EPM 171

Electrical and electronic

measurements

Electrical Measurements Laboratory

1st year electrical

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 Experiment 1:
Basic Measurements

I. OBJECTIVES
a) Learn to use the power supply, protoboard, and analog multimeter.
b) Learn to measure voltage, current and resistance in simple circuits.

II. MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT

(3) different value resistors (different with other resistors below; for
Part A)
(1) 1kΩ resistor (1) 100Ω resistor
(1) 5.1kΩ resistor (1) 50Ω resistor
(1) digital multimeter (DMM) (1) single power supply
(1) analog multimeter (AMM) protoboard, connectors and clips

III. PROCEDURE
NOTE: You can use a digital multimeter (DMM) to countercheck
your measurements using analog multimeter (AMM).

A. Measuring Resistance using Ohmmeter

1. Zeroing the meter scale. Choose a resistance range. Short
the two-meter leads by touching the metallic points
together. Use the zero knob on the front of the meter to
adjust the pointer so it is aligned with the zero printed on
the Ohms scale.
2. Determine the nominal value of the three resistors issued to
your group by reading the color code. Record this nominal
value in the table below.
3. Using the analog multimeter (AMM) as ohmmeter, select a
resistance range/multiplier that, for this resistor, will place
the needle somewhere in the middle or right-side of the
scale. Zero the meter on this scale, then measure the resistor
value. Remember to re-zero if you change scales. You will be
able to accurately read the resistance to two significant
places, why? Interpolate the third digit. Record the
measured value of the resistors using Table I.

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 TABLE I
RESISTANCE OF DIFFERENT RESISTORS
Color Code Resistance Resistance
Resisto
(indicate 4-band (Ω) based on (Ω) based
rs
colors) Color Code on AMM
Ra

Rb

Rc

B. Measuring Voltage using Voltmeter

1. Set the function switch on the front of the AMM to DC

voltage (VDC), and the range switch on the highest scale.

2. Turn on the power supply and turn the output voltage all the
way up. Be careful to observe the proper polarity. Touch the
AMM leads to the output jacks on the power supply as
shown in Fig. 1. If the needle deflects the wrong way, i.e. to
the left instead of to the right, the meter lead positions need
to be reversed. Select a scale that places the needle as high
as possible on the scale, without pegging the needle.
Measure and record the maximum output voltage of the
supply.

Figure 1. Connection between power supply and analog multimeter set to

VDC.

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 3. Turn the output voltage all the way down and measure and
record the minimum voltage this power supply can produce.
If a FINE knob is available on your power supply unit, turn
this also to a minimum.

4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 to another power supply (borrow from

the group beside you). Record your results in the table
below.
TABLE II
POWER SUPPLY VOLTAGES
Power Minimum Voltage Maximum Voltage
Supply (mV) (V)

PS1

PS2

C. Determining Resistance Using Voltage and Current Measurements

1. Set the power supply to 10V then turn it off. Set up the
circuit shown below on a protoboard using R1 = 1kΩ and R2
= 5.1kΩ.

Figure 2. Simple circuit setup.

Draw the circuit including the multimeter which you will use to
measure the voltage across R2 and explain why you think this will
work.

2. Set the function switch on the AMM to read DC voltage

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 (DCV), and the scale switch to the range appropriate for
measuring 10V. Turn on the power supply and then
measure the voltage across the resistor R2. Take note of the
voltage polarity before taking your measurement. If you
don’t get a reading, check your connections carefully.
Record the actual voltage to three significant figures.

Draw the circuit including the multimeter which you will use to
measure the current through R2 and explain why you think this will
work.

3. Set the function controls on the AMM to read DC amperes

(DCmA). Start with the scale switch set to the highest scale.
One step at a time, change the range switch so that more
sensitive current scales are selected. If the needle “pegs” at
the upper end of the scale, quickly switch back to the next
higher scale. Read the current indicated on the meter and
record this value.

4. Using the measured values for the voltage across and the
current through this resistor, compute the power dissipated
by the resistor R2. Show your solution.

D. Computing Resistance and Error

In previous sections of this exercise, you determined the value of the

resistor by direct measurement using the ohmmeter and by reading
the color code. In this section you will compute the actual resistance
using Ohm’s law and compare the results. Show all solutions.

