NO  dm
2 2


   DN   [ NC]2  2. NC.CO   CO  dm
2 2
 Fig. 1.16: Theorem of perpendicular axes.
15
Figure 1.16 shows a rigid laminar object able
(II) Consider any two mutually perpendicular
to rotate about three mutually perpendicular
diameters x and y of the flywheel. If the
axes x, y and z. Axes x and y are in the plane
flywheel rotates about these diameters, these
of the object while the z axis is perpendicular
three axes (own axis and two diameters) will
to it, and all are concurrent at O. Consider a
be mutually perpendicular and concurrent.
mass element dm located at any point P. PM
Thus, perpendicular axes theorem is
= y and PN = x are the perpendiculars drown
applicable. Let Id be the moment of inertia
from P respectively on the x and y axes. The
of the flywheel, when rotating about its
respective perpendicular distances of point
diameter.  I d  I x  I y
M from x, y and z axes will then be y, x and
Thus, according to the theorem of
 y 2 + x 2 . If Ix, Iy and Iz are the respective
perpendicular axes,
moment of inertias of the body about x, y and 1
z axes, we can write, I z  MR 2  I x  I y  2 I d
2
 I x   y 2 dm,I y   x 2 dm and  1
 I d  MR 2
4
 
I z   y 2  x 2 dm
 I z   y 2 dm   x 2 dm  I x  I y
This is the mathematical form of the
theorem of perpendicular axes.
It states that, “The moment of inertia
(Iz) of a laminar object about an axis (z)
perpendicular to its plane is the sum of its
moment of inertias about two mutually
As the diameter passes through the centre
perpendicular axes (x and y) in its plane, all
of mass of the (uniform) disc, I d = I C
the three axes being concurrent”.
Consider a tangent in the plane of the disc
Example 1.7: A flywheel is a mechanical and parallel to this diameter. It is at the
device specifically designed to efficiently distance h = R from the diameter. Thus,
store rotational energy. For a particular parallel axes theorem is applicable about
machine it is in the form of a uniform 20 kg these two axes.
disc of diameter 50 cm, able to rotate about ∴ IT, parallel = Io = Ic + Mh2 = Id + MR2
its own axis. Calculate its kinetic energy
1 5
when rotating at 1200 rpm. Use   10.
2
= MR2 + MR2 = MR2
4 4
Calculate its moment of inertia, in case it is
5 5
rotated about a tangent in its plane. ∴ IT, parallel = MR2 = 20 × 0.252
4 4
Solution: (I) As the flywheel is in the form = 1.5625 kg m2
of a uniform disc rotating about its own
1.8 Angular Momentum or Moment of
1
axis, I z = MR 2 Linear Momentum:
2
∴ Rotational kinetic energy The quantity in rotational mechanics,
1 11  analogous to linear momentum is angular
  I  2   MR 2  4 2 n 2  momentum or moment of linear momentum. It
2 2 2 
∴ Rotational kinetic energy is similar to the torque being moment of a force.

 M 2  Rn   20  10   0.25  20   5000 J
2 2
If p is the instantaneous linear momentum of
a particle undertaking a circular motion, its
16
angular
  momentum at that instance is given by axis of rotation. The expression for angular

L  r  p , were r is the position vector from momentum L = I ω is analogous to the
the axis of rotation. expression p = mv of linear momentum, if the
In magnitude, it is the product of linear moment of inertia I replaces mass, which is
momentum and its perpendicular distance from its physical significance.
the axis of rotation. ∴L = P × r sin θ , where θ 1.9 Expression for Torque in Terms of
is Moment of Inertia:
 the smaller
 angle between the directions of
P and r .
1.8.1 Expression for Angular Momentum in
Terms of Moment of Inertia:
Figure 1.12 in the section 1.5 shows a
rigid object rotating with a constant angular
speed ω about an axis perpendicular to the
plane of paper. For theoretical simplification
let us consider the object to be consisting of
N number of particles of masses m1, m2, ….. Fig 1.17: Expression for torque.
mN at respective perpendicular distances r1, r2, Figure 1.17 shows a rigid object rotating
…..rN from the axis of rotation. As the object with a constant angular acceleration α
rotates, all these particles perform UCM with about an axis perpendicular to the plane
same angular speed ω , but with different linear of paper. For theoretical simplification let
speeds v1 = r1 ω , v2 = r2 ω , ..... vN = rN ω .  us consider the object to be consisting of N
 Directions of individual velocities v1 , number of particles of masses m1, m2, ….. mN
v 2 , etc., are along the tangents to their at respective perpendicular distances r1, r2,
respective tracks. Linear momentum of the …..rN from the axis of rotation. As the object
first particle is of magnitude p1 = m1v1 = m1r1 ω . rotates, all these particles perform circular

