Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.5.: EE1 -1S

College: Engineering
Campus: Bambang

BSECE/BSME COURSE
DEGREE PROGRAM EE 01
NO.
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION Circuits 1/Basic Electrical Engineering
TITLE
YEAR LEVEL 2nd Year TIME WK NO. IM NO. 05
FRAME

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Network Laws, Theorems, and Principles

II. LESSON TITLE

I. Kirchhoff’s Law
II. Maxwell’s Loop (Mesh) Method
III. Superposition Method
IV. Nodal Method
V. Source Transformation
VI. Millman’s Theorem
VII. Thevenin’s Theorem
VIII. Norton’s Theorem
IX. Maximum Power Transfer
III. LESSON OVERVIEW

This chapter introduces a number of theorems that have application throughout the field of electricity and
electronics. Not only can they be used to solve networks such as encountered in the previous chapter,
but they also provide an opportunity to determine the impact of a particular source or element on the
response of the entire system. In most cases, the network to be analyzed and the mathematics required
to find the solution are simplified. All of the theorems appear again in the analysis of ac networks. In fact,
the application of each theorem to ac networks is very similar in content to that found in this chapter.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Recognize the different method in solving electrical networks.
2. Explain the behavior of electric circuits using network laws and theorems.
3. Apply Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorem to reduce any two-terminal network with any number of
sources.
4. Apply the maximum power transfer theorem to determine the maximum power to a load and to
choose a load that will receive maximum power.

V. COURSE CONTENT

NETWORK LAWS, THEOREMS AND PRINCIPLES

INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1 introduced basic concepts such as current, voltage, and power in an electric circuit. To actually determine
the values of these variables in a given circuit requires that we understand some fundamental laws that govern
electric circuits. These laws, known as Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, form the foundation upon which electric
circuit analysis is built.
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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In this chapter, in addition to these laws, we shall discuss some techniques commonly applied in circuit
design and analysis. These techniques include combining resistors in series or parallel, voltage division,
current division, and delta-to-wye and wye-to-delta transformations. The application of these laws and
techniques will be restricted to resistive circuits in this chapter. We will finally apply the laws and
techniques to real-life problems of electrical lighting and the design of dc meters

5.1 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled with
Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety of
electric circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887). These laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the
algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of the currents at any junction or
node of an electric circuit is zero. Mathematically, KCL implies that
𝑁

∑ 𝑖𝑛 = 0
𝑛=1
Where:
N – number of branches connected to the node
in – is the nth current entering or leaving by the node

Illustration:

𝒊𝟏
𝒊𝟓

𝒊𝟐
𝒊𝟒

𝒊𝟑

𝑖1 + (−𝑖2 ) + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 + (−𝑖5 ) = 0
𝑖1 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖5

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of the emf’s and the resistance
voltage drops in any closed loop of an electric circuit is zero. Expressed mathematically, KVL
states that
𝑀

∑ 𝑣𝑚 = 0
𝑚=1
Where:
M – number of voltages in the loop or the number of branches in the loop
vm – is the mth voltages
Illustration:

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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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+ 𝒗𝟐 - + 𝒗𝟑 -

𝒗𝟏 + −
− + 𝒗𝟒

− 𝒗𝟓 +

𝑣1 + (−𝑣2 ) + (−𝑣3 ) + 𝑣4 + (−𝑣5 ) = 0

𝑣1 + 𝑣4 = 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + 𝑣5

Sign Convention for Kirchhoff’s Law

✓ Current towards the node, positive current.
✓ Current away from the node, negative current.
✓ In a voltage source, if loop enters on minus sign and goes out on plus, positive emf.
✓ In a voltage source, if loop enters on plus sign and goes out on minus, negative emf.
✓ In a resistance, if the loop direction is the same as the current direction, negative
resistance voltage drop.
✓ In a resistance, if the loop direction is opposite to the current direction, positive resistance
voltage drop.

