2.

2 The Derivative as a Function

The Derivative as a Function
We have considered the derivative of a function f at a fixed
number a:

Here we change our point of view and let the number a

vary. If we replace a in Equation 1 by a variable x, we
obtain

2
The Derivative as a Function
Given any number x for which this limit exists, we assign
to x the number f ′(x). So we can regard f ′ as a new function,
called the derivative of f and defined by Equation 2.

We know that the value of f ′ at x, f ′(x), can be interpreted

geometrically as the slope of the tangent line to the graph
of f at the point (x, f (x)).

The function f ′ is called the derivative of f because it has

been “derived” from f by the limiting operation in Equation 2.
The domain of f ′ is the set {x | f ′(x) exists} and may be
smaller than the domain of f .
3
Example 1
The graph of a function f is given in Figure 1. Use it to
sketch the graph of the derivative f ′.

Figure 1

4
Example 1 – Solution
We can estimate the value of the derivative at any value of
x by drawing the tangent at the point (x, f(x)) and
estimating its slope. For instance, for x = 3 we draw the
tangent at P in Figure 2 and estimate its slope to be about
- 2/3 , so f ′(3) ≈ -2/3 ≈ -0.67
This allows us to plot the point P′(3,-0.67) on the graph of f ′
directly beneath P. (The slope of the graph of f becomes
the y-value on the graph of f ′ .)

5
Example 1 – Solution

Figure 2

6
Example 1 – Solution
Notice that the tangents at A, B, and C are horizontal, so
the derivative is 0 there and the graph of f ′ crosses the
x-axis at the points A′, B′, and C′, directly beneath A, B, and
C.

Between B and D the tangents have positive slope, so f ′(x)

is positive there. But to the right of D the tangents have
negative slope, so f ′(x) is negative there.

7
Example 2
(a) If f(x) = x3 – x, find a formula for f ′(x).
(b) Illustrate this formula by comparing the graph of f and f ′.

Solution:

8
Example 3
If f(x)= , find the derivative of f . State the domain of f ′.

Solution:

9
The Derivative as a Function
When x is close to 0, is also close to 0, so
f′(x) = 1/(2 ) is very large and this corresponds to the
steep tangent lines near (0, 0) in Figure 4(a) and the
large values of f′(x) just to the right of 0 in Figure 4(b).

Figure 4

10
The Derivative as a Function
When x is large, f′(x) is very small and this corresponds to
the flatter tangent lines at the far right of the graph of f and
the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f′.

11
Example 4
Find f ′ if

Solution:

12
Other Notations

13
Other Notations
If we use the traditional notation y = f(x) to indicate that the
independent variable is x and the dependent variable is y,
then some common alternative notations for the derivative
are as follows:

The symbols D and d/dx are called differentiation

operators because they indicate the operation of
differentiation, which is the process of calculating a
derivative.
14
Other Notations
The symbol dy/dx, which was introduced by Leibniz, should
not be regarded as a ratio (for the time being); it is simply a
synonym for f ′(x). Nonetheless, it is a very useful and
suggestive notation, especially when used in conjunction
with increment notation.

We can rewrite the definition of derivative in Leibniz

notation in the form

15
Other Notations
If we want to indicate the value of a derivative dy/dx in
Leibniz notation at a specific number a, we use the notation

which is a synonym for f ′(a).

16
Example 5
Where is the function f(x) = |x| differentiable?

Solution:
If x > 0, then |x| = x and we can choose h small enough
that x + h > 0 and hence |x + h| = x + h. Therefore, for
x > 0, we have

and so f is differentiable for any x > 0.

17
Example 5 – Solution
Similarly, for x < 0 we have | x| = –x and h can be chosen
small enough that x + h < 0 and so |x + h| = –(x + h).

Therefore, for x < 0,

and so f is differentiable for any x < 0.

18
Example 5 – Solution
For x = 0 we have to investigate

Let’s compute the left and right limits separately:

and

19
Example 5 – Solution
Since these limits are different, f ′(0) does not exist. Thus f
is differentiable at all x except 0.

A formula for f ′ is given by

and its graph is shown in Figure 5(b).

y = f ¢(x)
Figure 5(b)

20
Example 5 – Solution
The fact that f ′(0) does not exist is reflected geometrically
in the fact that the curve y = |x| does not have a tangent
line at (0, 0). [See Figure 5(a).]

y = f(x) = | x |
Figure 5(a)

21
Other Notations
Both continuity and differentiability are desirable properties
for a function to have. The following theorem shows how
these properties are related.