1. Replace R2 with each resistor used in Part A one at a time.

With the measured values of the voltage and current
obtained using steps C.2 and C.3, solve for the resistance R2
using Ohm’s law. Record the measured and computed values
in Table III.

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 TABLE III
USING OHM’S LAW TO MEASURE RESISTANCE

𝑽𝑹𝟐
𝑰𝑹𝟐 (𝑨)
(𝑽)
Resistance of R2 (Ω)
Resistors
computed using Ohm’s Law

Ra

Rb

Rc

2. For the following error calculations, assume that the

resistance value determined using the ohmmeter in Part A is
the actual value of the resistor R2. Compute error between
the measured and nominal/true (color code) value, using
the equation,

%error=|true value−actual
true value
value
|×100 %
3. Repeat these error calculations for the computed resistance
of D.1 as the actual value. Record these values and tabulate
the results by creating Table IV.

TABLE IV
ERROR CALCULATIONS

Resistance (Ω) Resistance (Ω)

Resistors %error
Color Code Ohmmeter

Ra

Rb

Rc

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Experiment 2
Debugging Circuits
I. OBJECTIVES
a) To recognize the existence of a problem in a non-working circuit.
b) To determine the nature of the said problem.
c) To debug circuits in a systematic manner.

II. MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT

(1) protoboard (3) 1kΩ resistor
(1) single power supply (1) 470kΩ resistor
(1) analog multimeter (AMM) (1) red LED
(1) 555 IC (1) green LED
connectors, clips and probes (1) 1uF capacitor

III. PROCEDURE

A. Connectivity/Continuity Test
Most, if not all, problems encountered in a non-working circuit are
due to points that no longer form electrically continuous connections.
The causes may not be observable or easily identifiable when the
problem arises. Some of the possible causes include: a blown-up fuse
or component, corroded connectors, disconnected or faulty wires,
loose connections or simply an unintended open circuit.

Constructing circuits usually overlooks a very important

assumption – that all wires and connectors are good. Using a bad
wire can be troublesome especially if used in a complex circuit. Thus,
it is a good practice to check all wires and connectors first before
using them in constructing circuits.
1. Set the analog multimeter (AMM) in ohmmeter mode. The
multiplier setting is immaterial. Get five (5) connecting
wires, five (5) connector clips, two (2) power supply clips,
one (1) oscilloscope probe, and one (1) signal generator
probe. Label each connector.
2. Use connectivity/continuity test to check if each connector
is either good or bad. A 0Ω reading (or even if the needle

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deflects to the 0Ω direction) indicates a good or connected

condition. Construct a table and record the status of each
connector.
3. Use connecting wires and connectivity test to verify the
connected ports on a protoboard. Draw the protoboard and
indicate which group of ports (e.g. row, column) are
connected.

B. Theoretical and Practical Measurements

1. Set the power supply to 10V then turn it off. Set up the
circuit shown below on a protoboard using R1 = R2 = 1kΩ.

Figure 1. Theoretical and practical measurements.

2. It is very useful to determine first the theoretical signal

values in a circuit before interpreting if acquired
measurements are erroneous or not. In other words, the
actual values should guide the experimenter if the data
being gathered are valid or not. From the circuit, what are
the theoretical voltages across the power supply, R1, and
R2?
3. Using a voltmeter Vdc, measure the voltage across the
power supply, R1, and R2. Tabulate your results. Did you get
measurement values close to the actual ones? If not, explain
why.
4. Put another resistor R3 = 1kΩ in parallel with R2. Repeat
steps B.2 and B.3.

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C. Simple Circuit to Test if a Component is Working Properly

1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 2. Use R = 1kΩ, Vs =
10V, and two differently- colored LEDs for D1 and D2. The
diagram for LED is also provided.

Figure 2. Simple circuit. [0b-1]

2. Assuming your wiring is correct and all LEDs are in good

condition, only one LED should be lit. Which one (D1 or
D2)? Measure the voltages Vin and Vout using a voltmeter
Vdc.
3. Now, reverse the position of both D1 and D2. Which LED is
lit at this moment?

Note that this procedure tests if an LED is working or not.

However, there are easier and more creative ways to check the
condition of an LED. This is just one way to demonstrate
testing of components using a simple circuit.