EXAMPLE 5.1
Determine the current at 5Ω, 10Ω and 15Ω using Kirchhoff’s Law in the circuit shown.
5Ω 10Ω

12V 15Ω 10V

Solution:
𝑰𝟏 5Ω 𝒙 10Ω 𝑰𝟐
𝑰𝟑

12V Loop A 15Ω Loop B 10V

𝐾𝑉𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝐴:
12 − 5𝐼1 − 15𝐼3 = 0 (1)
10 − 10𝐼2 − 15𝐼3 = 0 (2)

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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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𝐾𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑥:
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0 (3)
Currents I1, I2 and I3 are evaluated simultaneous substitution or elimination of the equations
formulated or Cramer’s Rule using KVL and KCL.

Method 1: Using the Elimination technique.

Add (1) and (3) x 5
−5𝐼1 − 15𝐼3 = −12
5𝐼1 + 5𝐼2 − 5𝐼3 = 0
5𝐼2 − 20𝐼3 = −12 (4)

Add (2) and (4) x 2

−10𝐼2 − 15𝐼3 = −10
10𝐼2 − 40𝐼3 = −24
−55𝐼3 = −34
𝟑𝟒
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑨
𝟓𝟓
From (1)
12 − 5𝐼1 − 15𝐼3 = 0
34
12 − 5𝐼1 − 15 ( ) = 0
55
30
−5𝐼1 = −
11
𝟔
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑨
𝟏𝟏
From (2)
10 − 10𝐼2 − 15𝐼3 = 0
34
10 − 10𝐼2 − 15 ( ) = 0
55
8
−10𝐼2 = −
11
𝟒
𝑰𝟐 = 𝑨
𝟓𝟓

Method 1: Using Cramer’s Rule.

12 − 5𝐼1 − 15𝐼3 = 0 (1)
10 − 10𝐼2 − 15𝐼3 = 0 (2)
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0 (3)
We need to put equations in Augmented Matrix

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Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.5.: EE1 -1S

I1 I2 I3 C
−5 0 −15 −12
[ 0 −10 −15| −10]
1 1 −1 0
−5 0 −15
𝐷=[ 0 −10 −15]
1 1 −1
𝐷 = [(−5)(−10)(−1) + (0)(−15)(1) + (−15)(1)(0)] −
[(1)(−10)(−15) + (1)(−15)(−5) + (−1)(0)(0)]

𝐷 = −50 − 150 − 75
𝐷 = −275
−12 0 −15
[−10 −10 −15]
𝐼1 = 0 1 −1
𝐷
[(−12)(−10)(−1) + 0 + (−15)(1)(−10)] − [0 + (1)(−15)(−12) + 0]
𝐼1 =
−275
−120 + 150 − 180
𝐼1 =
−275
−150
𝐼1 =
−275
𝟔
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑨
𝟏𝟏

−5 −12 −15
[ 0 −10 −15]
𝐼2 = 1 0 −1
𝐷
[(−5)(−10)(−1) + (−12)(−15)(1) + 0] − [(1)(−10)(−15) + 0 + 0]
𝐼2 =
−275
−50 + 180 − 150
𝐼2 =
−275
−20
𝐼2 =
−275
𝟒
𝑰𝟐 = 𝑨
𝟓𝟓

−5 0 −12
[ 0 −10 −10]
𝐼3 = 1 1 0
𝐷
[0 + 0 + 0] − [(1)(−10)(−12) + (1)(−10)(−5) + 0]
𝐼3 =
−275

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Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
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−120 − 50
𝐼3 =
−275
−170
𝐼3 =
−275
𝟑𝟒
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑨
𝟓𝟓

EXAMPLE 5.2
Determine vo and i in the circuit shown

𝟐𝒗𝟎
𝟒𝛀
+ − +
−

+ −
𝟏𝟐 𝐕 +
𝟒𝐕
-

𝟔𝛀

+ 𝒗𝟎 −
Solution:

