Strength of material

1-1 Introduction:

Three fundamental areas of engineering mechanics are static, dynamic and strength
of material. Static and dynamics are devoted to the study of the effect of external
forces on rigid bodies. That is the bodies for which the change in shape
(deformation) can be neglected.

In contrast, strength of material deals with the relations between the externally
applied load and their internal effects on bodies. When external forces act on a body,
two things happen. First, internal forces that resist the actions of the external forces
are set up in the body. These internal forces produce stresses in the material of the
body. Second, the external forces produce deformations, or changes in shape, of the
body.

Strength of materials, or mechanics of materials, is the study of the properties of

material of bodies that enable them to resist the actions of external forces, of the
stresses within the bodies, and of the deformations of bodies that result from
external forces.

1-2 Axially Loaded Bar

Consider straight metal bar of constant cross section, loaded at its ends by a pair of
oppositely directed collinear forces coinciding with the longitudinal axis of the bar
and acting through the centroid of each cross section. If the forces are directed away
from the bar, the bar is said to be in tension; if they are directed toward the bar, a
state of compression.

Fig. 1-1 Axially loaded bars

Under the action of this pair of applied forces, internal resisting forces are set up
within the bar. Imagining a plane to be passed through the bar anywhere along its
length and oriented perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bar, the portion to
the left this ‘‘effect’’ must be a horizontal force of magnitude P.
 Fig. 1-2 Internal force.

1-3 Normal Stress (σ)

The intensity of normal force per unit area is termed the normal stress and is
expressed in units of force per unit area, N/m2. If the forces applied to the ends of
the bar are such that the bar is in tension, then tensile stresses are set up in the bar; if
the bar is in compression we have compressive stresses.

1-4 Normal Strain (ε)

The elongation per unit length, which is termed normal strain and denoted by (ε)
and found by dividing the total elongation ΔL by the length L, i.e.,

1-5 Stress-Strain Curve

As the axial load in Fig. 1-1 is gradually increased, the total elongation over the bar
length is measured at each increment of load and this is continued until fracture of
the specimen takes place. Knowing the original cross-sectional area of the test
specimen, the normal stress can be obtained for any value of the axial load. Having
obtained numerous pairs of values of normal stress σ and normal strain ε,
experimental data may be plotted with these quantities considered as ordinate and
abscissa, respectively. This is the stress-strain curve or diagram of the material for
this type of loading. Stress-strain diagrams assume widely differing forms for
various materials. Figure 1-3(a) is the stress-strain diagram for a medium-carbon
structural steel, Fig. 1-3(b) is for alloy steel, and Fig. 1-3(c) is for hard steels and
certain nonferrous alloys. For nonferrous alloys and cast iron the diagram has the
form indicated in Fig. 1-3(d).
1-6 Ductile and Brittle Materials

Metallic engineering materials are commonly classified as either ductile or brittle

materials. A ductile material is one having a relatively large tensile strain up to the
point of rupture (for example, structural steel or aluminum) whereas a brittle
material has a relatively small strain up to this same point. An arbitrary strain of
0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as the dividing line between these two classes of
materials. Cast iron and concrete are examples of brittle materials.

1-7: Hooke’s Law

For any material having a stress-strain curve of the form shown in Fig. 1-3(a), (b), or
(c), it is evident that the relation between stress and strain is linear for comparatively
small values of the strain. This linear relation between elongation and the axial force
causing it is called Hooke’s law. To describe this initial linear range of action of the
material we may consequently write

σ=Eε

Where E denotes the slope of the straight-line portion OP of each of the curves in
Figs.1-3(a), (b), and (c). The quantity E, i.e., the ratio of the unit stress to the unit
strain, is the modulus of elasticity of the material in tension, or, as it is often called,
Young’s modulus. Values of E for various engineering materials are tabulated in
handbooks. Table 1-1show the properties for common materials. Since the unit
strain ε is a pure number (being a ratio of two lengths) it is evident that E has the
same units as does the stress, N/m2. For many common engineering materials the
modulus of elasticity in compression is very nearly equal to that found in tension.
1-8: Mechanical Properties of Materials

The stress-strain curve shown in Fig. 1-3(a) may be used to characterize several
strength characteristics of the material. They are:

1- Proportional Limit

The ordinate of the point P is known as the proportional limit, i.e., the maximum
stress that may be developed during a simple tension test such that the stress is a
linear function of strain. For a material having the stress-strain curve shown in Fig.
1-3(d), there is no proportional limit.

2- Elastic Limit

The ordinate of a point almost coincident with P is known as the elastic limit, i.e.,
the maximum stress that may be developed during a simple tension test such that
there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed. For
many materials the numerical values of the elastic limit and the proportional limit
are almost identical and the terms are sometimes used synonymously.

3- Elastic and Plastic Ranges

The region of the stress-strain curve extending from the origin to the proportional
limit is called the elastic range. The region of the stress-strain curve extending from
the proportional limit to the point of rupture is called the plastic range.

4- Yield Point
The ordinate of the point Y in Fig. 1-3(a), denoted by σyp, at which there is an
increase in strain with no increase in stress, is known as the yield point of the
material. After loading has progressed to the point Y, yielding is said to take place.

5- Ultimate Strength or Tensile Strength

The ordinate of the point U in Fig. 1-3(a), the maximum ordinate to the curve, is
known either as the ultimate strength or the tensile strength of the material.

