Chapter 11: Introduction

to Genetics
Class Biology

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Mendel
11.1
s Experiments
The Work of
Gregor Mendel
The Role of Fertilization
Genes & Alleles
Dominant & Recessive Alleles
Segregation
The F₁ Cross
Gamete Formation
11.2 Applying s Principles
Mendel
Probability & Punnett Squares
Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes
Genotype & Phenotype
Using Punnett Squares
Independent Assortment
Mendel Principles
s
11.3 Inheritance
Other Patterns of
Beyond Dominant and Recessive Alleles
Non-Mendelian Inheritance
Genes and the Environment
11.4 Meiosis

Chromosome Numbers
Diploid and Haploid Cells
Phases of Meiosis
Meiosis I
Meiosis II
Gametes & Zygotes
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Chapter 11 Introduction to Genetics 1
Meiosis vs. Mitosis
Gene Linkage & Gene Mapping
Gene Linkage
Gene Mapping

11.1 — The Work of Gregor Mendel

Mendel’s Experiments
Genetics: study of heredity

Heredity: the delivery of characteristics from parent to offspring

What makes organisms unique

Gregor Mendel (Austrian monk) studied peas.

Easy to work with

Quickly-growing

The Role of Fertilization

Male part of a flower → sperm (pollen)

Female part of a flower → eggs

Fertilization → male and female reproductive cells join

Produces a new cell (develops into am embryo)

Trait: a specific characteristic of an individual (ex. color, height, size)

Pea plants are self-pollinating (both male and female reproductive

organs). Mendel cross-pollinated plants to see genetic differences

Hybrids: offspring of crosses between parents with different traits

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Genes & Alleles

P (Parental Generation) → original pair of plants

F₁ (First Filial Generation) → offspring of the P generation

Hybrid pea plants only had traits from one parent

Genes: factors that are passed from one parental generation to the next

Pea plants showed different forms of a trait (ex. tall, short) Alleles:

different forms of a gene

Dominant & Recessive Alleles

Principle of Dominance: some alleles are dominant and some are recessive

At least one dominance allele exhibits the dominant trait

No dominant alleles exhibit the recessive trait

Segregation
F₂ Generation (Second Filial Generation) → offspring of the F₁ generation

The F₁ Cross
Recessive alleles reappeared in the F₂ plants.

Segregation: separation of alleles

Gametes: sex cells

Dominant and recessive alleles segregate when gametes form

Gamete Formation

Each gamete contains only one allele for a gene.

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Chapter 11 Introduction to Genetics 3
F₂ generation → new combinations of alleles

11.2 — Applying Mendel’s Principles

Probability & Punnett Squares
Dominant → T

Recessive → t

Crosses: Tt X Tt → TT, Tt, Tt, tt

1/4 are recessive (probability)

Probability: the likelihood that a certain event will occur

Past outcomes don’t affect future results

Using Segregation to Predict Outcomes

Probability of having tt allele → 1/4

1/4 of offspring will show recessive trait

Homozygous → two identical alleles for a gene (TT or tt)

Heterozygous → two different alleles for the same gene (Tt)

Averages get closer to predicted values from probability with more cases (more
offspring).

Genotype & Phenotype

Genotype: genetic makeup (ex. TT, Tt, tt)
Phenotype: physical traits (ex. tall, short)

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Chapter 11 Introduction to Genetics 4
Genotype → Phenotype

Using Punnett Squares

Punnett Square: diagram of a genetic
cross

Mathematical probabilities

Predict genotype and phenotype

combinations

Monohybrid Cross: 2x2 punnett

square

One trait

Dihybrid Cross: 2x2 punnett square

Two traits

Independent Assortment
Principle of Independent Assortment
→ genes for different traits can
segregate independently during
gamete formation

Accounts for genetic variation in

organisms

Mendel’s Principles
 1. The inheritance of biological characteristics is determined by individual units
called genes that are passed from parent to offspring.

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2. When two or more forms of a gene exist, some may be dominant and some
may be recessive.

3. In most sexually-reproducing organisms, each adult has two copies of a gene

- one from each parent. The genes segregate from each other when gametes
are formed.

4. Alleles for different genes segregate independently of each other.

11.3 — Other Patterns of Inheritance

Beyond Dominant and Recessive Alleles

Incomplete Dominance: cases in which one allele is not completely dominant over
another

Some alleles are neither dominant nor recessive.

Codominance: phenotypes of multiple alleles are clearly expressed (ex. human

blood)

Multiple Alleles → more than two alleles of a gene

Polygenic Traits: traits controlled by multiple genes (interaction of several genes)

Wide range of phenotypes

Non-Mendelian Inheritance
Doesn’t follow Mendel’s principles

Maternal Inheritance: only traits from the mother are expressed Chloroplasts
 and mitochondria contains there own genes (from the egg cell)

Genetic Imprinting: chemical modification of genes

Genes and the Environment

An organism’s characteristics are not only affected by its genetic makeup.

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Also affected by the environment

Environmental conditions can affect gene expression and influence

genetically-determined traits.

11.4 — Meiosis
Chromosome Numbers
Mendel’s principles require two events to occur:

Organisms inherit a single copy of a gene from each parent Sets of genes

must be separated so that gametes contain one set of genes

Gametes: sex cells

Chromosomes are the carriers of genes

Diploid and Haploid Cells

Homologous Chromosomes: 8 chromosomes (4 from each parent)

Diploid → 2 sets of homologous chromosomes (2N)

Haploid → 1 set of homologous chromosomes (N)

Phases of Meiosis
Meiosis → cuts the number of chromosomes in half

Diploid cell → 4 haploid cells

Meiosis I
Chromosomes replicate beforehand

Replicated chromosome = 2 identical chromatids joined

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Chromosomes pair up

Tetrads (pairing of homologous chromosomes - 4

chromatids) form

Crossing Over: a process for chromosomes to exchange linked genes

(chromosomes switch some of their genes)

Paired homologous chromosomes align themselves in

the center of the cell

Spindle fibers pull them

Spindle fibers pull each homologous chromosome pair

to opposite ends of the cell

Nuclear membrane reforms around chromosomes

Cytokinesis → splits the cell to form two new cells

Chromosome pairs are shuffled and different

Meiosis II
No chromosome replication

Another round of division

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Chromosomes become visible

Homologous pairs are already separated

(from Meiosis I)

Chromosomes are lined up in the middle of

the cell

Spindle fibers align them

Paired chromatids separate

Brought to opposite ends of the cell

Cells finally divide and separate

Nuclear envelope reforms

Ending Result: 4 Haploid Cells

Gametes & Zygotes
Male gametes → sperm

Female gametes → eggs

Sperm + egg = fertilized egg (zygote)

Undergoes cell division to form a new organism

Meiosis vs. Mitosis

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Allele Separation: separated in meiosis, but not mitosis

Chromosome Number: halved in meiosis, but not mitosis

Number of Cell Divisions: 2 in meiosis, but not mitosis

Gene Linkage & Gene Mapping

Gene Linkage
Genes on the same chromosome are regularly expressed together

“Linked” on the same chromosome

Linkage groups → different genes commonly expressed together

Gene Mapping
Alfred Sturtevant → student at Columbia University

Made a theory on gene locations

↑ Distance between genes on a chromosome = ↑ Probability of genes crossing

over

Figured out distance between genes

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