D. Complex Circuit
1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 3. The 555 IC pin-outs
is shown in Figure 4. This circuit emulates the traffic lights
we see in the streets. Make the circuit work and call the
attention of your instructor once done. The dots indicate
connected nodes and jumps are not connected nodes.

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Figure 3. Flashing LED circuit. [0b-2]

Figure 4. 555 IC pin-outs. [0b-3]

2. Setup your circuit supposing that you “carelessly”

constructed it (i.e., it should not function properly). It might
be wrong wiring, different components, faulty wires, faulty
components, etc.
3. Find a partner group that is also finished with D.1 and D.2.
Exchange circuit/protoboard. Debug the circuit. Document
how your group debugged the circuit in a systematic
manner. It would be easier to provide a step-by-step
process.

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 Experiment 3
DC Measurements (Current)
I. OBJECTIVES
a) To know the different methods of making analog DC current
measurements and to know when each method is applicable
b) To be able to specify the degree of accuracy of any
measurements made

II. MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT

(2) Variable DC Voltage Supplies (1) Analog Multimeter
(1) 1mA Movement (3 per value) Resistors 100, 1 k, 10
k
(1) Potentiometer Box (1) Resistor 10-20
(1) Digital Multimeter Protoboard, Connecting Wires,
Alligator Clips

III. PROCEDURE

A. Determining the Internal Resistance of the 1mA Movement

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 1 with R2 disconnected
and the power supply turned off. The voltage adjustment
knob of the power supply should be set to minimum (fully
counter-clockwise).

2. Turn the power supply on. Slowly increase Vs using the

voltage adjustment knob. The 1mA movement needle should
start to move upscale. Continue increasing Vs until the
needle indicates full-scale (1 mA).

3. Connect R2. Use a 200  or 500  potentiometer. Its initial

setting is immaterial. Nevertheless, once inserted, the 1mA
movement reading should decrease. Adjust the shaft of R2
until the 1mA movement indicates half-scale (0.5 mA). (If
the current through the ammeter does not reach half-scale
using the 200  potentiometer, try a larger valued
potentiometer.)

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 4. Disconnect R2. Measure its resistance using an ohmmeter.
The value measured will be approximately equal to the
internal resistance of the 1mA movement, Rm.

B. Errors in Current Measurements Due to Insertion Effects

1. Refer to the circuit in Figure 2. For each combination of Vs
and R in Table I, compute for the value of the current, I, that
should flow. Make sure that you are using the correct value
for Vs! Use a digital voltmeter if necessary. Fill out Table I
correspondingly.
TABLE I
CURRENT MEASUREMENTS

R I, Ideal I, measured using 1mA

Vs (V)
(Ω) (mA) movement (mA)

0.1 200

1 2k

10 20 k

2. For each of these same combinations, set up the circuit of

Figure 2 and measure the current that flows by replacing the
short circuit between a and b with your 1mA movement.
Complete Table I with your measured values.

C. Extending the Range of the 1mA Movement

1. The full-scale range of a 1mA movement can be extended by
connecting a shunt resistor across it, as shown in Figure 3.
Given knowledge on the value of your Rm, compute for the
value of the shunt resistor, Rsh that will extend the range of
your ammeter from 1 mA to 10 mA.

2. Use the scheme of Figure 4 to obtain a resistance with a

value equal to that computed in Procedure A above (use a

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 10-20  resistor). This setup will act as your shunt
resistance in Figure 3. Or you can just use a resistor with a
value near to the one you computed in Procedure C.1.

3. Setup the newly-constructed 10mA movement. Check its

operation with the three calibration values indicated in
Table II. As shown in Figure 3, neglecting the internal
resistance of the newly-constructed 10mA movement, you
can vary the voltage supply instead to obtain the calibration
current values. For example, if Vs = 2V and R = 1k in series,
then a 2mA current should flow through the circuit. Fill up
the table correspondingly.
TABLE II
CHECKING THE OPERATION OF THE 10mA MOVEMENT

1mA movement Reading Corresponding

Calibration
(Deflection) Reading of Iu (mA)
Current (mA)
Measured Computed

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 Figure

Figure 1. Determining the Figure 2. Investigating insertion

internal resistance of the error in current measurements.
1mA movement.