𝒊 𝟐𝒗𝟎
𝟒𝛀
+ − +
−

+ 𝒊 −
𝟏𝟐 𝐕 + 𝟒𝐕
-

𝟔𝛀

+ 𝒗𝟎 −

KVL at loop i:
12 − 4𝑖 − 2𝑣0 + 4 − 6𝑖 = 0
16 − 10𝑖 − 2𝑣0 = 0 (1)
also,
𝑣0 = −6𝑖 (2)
Substituting (2) in (1)
16 − 10𝑖 − 2(−6𝑖) = 0
16 − 10𝑖 + 12𝑖 = 0
16 + 2𝑖 = 0
𝒊 = −𝟖 𝑨
and
𝑣0 = −6𝑖
𝑣0 = −6(−8)
𝒗𝟎 = 𝟒𝟖 𝑽

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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bambang, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.5.: EE1 -1S

EXAMPLE 5.3
Find current i0 and voltage v0 in the circuit shown.

𝒙
𝒊𝟎

𝟎. 𝟓𝒊𝟎 𝒗𝟎 𝟖𝛀 𝟑𝐀

Solution:

KCL at node x:
0.5𝑖𝑜 + 3 = 𝑖0
3
𝑖0 =
0.5
𝒊𝟎 = 𝟔 𝑨

𝑣0 = 8𝑖0
𝑣0 = 8(6)
𝒗𝟎 = 𝟒𝟖 𝑽

Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown.

𝒊𝟏 𝒊𝟐
2Ω 4Ω
+ 𝒗𝟏 - + 𝒗𝟐 -
𝒊𝟑

+
5V 𝒗𝟑 6Ω 3V
-

Find v0 and i0 in the circuit shown.

𝒊𝟎
+
𝒊𝟎 𝒗𝟎
8A 2Ω 6Ω
𝟒 -

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Find v0 and vx in the circuit shown.

10Ω
+ 𝒗𝒙 −

+ +
𝟒𝟓𝑽 𝟐𝒗𝒙
- -

5Ω

+ 𝒗𝟎 −

ASSESSMENT

PROBLEM 1
Obtain v and I in the circuit shown.

PROBLEM 2
Determine the current ix in the circuit shown.

5.2 MAXWELL’S MESH METHOD

Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits, using mesh currents as the
circuit variables. Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit variables is convenient and
reduces the number of equations that must be solved simultaneously. Recall that a loop is a closed path
with no node passed more than once. A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.
This method involves a set of independent loop currents assigned to as many meshes as it exist in the
circuit and these currents are employed in connection with appropriate resistance when the KVL
equations are written.

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Illustration:
𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑰𝑨 𝑰𝑩

𝑬𝟏 𝑳𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝑨 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝑩 𝑬𝟐
𝑰𝟑

Mesh at Loop A:
𝐸1 − (𝑅1 + 𝑅3 )𝐼𝐴 + 𝑅3 𝐼𝐵 = 0

Mesh at Loop B:
𝐸2 − (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )𝐼𝐵 + 𝑅3 𝐼𝐴 = 0

Mesh currents IA and IB are evaluated by simultaneous substitution of the equations formulated from each
loop or mesh using KVL.

𝑰𝟏 = |𝑰𝑨 |
𝑰𝟐 = |𝑰𝑩 |
𝑰𝟑 = |𝑰𝑨 + 𝑰𝑩 |

EXAMPLE 5.4
Determine the current at 5Ω, 10Ω and 15Ω in the circuit shown using Mesh Analysis.
5Ω 10Ω

12V 15Ω 10V

Solution:
𝑰𝟏 5Ω 10Ω 𝑰𝟐
𝑰𝟑

12V Loop A 15Ω Loop B 10V

𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝐴:
12 − 20𝐼𝐴 − 15𝐼𝐵 = 0 (1)
𝑀𝑒𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝐵:

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10 − 25𝐼𝐵 − 15𝐼𝐴 = 0 (2)

Using Cramer’s Rule.