Its direction is along that of v1 . motion with same angular acceleration α, but
Its angular momentum is thus of with different linear (tangential) accelerations
magnitude L1 = p1r1  m1r1 
2
a1  r1 ,a 2  r2 ,, a N  rN , etc.
Similarly, L2  m2 r22 , L3  m3 r32 , ……. Force experienced by the first particle is
LN  mN rN2 f 1  m1a1  m1r1
For a rigid body with a fixed axis of As these forces are tangential, their
rotation, all these angular momenta are directed respective perpendicular distances from the
along the axis of rotation, and this direction axis are r1, r2, …..rN.
can be obtained by using right hand thumb Thus, the torque experienced by the first
particle is of magnitude  1  f 1r1  m1r1 
2
rule. As all of them have the same direction,
their magnitudes can be algebraically added. Similarly,  2  m2 r22 ,  3  m3 r32 ……..
Thus, magnitude of angular momentum of the  N  mN rN2
body is given by If the rotation is restricted to a single
L  m1r12  m2 r22  mN rN2 plane, directions of all these torques are the

 
same, and along the axis. Magnitude of the
 m1r12  m2 r22  mN rN2   I 
resultant torque is then given by
Where, I  m1r12  m2 r22  mN rN2 is the    1   2   N
moment of inertia of the body about the given  
 m1r12  m2 r22  mN rN2   I 

17
 Examples of conservation of angular
where, I  m1r1  m2 r2  mN rN
2 2 2
is the
momentum: During some shows of ballet
moment of inertia of the object about the given
dance, acrobat in a circus, sports like ice
axis of rotation.
skating, diving in a swimming pool, etc., the
The relation   I  is analogous to
f = ma for the translational motion if the principle of conservation of angular momentum
is realized. In all these applications the product
moment of inertia I replaces mass, which is
L  I   I  2 n  is constant (once the players
its physical significance.
acquire a certain speed). Thus, if the moment
1.10 Conservation of Angular Momentum:
of inertia I is increased, the angular speed and
In the article 4.7 of XIth Std. we have
hence the frequency of revolution n decreases.
seen the conservation of linear momentum
Also, if the moment of inertia is decreased, the
which says that linear momentum of an
frequency increases.
isolated system is conserved in the absence
(i) Ballet dancers: During ice ballet, the
of an external unbalanced force. As seen
dancers have to undertake rounds of smaller
earlier, torque and angular momentum are
and larger radii. The dancers come together
the respective analogous quantities to force
while taking the rounds of smaller radius (near
and linear momentum in rotational dynamics.
the centre). In this case, the moment of inertia
With suitable changes this can be transformed
of their system becomes minimum and the
into the conservation of angular momentum.
frequency increases, to make it thrilling. While
As seen in the section 1.8, angular
outer rounds, the dancers outstretch their legs
momentum or the moment of linear momentum
   and arms. This increases their moment of
of a system is given by L  r  p
 inertia that reduces the angular speed and
where r is the position vector from the axis of
 hence the linear speed. This is essential to
rotation and p is the linear momentum.
prevent slipping.
Differentiating with respect to time, we get,
   (ii) Diving in a swimming pool (during
dL d    dp dr 
 r  p  r   p competition): While on the diving board, the
dt dt dt
 dt
 
divers stretch their body so as to increase the
dr  dp
Now, = v and =F . moment of inertia. Immediately after leaving
 dt dt the board, they fold their body. This reduces
   

dL
dt

 r  F  m vv  the moment inertia considerably. As a result,
the frequency increases and they can complete
 