Figure 4. Obtaining the required

Figure 3. Newly- shunt resistor.
constructed 10mA
movement.

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 Experiment 4
DC Measurements (Voltage)
I. OBJECTIVES
a) To know the different methods of making analog DC voltage
measurements and to know when each method is applicable
b) To be able to specify the degree of accuracy of any measurements
made

II. MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT

(2) Variable DC Voltage Supplies (1) Analog Multimeter [AMM]
(1) 1mA Movement (1) Digital Multimeter [DMM]
(1) Potentiometer Box (3 per value) Resistors 1 k, 10 k, 100 k
(1) Protoboard Connecting Wires, Alligator Clips

III. PROCEDURE

A. Determining the Internal Resistance of the 1mA Movement

Use a digital multimeter set to ohmmeter and measure the internal
resistance of your 1mA movement. Record its value.

B. The DC Voltmeter using 1mA Movement

1. A DC ammeter can be used to measure voltage by simply
connecting a resistor in series with it, as shown in Figure 2.
Compute the value of the series resistance Rs that will
enable your 1mA movement to measure DC voltages up to
10 volts.

2. Use the potentiometer to obtain the resistance computed in

step 1 above. Set up your 10V full-scale voltmeter. Check its
operation with the three calibration values indicated in
Table I. Use the power supply for each calibration voltage
value. Fill out Table I correspondingly.

NOTE: You can use a standard resistor value if the internal

resistance of 1mA movement is very low.

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 TABLE I
DC VOLTMETER USING 1mA MOVEMENT

Calibration 1mA Movement Corresponding

Voltage (V) Reading (Deflection) Reading of Vu (V)

10

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C. Errors in Voltage Measurements Due to Loading Effects

1. Refer to the circuit in Figure 3. For each of the values of R
given in Table II, compute for the value of Vx that should be
obtained. Fill out Table II correspondingly.

2. For each of the values of R in Table II, set up Figure 3 and

measure the voltage Vx using your just constructed voltmeter
(see Figure 2). Fill the measured values into Table II.

TABLE II
LOADING EFFECTS IN VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS

R (Ω) Theoretical Vx (V) Measured Vx (V)

1k

10 k

100 k

D. The Potentiometer Bridge Method of Measuring Voltage

1. The potentiometer bridge method can be used to make
voltage measurements with absolutely no loading effect on
the measured circuit. A potentiometer bridge ‘voltmeter’ is
shown in Figure 4. The DC supply should be set to the
desired full-scale voltage. The potentiometer is adjusted
such that the resistance between points X and Y is initially
zero to avoid a reverse reading in your multimeter. A
voltage measurement is made by:
a. connecting terminals, a & b to the unknown voltage
to be measured, making sure that proper polarities
are observed
b. adjusting the potentiometer until the 1mA movement reads
zero, then
c. disconnecting a & b and removing the potentiometer from
the circuit.

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d. measuring the resistance RXY. Also, measure the

resistances RWX and RWY. The measured voltage should
correspond to the value determined by voltage
division.

2. Repeat Procedure C using the potentiometer bridge method.

Fill out Table III with your measurements.

NOTE: Since Figures 3 and 4 use the same voltage level

(10Vdc), you can in fact use a single DC supply and implement
them in parallel.

TABLE III
LOADING EFFECTS IN VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
Theoretical Vx Corresponding Vx
R (Ω) RXY (Ω) RWY (Ω)
(V) (V)

1k

10 k

100 k

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Figure 1. Determining the internal Figure 2. DC Voltmeter to

resistance of the 1mA movement. measure an unknown voltage
using the 1mA movement.

Figure 3. Investigating loading effects in voltage measurements.

Figure 4. Measuring an unknown voltage using potentiometer bridge

technique.

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 Experiment 5
Resistance Measurements
I. OBJECTIVES
a) To know the different methods of measuring resistance
b) To know when each method can be applied
c) To be able to specify the accuracy of any measurements made

II. MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT

(1) Variable DC Supply (1) Potentiometer Box
(1) 1 mA Movement (1 each) Resistors Ra, Rb, Rc and 10kΩ, 20kΩ
(1) Digital Multimeter (1) 10kΩ potentiometer
(1) Analog Multimeter Protoboard, Connecting Wires, Alligator
Clips

III. PROCEDURE

A. The Series Ohmmeter Method

1. Set up the circuit of Figure 1. Set the power supply to 10V and
use a 10K potentiometer for R2. Make sure that the
potentiometer is set to maximum, and it reaches the indicated
value (or more).