12 − 20𝐼𝐴 − 15𝐼𝐵 = 0 (1)
10 − 25𝐼𝐵 − 15𝐼𝐴 = 0 (2)
We need to put equations in Augmented Matrix

IA IB C
−20 −15 −12
[ | ]
−15 −25 −10
IA IB C
20 15 12
[ | ]
15 25 10

20 15
𝐷=[ ]
15 25
𝐷 = [(20)(25)] − [(15)(15)]

𝐷 = 500 − 225

𝐷 = 275
12 15
[ ]
𝐼𝐴 = 10 25
𝐷
[(12)(25)] − [(10)(15)]
𝐼𝐴 =
275
300 − 150
𝐼𝐴 =
−275
150
𝐼𝐴 =
275
𝟔
𝑰𝑨 = 𝑨 = 𝑰𝟏
𝟏𝟏

20 12
[ ]
𝐼𝐵 = 15 10
𝐷
[(20)(10)] − [(15)(12)]
𝐼𝐵 =
275
200 − 180
𝐼𝐵 =
275
20
𝐼𝐵 =
275
𝟒
𝑰𝑩 = 𝑨 = 𝑰𝟐
𝟓𝟓

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6 4
𝐼3 = |𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 | = | + |
11 55
𝟑𝟒
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑨
𝟓𝟓

EXAMPLE 5.5
Use mesh analysis to find the current I0 in the circuit shown.

Solution:
Mesh at Loop 1:
24 − 22𝑖1 + 10𝑖2 + 12𝑖3 = 0 (1)
Mesh at Loop 2:
10𝑖1 − 38𝑖2 + 4𝑖3 = 0 (2)
Mesh at Loop 3:
12𝑖1 + 4𝑖2 − 16𝑖3 − 4𝐼0 = 0 (3)
But at node A:
𝑖1 = 𝑖2 + 𝐼0
𝐼0 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖2 (4)
from (3):
12𝑖1 + 4𝑖2 − 16𝑖3 − 4𝐼0 = 0
12𝑖1 + 4𝑖2 − 16𝑖3 − 4(𝑖1 − 𝑖2 ) = 0
8𝑖1 + 8𝑖2 − 16𝑖3 = 0 (5)
Solving simultaneously
24 − 22𝑖1 + 10𝑖2 + 12𝑖3 = 0 (1)
10𝑖1 − 38𝑖2 + 4𝑖3 = 0 (2)
8𝑖1 + 8𝑖2 − 16𝑖3 = 0 (5)
In matrix form

i1 i2 i3 C
−22 10 12 −24
[ 10 −38 4 | 0 ]
8 8 −16 0

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−22 10 12
𝐷 = [ 10 −38 4 ]
8 8 −16
𝐷 = [(−22)(−38)(−16) + (10)(4)(8) + (12)(8)(10)] −
[(8)(−38)(12) + (8)(4)(−22) + (−16)(10)(10)]

𝐷 = −12096 + 5952
𝐷 = −6144
−24 10 12
[ 0 −38 4 ]
𝑖1 = 0 8 −16
𝐷
[(−24)(−38)(−16) + 0 + 0] − [0 + (8)(4)(−24) + 0]
𝑖1 =
−6144
−14592 + 768
𝑖1 =
−6144
−13824
𝑖1 =
−6144
𝒊𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝑨

−22 −24 12
[ 10 0 4 ]
𝑖2 = 8 0 −16
𝐷
[0 + (−24)(4)(8) + 0] − [0 + 0 + (−16)(−24)(10)]
𝑖2 =
−6144
−768 − 3840
𝑖2 =
−6144
−4608
𝑖2 =
−6144
𝒊𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝑨

−22 10 −24
[ 10 −38 0 ]
𝑖3 = 8 8 0
𝐷
[0 + 0 + (−24)(8)(10)] − [(8)(−38)(−24) + 0 + 0]
𝑖3 =
−6144
−1920 − 7296
𝑖3 =
−6144
−9216
𝑖3 =
−6144
𝒊𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝑨
Thus,
𝐼0 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖2

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𝐼0 = 2.25 − 0.75
𝑰𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝑨

Applying mesh analysis to circuits containing current sources (dependent or independent) may appear
complicated. But it is actually much easier than what we encountered in the previous section, because
the presence of the current sources reduces the number of equations. Consider the following two possible
cases.

CASE 1: When a current source exists only in one mesh.

EXAMPLE 5.6
Determine the mesh current i1 and i2 in the circuit shown.