 
Now v  v  0

more rounds in air to make the show attractive.
Again, while entering into water they stretch
dL  
 rF their body into a streamline shape. This allows
dt
   them a smooth entry into the water.
But r × F is the moment of force or torque τ .
 dL Example 1.8: A spherical water balloon
 
dt  is revolving at 60 rpm. In the course of
 dL 
Thus, if   0,  0 or L  constant. time, 48.8 % of its water leaks out. With
dt  what frequency will the remaining balloon
Hence, angular momentum L is conserved in
 revolve now? Neglect all non-conservative
the absence of external unbalanced torque τ . 1
forces. 3
This is the principle of conservation of angular m1 V1  R1  R  m  3
Solution:     1  1 
momentum, analogous to the conservation of m2 V2  R2  R2  m2 
linear momentum.
18
 Accordingly, the object possesses two
m1 100 100 1 types of kinetic energies, rotational and
Also,    
m2 100  48.8 51.2 0.512 translational. Sum of these two is its total
1
kinetic energy.
 m 3 1
 1    1.25 Consider an object of moment of inertia
 m2  0.8
I, rolling uniformly. Following quantities can
= =
n1 60 rpm 1rps, n2 = ? be related.
Being sphere, moment of inertia v = Linear speed of the centre of mass
5
2 R = Radius of the body
2 I  m  R   m 3
I  mR 2  1   1   1    1    Angular speed of rotation of the body
5 I 2  m2   R2   m2  v
  for any particle
According to principle of conservation of R
angular momentum, I11  I 22 M = Mass of the body
5
K = Radius of gyration of the body  I  MK 2
I   m 3
 I1 2 n1  I 2 2 n2  n2   1  n1   1  Total kinetic energy of rolling = Translational
 I2   m2  K.E. + Rotational K.E.
n1  1.225   1  3.052 rps
5
1 1
 E  Mv 2  I  2
Example 1.9: A ceiling fan having moment 2 2
2
of inertia 2 kg-m2 attains its maximum 1 1 v
frequency of 60 rpm in ‘2π’ seconds. 2

 Mv 2  MK 2  
2
 R
Calculate its power rating.  K2 
1
Solution:  Mv 2  1  2  --- (1.18)
2  R 
0  0,   2 n  2  2  4 rad / s
It must be remembered that static friction
  0 4  0
   2 rad/s2 is essential for a purely rolling motion. In this
t 2
case, it prevents the sliding motion. You might
 P      I     2  2  4
have noticed that many a times while rolling
 16 watt  50 watt
down, the motion is initially a purely rolling
motion that later on turns out to be a sliding
1.11 Rolling Motion:
motion. Similarly, if you push a sphere-like
The objects like a cylinder, sphere,
object along a horizontal surface, initially it
wheels, etc. are quite often seen to perform
slips for some distance and then starts rolling.
rolling motion. In the case of pure rolling,
1.11.1 Linear Acceleration and Speed While
two motions are undertaking simultaneously;
Pure Rolling Down an Inclined Plane:
circular motion and linear motion. Individual
Figure 1.18 shows a rigid object of mass
motion of the particles (except the one at the
m and radius R, rolling down an inclined plane,
centre of mass) is too difficult to describe.
without slipping. Inclination of the plane with
However, for theory considerations we can
the horizontal is θ .
consider the actual motion to be the result of
(i) circular motion of the body as a whole,
about its own symmetric axis and
(ii) linear motion of the body assuming it to
be concentrated at its centre of mass. In other
words, the centre of mass performs purely
translational motion. Fig. 1.18: Rolling along an incline.
19
 As the objects starts rolling down, its K2 1
gravitational P.E. is converted into K.E. of 2
= fora uniform disc or a solid cylinder
R 2
rolling. Starting from rest, let v be the speed of K 2
2
= for a thin walled hollow sphere
the centre of mass as the object comes down R 2
3
through a vertical distance h. (II) When a rod rolls, it is actually a cylinder
From Eq. (1.18), that is rolling.
1 1 2 1 2 K2  (III) While rolling, the ratio ‘Translational
E  Mv  I   Mv  1  2 
2