2. Short together terminals a & b and adjust R2 until the 1mA

movement indicates full scale. Leave R2 at this setting.

3. Your instructor will have available three resistors Ra, Rb and

Rc whose resistances you are supposed to determine. Record
into Table I the deflection D produced by each resistance in the
1mA movement when the resistance is connected to the circuit

𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝑚𝐴)
at terminals a & b.

𝐷 = ; 𝐷 ∈ [0,1]
1 𝑚𝐴

TABLE I

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 SERIES OHMMETER METHOD
Deflection Corresponding Resistance
Resistor
(D) Reading (Ω)

Ra

Rb

Rc

Using the equation Ru = Ro (1 - D)/D, where Ro = Rm + R2, compute

the corresponding resistance readings and record these in Table I.

B. The Voltmeter - Ammeter Method

1. The same resistances Ra, Rb and Rc are to be determined using
the circuit in Figure 2. Use an analog multimeter as the
voltmeter and the 1mA movement as the ammeter. Do not use
the digital voltmeter (DVM) as the intended loading effects will
not be observed. Vs may be set to any reasonable value
provided that the 1mA movement does not go beyond full-scale
and the maximum power rating of Ru (unknown resistor) is not
exceeded. In other words, Ru should not get too hot while in
the powered circuit. For each of the unknown resistances
connected in place of Ru, record the readings of the voltmeter
and the ammeter. Fill the readings into Table II.

TABLE II
VOLTMETER-AMMETER METHOD A
Ammeter Corresponding
Resistor Voltmeter reading
Vs (V) reading Resistance
Ru (V)
(mA) Reading* (Ω)

Ra

Rb

Rc
*Neglecting loading effects from meters

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 2. Repeat the above procedure using the circuit of Figure 3 to fill in Table
III.

TABLE III
VOLTMETER-AMMETER METHOD B
Ammeter Corresponding
Resistor Voltmeter reading
Vs (V) reading Resistance
Ru (V)
(mA) Reading* (Ω)

Ra

Rb

Rc
*Neglecting loading effects from meters

C. The Wheatstone Bridge Method

1. The Wheatstone bridge method is a popular method of
measuring resistance particularly in the field of
instrumentation. Figure 4 shows a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
Set up the circuit in Figure 4. Use a potentiometer for R3. Let
R1 = 10kΩ and R2 = 20kΩ. Verify that the power rating (0.25
W) of R1 and R2 are not exceeded even with a source voltage of
20V. Use the voltmeter mode of the analog multimeter. Make
sure of the polarity.

2. Before turning the power on, the potentiometer R3 should first

be set to maximum (for minimum power dissipation). Choose
the potentiometer with the greatest resistance value. Two
measurements will be made for each unknown resistance, one
with Vs = 5 volts and another with Vs = 10 volts. The voltmeter
should be initially set to be able to read the maximum
imbalance of the bridge, which is Vs. Powering up the circuit,
the voltmeter must be able to read a POSITIVE voltage.

3. The value of Ru can be determined from the values of R1, R2

and R3 if the bridge is balanced. The objective, therefore, is to
get the bridge balanced by adjusting the potentiometer until

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 the voltmeter reads zero (or the lowest you can get since the
potentiometer has limited adjustment resolution). Decrease the
effective resistance of R3 until you get a zero. If you are having
a hard time obtaining a null, use the next lower value of the
potentiometer. Remember to set first the effective R3 to the
highest resistance setting before adjusting the knob.

4. For each of the resistances Ra, Rb and Rc, take note of the
resistance R3 that balances the bridge for each of the power
supply settings specified in C.2 above. This can be done by
disconnecting R3 from the circuit and measuring the resistance
on the potentiometer. Fill the obtained values into Table IV. Use
a digital multimeter.

TABLE IV
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE METHOD
Resistor Ru R3 (Ω) at Vs = 5V R3 (Ω) at Vs = 10V

Ra

Rb

Rc

5. Answer the required discussion question #6 before asking the

actual values Ra, Rb, and Rc from your instructor. Do the values
obtained make sense?