Solution:
Mesh @ loop 2:
𝒊𝟐 = −𝟓 𝑨
Mesh @ loop 1:

10 − 10𝑖1 + 6𝑖2 = 0
10 − 10𝑖1 + 6(−5) = 0

−10𝑖1 − 20 = 0
𝒊𝟏 = −𝟐 𝑨

CASE 2: When a current source exists between two meshes. A supermesh results when two meshes have
a (dependent or independent) current source in common.

Note the following properties of a supermesh:

1. The current source in the supermesh provides the constraint equation necessary to solve
for the mesh currents.
2. A supermesh has no current of its own.
3. A supermesh requires the application of both KVL and KCL.

EXAMPLE 5.7
Find the mesh current i1 and i2 in the circuit shown.
𝟔𝜴 𝟏𝟎𝜴

𝟐𝛀
+
𝟐𝟎 𝑽 -
𝒊𝟏 𝒊𝟐 𝟒𝜴

𝟔𝐀
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Solution:

Two meshes having a current source in common

𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

At supermesh:
20 − 6𝑖1 − 14𝑖2 = 0

Apply KCL to a node in the branch where the two meshes intersect.

𝟔𝐀

𝒊𝟏 𝑥 𝒊𝟐
KCL at node x
𝑖2 = 𝑖1 + 6

Substituting,
20 − 6𝑖1 − 14(𝑖1 + 6) = 0
20 − 20𝑖1 − 84 = 0
−64
𝑖1 =
20
𝒊𝟏 = −𝟑. 𝟐 𝑨
also
𝑖2 = 𝑖1 + 6
𝑖2 = (−3.2) + 6
𝒊𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟖 𝑨

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IM No.5.: EE1 -1S

Calculate the mesh currents in the circuit shown.

Using mesh analysis, find i0 in the circuit shown.

Use mesh analysis to determine i1, i2, and i3 in the circuit shown.

ASSESSMENT

PROBLEM 3
Obtain i in the circuit using mesh analysis

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PROBLEM 4
Using mesh analysis, find V0 in the circuit shown.

PROBLEM 5
Apply mesh analysis to find i.

PROBLEM 6
Use mesh analysis to find i1, i2, and i3 in the circuit.

5.3 NODAL ANALYSIS

Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the circuit
variables. Choosing node voltages instead of element voltages as circuit variables is convenient and
reduces the number of equations one must solve simultaneously.

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To simplify matters, we shall assume in this section that circuits do not contain voltage sources. Circuits
that contain voltage sources will be analyzed in the next section.
In nodal analysis, we are interested in finding the node voltages. Given a circuit with n nodes without
voltage sources, the nodal analysis of the circuit involves taking the following three steps.
Steps to Determine Node Voltages:
1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v 1, v2, …, vn—1 to the remaining
n—1 nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n — 1 nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
branch currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages

Illustration:
𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝑰𝟑
𝒙 𝒚
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
𝑰𝟒 𝑰𝟓

𝑬𝟏 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟓 𝑬𝟐

𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆

Since there are three (n = 3) nodes in this circuit, therefore only two equations are needed to
solve this problem.

KCL at node x:
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼4
𝐸1 − 𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉𝑦 𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉0
= +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅4

KCL at node y:
𝐼5 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝑉𝑦 − 𝑉0 𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉𝑦 𝐸2 − 𝑉𝑦
= +
𝑅5 𝑅2 𝑅3

Node voltages Vx and Vy are evaluated by simultaneous substitutions of the equations

formulated using KCL and correspondingly, currents flowing through each resistance can be
solved.