2 2 2  R  K.E.: Rotational K.E.: Total K.E.’ is

1  K  2
2
 K2 
 E  mgh  Mv 2  1  2   1: K : 1  2 
2  R  R2 R 

2 gh K2 2
v  For example, for a hollow sphere, 2 =
 K2  R 3
Thus, for a rolling hollow sphere,
1  2  --- (1.19)
 R 
Translational K.E.: Rotational K.E.: Total
Linear distance travelled along the plane
h 2
K.E. = 1: :  1    3 : 2 : 5
2
is s 
sin  3  3
During this distance, the linear velocity Percentage wise, 60% of its kinetic energy
has increased from zero to v. If a is the linear is translational and 40% is rotational.
acceleration along the plane, Table 1 : Analogous kinematical equations
 h  2 gh (ω0 is the initial angular velocity)
2as  v 2  u 2 
 2a     0
 sin    K 
2
Equation for Analogous equation
1  2  translational for rotational
 R 
g sin  motion motion
a 
 K2  uv 0  
 1  2  --- (1.20) v av  av 
 R  2 2
For pure sliding, without friction, the
acceleration is g sin θ and final velocity is dv v  u d   0
a    
dt t dt t
2gh . Thus, during pure rolling, the factor    0   t
 v  u  at
 K2 
 1  2  is effective for both the expressions. s  v av  t
 R    av  t
uv   
Remarks :  t
 2   0 t
I) For a rolling object, if the expression for  2 
moment of inertia is of the form n (MR2), the 1
 ut  at 2  0 t   t 2
K2 2
numerical factor n gives the value of 2 for
R v 2  u 2  2as  2  02  2
that object.
For example, for a uniform solid sphere,
2 K2 2 Internet my friend
I  MR 2  MK 2  2 
5 R 5
Similarly, http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/
mi.html
K2 https://issacphysics.org
= 1, foraringorahollowcylinder
R2 https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com
https://opentextbc.ca/physicstextbook
20
 Table 2: Analogous quantities between translational motion and rotational motion:
Translational motion Rotational motion
Symbol/ Symbol/ Inter-relation,
Quantity Quantity
expression expression if possible
Linear  Angular    
s θ s  r
displacement displacement
 
 ds  d   
Linear velocity v= Angular velocity  v r
dt dt
 
Linear  dv Angular  d    
a=    a r
acceleration dt acceleration dt
Rotational inertia
Inertia or mass m or moment of I I  r 2 dm  mi ri 2
inertia
Linear   Angular     
p = mv L  I Lrp
momentum momentum
 
 d p  dL   
Force f = Torque   r f
dt dt
   
Work W  f s Work W    ------

dW   dW  
Power P  f v Power P    ------
dt dt

Table 3: Expressions for moment of inertias for some symmetric objects:

Expression of
Object Axis Figure
moment of inertia

Thin ring or
hollow cylinder
Central I = MR 2

1
Thin ring Diameter I= MR 2
2

Annular ring or 1
thick walled Central I
2

M r22  r12 
hollow cylinder

21
 Uniform disc or 1
Central I= MR 2
solid cylinder 2

1
Uniform disc Diameter I= MR 2
4

Thin walled 2
Central I= MR 2
hollow sphere 3

2
Solid sphere Central I= MR 2
5

Uniform symmetric 2
I M 3 3

r25  r15 
 
Central
spherical shell 5 r2  r1

Perpendicular to 1
Thin uniform rod or I= ML2
length and passing
rectangular plate
through centre 12

Perpendicular to 1
Thin uniform rod or I= MR 2
length and about
rectangular plate
one end 3