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Figure 1. Series ohmmeter method

Figure 3. Voltmeter-ammeter
method B

Figure 2. Voltmeter-ammeter
method A

Figure 4. Wheatstone bridge method

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Experiment 6-a
Introduction to Oscilloscopes (Analog)
I. OBJECTIVES
a) To familiarize the student with the operation of a triggered sweep
oscilloscope.
b) To be able to make basic measurements using an oscilloscope

II. MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT

(1) Dual Trace Triggered Sweep Oscilloscope
(1) Signal Generator

III. PROCEDURE

NOTE: Not all oscilloscopes in the laboratory are of the same brand/version. Varying a
setting may vary from one to another (e.g. pulling a knob instead of rotating, etc.).
Nonetheless, the basic knobs (and functionalities) should be present on the front panel
of any oscilloscope. The student is expected to familiarize him/herself with different
oscilloscope interfaces in the laboratory.

Part 1: Initial Settings for Single Trace Operation

Before turning the power on, set the oscilloscope as instructed below.

Display System Controls:

 Set the INTENSITY approximately halfway between
extremes.

Vertical System Controls:

 Set the vertical mode to Channel 1.
 Set the Channel 1 VOLTS/DIV selector switch to
the least sensitive position (fully
counterclockwise).
 The VAR control knob of the VOLTS/DIV switch
(usually at the center of the VOLTS/DIV selector

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switch) should be in its calibrated detent position

[fully pressed, fully counterclockwise (or
clockwise) until it locks- direction depends on the
location of “CAL”, the calibrated position]
 Set the Channel 1 input coupling to GND.
Note: Some oscilloscopes label their vertical channels
Channel A & B or Channel X & Y instead of Channel 1 & 2.

Horizontal System Controls:

 Set the SEC/DIV (or MAIN TIME/DIV) switch to 0.5 ms.
 The VAR control knob of the SEC/DIV switch
(usually at the center of the SEC/DIV selector
switch) should be in its calibrated x 1 detent
position.

Trigger System Controls:

 Set the trigger mode to AUTO.
 Set the trigger source to Channel 1 (internal).
 Set the trigger slope to '+'.

Part 2: The Display System Controls

Make sure the line voltage setting on the oscilloscope is correct
before turning on the power. Turn the oscilloscope on and allow it to
warm up for approximately 30 seconds.

Locating the Beam:

A horizontal line should appear on the screen. You may
have to use the Channel 1 vertical POSITION control
knob to locate the line. Position the line at the center of
the screen. Use the horizontal POSITION control knob to
horizontally center the trace. Try to explore the extreme
positions using these knobs. Return the beam back to the
center of the screen.

Focus:
The trace you have on the screen may be out of focus.
Make it as sharp as possible with the FOCUS control.

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Intensity:
Set the brightness or illumination to a level
comfortable to you. Refrain from setting the screen too
bright to preserve the screen (i.e. make it last longer).

Trace Rotation:
A trace rotation screw is sometimes available for
adjusting the display should the trace not be perfectly
horizontal.
Part 3: The Vertical System Controls
Connect the base of a probe to the Channel 1 vertical input connector. If
the probe has an adjustable attenuation, set it to x 10.

Compensating the Probe:

Set the Channel 1 VOLTS/DIV switch so that the
oscilloscope displays 0.2 volts/division. Make sure the
VAR control knob is in its calibrated detent position.
Remember that you are using a x10 probe. (Generally,
you would have to multiply the VOLTS/DIV indication by
10 to get the correct calibration.) Set the channel 1 input
coupling to AC. Connect the probe tip to the PROBE ADJ
terminal (on some oscilloscopes, this is the CAL terminal)
provided on the oscilloscope. If the signal is too small,
adjust the VOLTS/DIV knob such that your signal is at
least 1 major division peak-to-peak (i.e. from minimum to
maximum). If the signal on the screen is not steady,
adjust the trigger LEVEL control until the signal
stabilizes. If the signal still does not stabilize, adjust the
SEC/DIV knob and then the trigger LEVEL control until
you stabilize your signal. Display 2-3 cycles of the signal.

1. Draw the exact wave shape that appears on the

screen. Show how the display appears in relation to
the graticule markings on the oscilloscope face. (The
wave that appears on the screen should be perfectly
square. If it is not, a screwdriver adjustment should be
made on the compensation box at the base of the
probe until a square waveform is obtained.)