EXAMPLE 5.8
Determine the current at 5Ω, 10Ω and 15Ω in the circuit shown using Nodal Analysis.
5Ω 10Ω

12V 15Ω 10V

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Solution:
𝑰𝟏 5Ω 𝒂 10Ω 𝑰𝟐
𝑰𝟑

12V Loop A 15Ω Loop B 10V

𝐾𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑎:
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3
12 − 𝑉𝑎 10 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎 − 0
+ =
5 10 15
1 1 1 12 10
𝑉𝑎 ( + + )− − =0
5 10 15 5 10
11 17
𝑉𝑎 ( ) =
30 5
𝟏𝟎𝟐
𝑽𝒂 = 𝑽
𝟏𝟏

12 − 𝑉𝑎
𝐼1 =
5
102
12 −
𝐼1 = 11
5
𝟔
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑨
𝟏𝟏

10 − 𝑉𝑎
𝐼2 =
10
102
10 −
𝐼2 = 11
10
𝟒
𝑰𝟐 = 𝑨
𝟓𝟓

𝑉𝑎 − 0
𝐼3 =
15
102
𝐼3 = 11
15
𝟑𝟒
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑨
𝟓𝟓

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EXAMPLE 5.9
Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown.

Solution:

@ node 1:
1 1 1
𝑉1 ( + ) − 𝑉2 ( ) − 5 = 0
2 4 4
3 1
𝑉1 ( ) − 𝑉2 ( ) − 5 = 0
4 4
@ node 2:
1 1 1
𝑉2 ( + ) − 𝑉1 ( ) − 10 + 5 = 0
6 4 4
1 5
−𝑉1 ( ) + 𝑉2 ( ) − 5 = 0
4 12
Solve simultaneously

V1 V2 C
3⁄4 −1⁄4 5
[ | ]
−1⁄4 5⁄12 5
3⁄4 −1⁄4 3 5 1 1
𝐷=[ ] = ( ) ( ) − (− ) (− )
−1⁄4 5⁄12 4 12 4 4
5 1
𝐷= −
16 16
𝟏
𝑫=
𝟒
5 −1⁄4
[ ]
5 5⁄12
𝑉1 =
𝐷
5 1
5 ( ) − 5(− )
𝑉1 = 12 4
1
4
𝟒𝟎
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽
𝟑
3⁄4 5
[ ]
−1⁄4 5
𝑉2 =
𝐷
3 1
( ) 5 − (− )5
𝑉2 = 4 4
1
4
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎 𝑽

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EXAMPLE 5.10
Determine the voltages at the node in the circuit shown.

Solution:

@ node 1:
1 1 1 1
𝑉1 ( + ) − 𝑉2 ( ) − 𝑉3 ( ) − 3 = 0
2 4 2 4
3 1 1
𝑉1 ( ) − 𝑉2 ( ) − 𝑉3 ( ) − 3 = 0
4 2 4
3𝑉1 − 2𝑉2 − 𝑉3 − 12 = 0

@ node 2:
1 1 1 1 1
𝑉2 ( + + ) − 𝑉1 ( ) − 𝑉3 ( ) = 0
2 4 8 2 8
1 7 1
−𝑉1 ( ) + 𝑉2 ( ) − 𝑉3 ( ) = 0
2 8 8
−4𝑉1 + 7𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = 0

@ node 3:
1 1 1 1
𝑉3 ( + ) − 𝑉2 ( ) − 𝑉1 ( ) + 2𝑖𝑥 = 0
4 8 8 4
1 1 3
−𝑉1 ( ) − 𝑉2 ( ) + 𝑉3 ( ) + 2𝑖𝑥 = 0
4 8 8
But,
𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑖𝑥 =
2
Substitute
1 1 3 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
−𝑉1 ( ) − 𝑉2 ( ) + 𝑉3 ( ) + 2 ( )=0
4 8 8 2
3 9 3
𝑉1 ( ) − 𝑉2 ( ) + 𝑉3 ( ) = 0
4 8 8
6𝑉1 − 9𝑉2 + 3𝑉3 = 0
2𝑉1 − 3𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 0

Solve simultaneously

V1 V2 V3 C
3 −2 −1 12
[−4 7 −1| 0 ]
2 −3 1 0

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3 −2 −1
𝐷 = [−4 7 −1]
2 −3 1
𝑫 = 𝟏𝟎

12 −2 −1
[0 7 −1]
𝑉1 = 0 −3 1
𝐷
48
𝑉1 =
10
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟖 𝑽

3 12 −1
[−4 0 −1]
𝑉2 = 2 0 1
𝐷
24
𝑉2 =
10
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟒 𝑽