Uniform plate 1
or rectangular Central I M ( L2  b 2 )
parallelepiped 12

22
 Uniform solid 3
Central I= MR 2
right circular cone 10

Uniform hollow 1
Central I= MR 2
right circular cone 2

Exercises

Use g = 10 m/s2, unless, otherwise stated. formula (expression) of moment of

1. Choose the correct option. inertia (M.I.) in terms of mass M of
i) When seen from below, the blades of the object and some of its distance
a ceiling fan are seen to be revolving parameter/s, such as R, L, etc.
anticlockwise and their speed is (A) Different objects must have different
decreasing. Select correct statement expressions for their M.I.
about the directions of its angular (B) When rotating about their central
velocity and angular acceleration. axis, a hollow right circular cone and
(A) Angular velocity upwards, angular a disc have the same expression for
acceleration downwards. the M.I.
(B) Angular velocity downwards, (C) Expression for the M.I. for a
angular acceleration upwards. parallelepiped rotating about the
(C) Both, angular velocity and angular transverse axis passing through its
acceleration, upwards. centre includes its depth.
(D) Both, angular velocity and (D) Expression for M.I. of a rod and
angular acceleration, downwards. that of a plane sheet is the same
ii) A particle of mass 1 kg, tied to a 1.2 m about a transverse axis.
long string is whirled to perform vertical iv) In a certain unit, the radius of gyration
circular motion, under gravity. Minimum of a uniform disc about its central and
speed of a particle is 5 m/s. Consider transverse axis is 2.5 . Its radius of
following statements. gyration about a tangent in its plane (in
P) Maximum speed must be 5 5 m/s. the same unit) must be
Q) Difference between maximum and (A) 5 (B) 2.5
minimum tensions along the string is 60 N. (C) 2 2.5 (D) 12.5
Select correct option. v) Consider following cases:
(A) Only the statement P is correct. (P) A planet revolving in an elliptical orbit.
(B) Only the statement Q is correct. (Q) A planet revolving in a circular orbit.
(C) Both the statements are correct. Principle of conservation of angular
(D) Both the statements are incorrect. momentum comes in force in which of
iii) Select correct statement about the these?
23
 (A) Only for (P) What can you infer if a uniform ring and
(B) Only for (Q) a uniform disc have the same radius of
(C) For both, (P) and (Q) gyration?
(D) Neither for (P), nor for (Q) 6. State the conditions under which
X) A thin walled hollow cylinder is rolling the theorems of parallel axes and
down an incline, without slipping. At perpendicular axes are applicable. State
any instant, the ratio ”Rotational K.E.: the respective mathematical expressions.
Translational K.E.: Total K.E.” is 7. Derive an expression that relates angular
(A) 1:1:2 (B) 1:2:3 momentum with the angular velocity of
(C) 1:1:1 (D) 2:1:3 a rigid body.
2. Answer in brief. 8. Obtain an expression relating the torque
i) Why are curved roads banked? with angular acceleration for a rigid
ii) Do we need a banked road for a two- body.
wheeler? Explain. 9. State and explain the principle of
iii) On what factors does the frequency conservation of angular momentum. Use
of a conical pendulum depends? Is it
a suitable illustration. Do we use it in our
independent of some factors?
daily life? When?
iv) Why is it useful to define radius of
10. Discuss the interlink between
gyration?
v) A uniform disc and a hollow right translational, rotational and total kinetic
circular cone have the same formula energies of a rigid object that rolls
for their M.I., when rotating about their without slipping.
central axes. Why is it so? 11. A rigid object is rolling down an
3. While driving along an unbanked inclined plane. Derive expressions for
circular road, a two-wheeler rider has the acceleration along the track and
to lean with the vertical. Why is it so? the speed after falling through a certain
With what angle the rider has to lean? vertical distance.
Derive the relevant expression. Why 12. Somehow, an ant is stuck to the rim of a
such a leaning is not necessary for a four bicycle wheel of diameter 1 m. While the
wheeler? bicycle is on a central stand, the wheel
4. Using the energy conservation, derive is set into rotation and it attains the
the expressions for the minimum speeds
frequency of 2 rev/s in 10 seconds, with
at different locations along a vertical
uniform angular acceleration. Calculate
circular motion controlled by gravity.
(i) Number of revolutions completed by
Is zero speed possible at the uppermost
point? Under what condition/s? Also the ant in these 10 seconds. (ii) Time
prove that the difference between the taken by it for first complete revolution
extreme tensions (or normal forces) and the last complete revolution.
depends only upon the weight of the [Ans:10= rev., tfirst =10 s, t last 0.5132 s ]
object. 13. Coefficient of static friction between
5. Discuss the necessity of radius of a coin and a gramophone disc is 0.5.
gyration. Define it. On what factors does Radius of the disc is 8 cm. Initially the
it depend and it does not depend? Can centre of the coin is π cm away from
you locate some similarity between the the centre of the disc. At what minimum
centre of mass and radius of gyration? frequency will it start slipping from