Note: The converse of Theorem 4 is false; that is, there are

functions that are continuous but not differentiable.

22
How Can a Function Fail to Be
Differentiable?

23
How Can a Function Fail to Be Differentiable?

We saw that the function y = | x| in Example 5 is not

differentiable at 0 and Figure 5(a) shows that its graph
changes direction abruptly when x = 0.

In general, if the graph of a

function f has a “corner” or “kink”
in it, then the graph of f has no
tangent at this point and f is not
differentiable there. [In trying to
compute f ′(a), we find that the
left and right limits are different.] y = f(x) = | x |
Figure 5(a)

24
How Can a Function Fail to Be Differentiable?

Theorem 4 gives another way for a function not to have a

derivative. It says that if f is not continuous at a, then f is
not differentiable at a. So at any discontinuity (for instance,
a jump discontinuity) f fails to be differentiable.

A third possibility is that the curve has a vertical tangent

line when x = a; that is, f is continuous at a and

25
How Can a Function Fail to Be Differentiable?

This means that the tangent lines become steeper and

steeper as x ® a. Figure 6 shows one way that this can
happen; Figure 7(c) shows another.

A vertical tangent
Figure 6 Figure 7(c)
26
How Can a Function Fail to Be Differentiable?

Figure 7 illustrates the three possibilities that we have

discussed.

Three ways for f not to be differentiable at a

Figure 7

27
Higher Derivatives

28
Higher Derivatives
If f is a differentiable function, then its derivative f ′ is also a
function, so f ′ may have a derivative of its own, denoted by
(f ′)′ = f ′′. This new function f ′′ is called the second
derivative of f because it is the derivative of the derivative
of f .

Using Leibniz notation, we write the second derivative of

y = f(x) as

29
Example 6
If f(x) = x3 – x, find and interpret f ′′(x).

Solution:
The first derivative of f(x) = x3 – x is f ′(x) = 3x2 – 1.

So the second derivative is

30
Example 6 – Solution

The graphs of f, f′, and f′′ are shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10
31
Example 6 – Solution
We can interpret f′′(x) as the slope of the curve y = f′(x) at
the point (x, f′(x)). In other words, it is the rate of change of
the slope of the original curve y = f(x).

Notice from Figure 10 that f′′(x) is negative when y = f′(x)

has negative slope and positive when y = f′(x) has positive
slope. So the graphs serve as a check on our calculations.

32
Higher Derivatives
In general, we can interpret a second derivative as a rate of
change of a rate of change. The most familiar example of
this is acceleration, which we define as follows.

If s = s(t) is the position function of an object that moves in

a straight line, we know that its first derivative represents
the velocity v(t) of the object as a function of time:

v(t) = s′(t) =

33
Higher Derivatives
The instantaneous rate of change of velocity with respect to
time is called the acceleration a(t) of the object. Thus the
acceleration function is the derivative of the velocity
function and is therefore the second derivative of the
position function:

a(t) = v′(t) = s′′(t)

or, in Leibniz notation,

34
Higher Derivatives
The third derivative f′′′ is the derivative of the second
derivative: f′′′ = (f′′)′. So f′′′(x) can be interpreted as the
slope of the curve y = f′′(x) or as the rate of change of f′′(x).

If y = f(x), then alternative notations for the third derivative

are

35
Higher Derivatives
The process can be continued. The fourth derivative f′′′′ is
usually denoted by f (4).

In general, the nth derivative of f is denoted by f (n) and is

obtained from f by differentiating n times.

If y = f(x), we write

36
Higher Derivatives
We can also interpret the third derivative physically in the
case where the function is the position function s = s(t) of
an object that moves along a straight line.

Because s′′′ = (s′′)′ = a′, the third derivative of the position

function is the derivative of the acceleration function and is
called the jerk:

37
Higher Derivatives
Thus the jerk j is the rate of change of acceleration.

It is aptly named because a large jerk means a sudden

change in acceleration, which causes an abrupt movement.

38
Example 7
If f(x) = x3 – x, find f ′′′(x) and f 4(x).

Solution:

39