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2. Set the probe to x1. Choose an appropriate

VOLTS/DIV setting such that the whole waveform is
visible. Draw the exact waveform and indicate the
VOLTS/DIV and SEC/DIV used. What is the difference
between a x1 and a x10 probe? What is the advantage
of one over the other?

3. Why is compensation needed? What do you actually

do when you compensate a probe? Does an x1 probe
have to be compensated?

Controlling Vertical Sensitivity:

Set the probe attenuation back to x10, VOLTS/DIV
setting to 0.2 volts/div and SEC/DIV to 0.5 ms/div.
Adjust the Channel 1 vertical POSITION control knob to
line up the lower edge of the PROBE ADJ waveform with
the center graticule line.

4. How many major divisions is the height of the

displayed waveform? What is the corresponding
peak-to-peak voltage of the PROBE ADJ signal?

5. Turn the Channel 1 VOLTS/DIV switch two click stops

to the right (clockwise). What is the new Channel 1
scale factor?

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6. How many major divisions is the height of the

displayed waveform now? Is this consistent with the
measurement made in 4 above?

7. What is the effect of turning the VAR control knob of

the VOLTS/DIV switch out of its detent position?
What possible use could this knob have?

Return the VAR knob to its detent position.

Coupling the Signal:

Set the Channel 1 input coupling to GND and position the
trace on the center graticule line.

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8. With the probe connected to the PROBE ADJ

terminal, switch the Channel 1 input coupling to AC.
What is the eventual position of the waveform on the
screen?

9. Is this true for all settings of the VOLTS/DIV switch?

10. Now switch Channel 1 input coupling to DC. What

happens to the displayed signal?

11. What is the difference between AC and DC coupling?

When should one be used in place of the other? (Use
the trigger level to stabilize the waveform in case it is
unstable).

The Vertical Mode Controls:

Connect a probe to the channel 2-input connector. Do not
forget to set the probe to x10 if it is adjustable. Set the
Channel 2 VOLTS/DIV switch to 0.2 volts and the Channel
2 VOLTS/DIV VAR control knob to its calibrated detent
position. Set the channel 2 input coupling to GND.

Set the vertical mode to CH 2(channel 2). The displayed

signal will now come from the channel 2 connector.
Vertically position the channel 2 trace to the center of the
screen with the channel 2 vertical POSITION control.

Set the channel 2 coupling to AC and check the

compensation of the channel 2 probe as you did with the

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channel 1 probe. Play around with the channel 2 controls

as you did with the channel 1 controls to give you a feel
for using channel 2.

With both the channel 1 and channel 2 probes connected

to the PROBE ADJ terminal, set their corresponding
input coupling to AC and set also the vertical mode to
DUAL TRACE (this corresponds to either the CHOP or
ALT mode on other oscilloscopes). The signals from both
probes will simultaneously appear on the screen. Use the
vertical POSITION control of either channel to separate
the traces. You may have to readjust the INTENSITY
control to get the desired intensity.

Try both the ALT and CHOP modes. For each mode,
adjust the SEC/DIV to a very slow setting (counter-
clockwise) and observe how the traces are made. Try to
observe how the 2 modes are different.

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Part 4: The Horizontal

System Control Making Time Measurements:
Switch the vertical mode back to CH 1 and display the PROBE
ADJ signal at the
center of the screen. Use the horizontal POSITION
control knob to adjust the display until one rising edge of
the displayed waveform is aligned with the center
vertical graticule.

12. How many major and minor horizontal graticule

markings is it to the next rising edge of the waveform?
How many seconds does this correspond to?

13. Change the sweep SEC/DIV setting to 0.2 ms. How

many graticule markings is one period of the
displayed waveform now? Are your two
measurements consistent?

14. Set the SEC/DIV switch back to 0.5 ms. Turn the VAR
control knob of the SEC/DIV switch out of its
calibrated x1 detent position. How does this affect the
display? What are the possible uses of this knob?

Return the VAR control knob to its calibrated x1 detent position.

15. Pull the horizontal position control knob (on other

oscilloscopes, this corresponds to pulling the VAR
control knob) to magnify the sweep SEC/DIV (x5 on
some scopes, x10 on other scopes). What is the new
horizontal scale factor (SEC/DIV)?