6- Breaking Strength

The ordinate of the point B in Fig. 1-3(a) is called the breaking strength of the
material.

7- Working Stress

The above-mentioned strength characteristics may be used to select a working stress.

Frequently such a stress is determined merely by dividing either the stress at yield or
the ultimate stress by a number termed the safety factor. Selection of the safety
factor is based upon the designer’s judgment and experience. Specific safety factors
are sometimes specified in design codes.

8- Yield Strength

The ordinate to the stress-strain curve such that the material has a predetermined
permanent deformation or ‘‘set’’ when the load is removed is called the yield
strength of the material. The permanent set is often taken to be either 0.002 or
0.0035 mm per mm. These values are of course arbitrary. In Fig. 1-3(d) a set ε1 is
denoted on the strain axis and the line O′Y is drawn parallel to the initial tangent to
the curve. The ordinate of Y represents the yield strength of the material, sometimes
called the proof stress.

9- Poisson’s Ratio

When a bar is subjected to a simple tensile loading there is an increase in length of

the bar in the direction of the load, but a decrease in the lateral dimensions
perpendicular to the load. The ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to that in the
axial direction is defined as Poisson’s ratio. It is denoted by the Greek letter υ. For
most metals it lies in the range 0.25 to 0.35.

1-9 Solved Problems:

P1.1. In following Figure, determine an expression for the total elongation of an
initially straight bar of length L, cross-sectional area A, and modulus of elasticity E
if a tensile load P acts on the ends of the bar.

SOLUTION: The unit stress in the direction of the force P is merely the load
divided by the cross-sectional area, i.e., σ = P/A. Also the unit strain ε is given by the
total elongation Δ divided by the original length, i.e., ε = Δ/L. By definition the
modulus of elasticity E is the ratio of σ to ε, i.e.,

Note that Δ has the units of length, in meters.

P1.2. A steel bar of cross section 500 mm2 is acted upon by the forces shown in
following Figure. Determine the total elongation of the bar. For steel, consider E =
200 GPa.

SOLUTION: The portion between A and B has a resultant force of 50 kN acting

over every cross section and a free-body diagram of this 0.6-m length appears as in
Figure (b). The force at the right end of this segment must be 50 kN to maintain
equilibrium with the applied load at A. The elongation of this portion is, from
Problem 1.1,
The force acting in the segment between B and C is found by considering the
algebraic sum of the forces to the left of any section between B and C, i.e., a
resultant force of 35 kN acts to the left, so that a tensile force exists. The free-body
diagram of the segment between B and C is shown in Figure (c) and the elongation
of it is

Similarly, the force acting over any cross section between C and D must be 45 kN to
maintain equilibrium with the applied load at D. The elongation of CD is

The total elongation is

P1-3 The pinned members shown in Figure carry the loads P and 2P. All bars have
cross-sectional area A. Determine the stresses in bars AB and AF.
1-4: Two prismatic bars are rigidly fastened together and support a vertical load of
45 kN, as shown in the following Figure. The upper bar is steel having length 10 m
and cross-sectional area 60 cm2. The lower bar is brass having length 6 m and cross-
sectional area 50 cm2. For steel E = 200 GPa, for brass E = 100 GPa. Determine the
maximum stress in each material.
P1-5: A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry a tensile
load of 400 kN. Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to
120 MN/m2.
P1-6: A homogeneous 800 kg bar AB is supported at either end by a cable as shown
in Figure. Calculate the smallest area of each cable if the stress is not to exceed 90
MPa in bronze and 120 MPa in steel.

Solution: from static, Pbr = Pst = 0.5 (800 * 9.81) = 3924 N

P=σA , A = P/σ

Abr = 43.6 mm2 , Ast = 32.7 mm2

P1-7: The homogeneous bar shown in Figure is supported by a smooth pin at C and
a cable that runs from A to B around the smooth peg at D. Find the stress in the
cable if its diameter is 0.6 inch and the bar weighs 6000 lb.
 P1-8: A steel bolt, 2.50 cm in diameter, carries a tensile load of 40 kN. Estimate the
average tensile stress at the section a and at the screwed section b, where the
diameter at the root of the thread is 2.10 cm.

Solution

The cross-sectional area of the bolt at the section a is

The average tensile stress at A is then

The cross-sectional area at the root of the thread, section b, is

The average tensile stress over this section is

P1-9: A tensile test is carried out on a bar of mild steel of diameter 2 cm. The bar
yields under a load of 80 kN. It reaches a maximum load of 150 kN, and breaks
finally at a load of 70 kN. Estimate:

(i) The ultimate tensile stress;

(ii) The tensile stress at the yield point;

(iii) The average stress at the breaking point, if the diameter of the fractured neck is
1 cm.

Solution:
P1-10: The piston of a hydraulic ram is 40 cm diameter, and the piston rod 6 cm
diameter. The water pressure is 1 MN/m2. Estimate the stress in the piston rod and
the elongation of a length of 1 m of the rod when the piston is under pressure from
the piston-rod side. Take Young's modulus as E = 200 GN/m2.

P1-11: A circular, metal rod of diameter 1 cm is loaded in tension. When the tensile
load is 5kN, the extension of a 25 cm length is measured accurately and found to be
0.0227 cm. Estimate the value of Young’s modulus, E, of the metal.

Solution