24
 there? By what factor will the answer motorcycle varies between 6 m/s and 10
change if the coin is almost at the rim? m/s. Calculate diameter of the sphere of
(use g = π2 m/s2) death. How much minimum values are
1
[Ans: 2.5 rev/s, n2 = n1 ] possible for these two speeds?
2
14. Part of a racing track is to be designed [Ans: Diameter = 3.2 m,
for a curvature of 72 m. We are not (v1)min = 4 m/s, (v2)min = 4 5 m / s ]
recommending the vehicles to drive 19. A metallic ring of mass 1 kg has moment
faster than 216 kmph. With what angle of inertia 1 kg m2 when rotating about
should the road be tilted? By what height one of its diameters. It is molten and
will its outer edge be, with respect to the remoulded into a thin uniform disc of the
inner edge if the track is 10 m wide? same radius. How much will its moment
[Ans:   tan 1 ( 5)  78.69 o ,h  9.8 m ] of inertia be, when rotated about its own
15. The road in the question 14 above is axis.
constructed as per the requirements. The [Ans: 1 kg m2]
coefficient of static friction between the 20. A big dumb-bell is prepared by using a
tyres of a vehicle on this road is 0.8, will uniform rod of mass 60 g and length 20
there be any lower speed limit? By how cm. Two identical solid spheres of mass
much can the upper speed limit exceed in 50 g and radius 10 cm each are at the
this case? two ends of the rod. Calculate moment
[Ans: vmin ≅ 88kmph , no upper limit as of inertia of the dumb-bell when rotated
the road is banked for   45o ] about an axis passing through its centre
16. During a stunt, a cyclist (considered to and perpendicular to the length.
be a particle) is undertaking horizontal [Ans: 24000 g cm-2]
circles inside a cylindrical well of 21. A flywheel used to prepare earthenware
radius 6.05 m. If the necessary friction pots is set into rotation at 100 rpm. It is
coefficient is 0.5, how much minimum in the form of a disc of mass 10 kg and
speed should the stunt artist maintain? radius 0.4 m. A lump of clay (to be taken
Mass of the artist is 50 kg. If she/he equivalent to a particle) of mass 1.6 kg
increases the speed by 20%, how much falls on it and adheres to it at a certain
will the force of friction be? distance x from the centre. Calculate x if
[Ans: vmin = 11 m/s, = = 500N ]
f s mg the wheel now rotates at 80 rpm.
17. A pendulum consisting of a massless 1
=
[Ans: x = m 0.35 m ]
string of length 20 cm and a tiny bob 8
of mass 100 g is set up as a conical 22. Starting from rest, an object rolls down
pendulum. Its bob now performs 75 rpm. along an incline that rises by 3 in every
Calculate kinetic energy and increase in 5 (along it). The object gains a speed of
the gravitational potential energy of the 5
10 m/s as it travels a distance of
bob. (Use  2  10 ) 3
[Ans: cos   0.8, K.E. = 0.45 J, m along the incline. What can be the
  P.E   0.04 J] possible shape/s of the object?
K2
18. A motorcyclist (as a particle) is [Ans: 2 = 1. Thus, a ring or
undergoing vertical circles inside R
a sphere of death. The speed of the a hollow cylinder]

25