3 −2 12
[−4 7 0]
𝑉3 = 2 −3 0
𝐷
−24
𝑉3 =
10
𝑽𝟑 = −𝟐. 𝟒 𝑽

Therefore
𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑖𝑥 =
2
4.8 − 2.4
𝑖𝑥 =
2
2.4
𝑖𝑥 =
2
𝒊𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝑨

We now consider how voltage sources affect nodal analysis. Consider the following two possibilities

Case 1: If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a nonreference node,
we simply set the voltage at the non- reference node equal to the voltage of the voltage
source.
Illustration:

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@ node 1:
𝒗𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑽

Case 2: If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between two

nonreference nodes, the two nonreference nodes form a generalized node or
supernode; we apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node voltages.

A supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source connected between

two nonreference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.

Note the following properties of a supernode:

1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint equation needed to
solve for the node voltages.
2. A supernode has no voltage of its own.
3. A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL

EXAMPLE 5.11
From the figure shown, find the node voltages.

Solution:

@ node 1:
𝒗𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑽

@ supernode:
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑣2 ( + ) − 𝑣1 ( ) + 𝑣3 ( + ) − 𝑣1 ( ) = 0
2 8 2 4 6 4
3 5 5
−𝑣1 ( ) + 𝑣2 ( ) + 𝑣3 ( ) = 0
4 8 12
−18𝑣1 + 15𝑣2 + 10𝑣3 = 0
−(18)(10)+15𝑣2 + 10𝑣3 = 0

−180+15𝑣2 + 10𝑣3 = 0

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Redraw the circuit at the supernode

KVL to the loop

𝒗𝟐 − 𝟓 − 𝒗𝟑 = 𝟎
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟓 + 𝒗𝟑

Solve simultaneously
−180+15𝑣2 + 10𝑣3 = 0
−180 + 15(5 + 𝑣3 ) + 10𝑣3 = 0
−180 + 75 + 25𝑣3 = 0
105
𝑣3 =
25
𝟐𝟏
𝒗𝟑 = 𝑽
𝟓
𝑣2 = 5 + 𝑣3
21
𝑣2 = 5 +
5
𝟒𝟔
𝒗𝟐 = 𝑽
𝟓

EXAMPLE 5.12
For the figure shown, find the node voltages.

Solution:

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@ supernode

1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑣1 ( + ) − 𝑣2 ( ) − 2 + 𝑣2 ( + ) − 𝑣1 ( ) + 7 = 0
10 2 10 10 4 10

1 1
𝑣1 ( ) + 𝑣2 ( ) + 5 = 0
2 4

2𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 20 = 0

Redraw the circuit

KVL to the loop

𝑣1 + 2 − 𝑣2 = 0
𝑣2 = 𝑣1 + 2

Solve simultaneously
2𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 20 = 0
2𝑣1 + 𝑣1 + 2 + 20 = 0
3𝑣1 + 22 = 0
𝟐𝟐
𝒗𝟏 = − 𝑽
𝟑
𝑣2 = 𝑣1 + 2
22
𝑣2 = − +2
3
𝟏𝟔
𝒗𝟐 = − 𝑽
𝟑

Determine the node voltages in the circuit shown.

Find the node voltages at the three nonreference nodes in the circuit of figure shown.

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Find v and i in the circuit of figure shown

Find v1, v2, and v3 in the circuit shown using nodal analysis.

ASSESSMENT

PROBLEM 7
Obtain i in the circuit using nodal analysis.

PROBLEM 8
Use nodal analysis to determine the node voltages in the circuit shown.

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PROBLEM 9
Calculate I0 using nodal analysis.

PROBLEM 10
Calculate i0 and v0 using nodal analysis.

REFERENCES

B. L.Theraja, A.K. Theraja, Textbook of Electrical Technology Volume I –, S. Chand & Co.

Charles k. Alexander & Matthew N. Sadiku. (2000). Fundamentals of Electric Circuits. New York: Mc
Graww Hill Companies Inc.
Siskind, C. S. (1982). Electrical Circuits. Johannesburg: Mc- Graw Hill International Book Company.

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