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16. How many graticule markings is the period of the

displayed waveform now? Is this consistent with your
previous measurements?

Part 5: The Trigger System

Slope Control:
Restore the sweep SEC/DIV to x1 (unmagnified, i.e. VAR
returned to x1 detent). Use the oscilloscope to display,
through channel 1, a 15 KHz, 2 volt peak-to-peak
sinusoidal voltage with no DC offset. Adjust the sweep
speed (SEC/DIV) so that two to three cycles of the
waveform are displayed. Move the trace to the right with
the horizontal POSITION control until you can see the
beginning of the trace.

17. Draw the resulting traces as you vary the SLOPE

control from '+' to '-'. How does each setting affect the
display? Explain why.

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Trigger Level and Trigger Mode:

NOTE: Trigger mode is in AUTO

18. Move the trigger LEVEL control back and forth

through all of its travel. How does this affect the start
of the trace? Why?

Notice that while the signal might lose synchronism at

some level control settings, the trace never disappears.

19. Set the Trigger Mode switch to NORMAL. Now when

you use the trigger LEVEL control to move the
triggering point, you'll find places where the trace
disappears. Explain this difference in behaviour
between normal and auto triggering.

Reset the trigger mode to AUTO. Increase the VOLTS/DIV

setting to the next more sensitive position (clockwise).

20. Move the trigger point using the trigger LEVEL

control as you did in 18 above. Which VOLTS/DIV
setting allows the trigger level control knob to have a
larger range of motion before the waveform becomes
unstable? If you do not perceive any difference, try an
even more sensitive VOLTS/DIV setting.

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21. Isthe trigger level a voltage level or a 'number of divisions'

level? Explain.

Dual Trace Triggering:

Set the vertical mode to DUAL TRACE (ALT or CHOP on other
oscilloscopes). Simultaneously display the signal generator
output and the PROBE ADJ signal.

22. Onlyone of the signals can be made stable using the

trigger LEVEL control? Which one and why? Does your
scope have the capability of making the other trace
appear stable? Explain.

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External Trigger:
Reset the scope for single trace Channel 1 operation and
redisplay the signal generator output. Now set the trigger
source to EXT.

23. Can the trace be stabilized using the trigger LEVEL

control knob? Why or why not?

24. Transfer the channel 2 probe to the EXT TRIGGER

input connector (this means that the 2 probes are in
parallel with the signal source). The display can now
stabilize when the external trigger input is connected
to the signal source? Why?

25. Does the trigger LEVEL control behave in the same

manner as with internal triggering when the vertical
sensitivity is increased? (observed in 19)

26. In this case, is the trigger level a voltage level or a 'number of

divisions' level?

27. Do the SLOPE control and the mode AUTO and

NORMAL setting still behave in the same way?

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Line Triggering:

28. Set the trigger source to LINE. The display should

destabilize. Why?

29. Lower the signal generator output frequency (around

500 Hz) until the display stabilizes. At what frequency
is a stable display achieved?

Continue lowering the signal generator output. Obtain

four to five frequencies at which a stable display is
obtained.

30. What signal frequencies can be displayed with stability

with the trigger source set to line? Why? What
possible use could this feature have?

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The following are empty grid scales that you can use in sketching waveforms.

Volts/Div: Time/Div: Volts/Div: Time/Div:

Volts/Div: Time/Div: Volts/Div: Time/Div:

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Volts/Div: Time/Div: Volts/Div: Time/Div:

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Experiment 6-d
Introduction to Oscilloscopes (Digital)
I. OBJECTIVES
c) To familiarize the student with the operation of a triggered sweep
oscilloscope.
d) To be able to make basic measurements using an oscilloscope

II. MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT

(1) Dual Trace Triggered Sweep Oscilloscope
(1) Signal Generator

III. PROCEDURE

NOTE: Not all oscilloscopes in the laboratory are of the same brand/version. Varying a
setting may vary from one to another (e.g. pulling a knob instead of rotating, etc.).
Nonetheless, the basic knobs (and functionalities) should be present on the front panel
of any oscilloscope. The student is expected to familiarize him/herself with different
oscilloscope interfaces in the laboratory.

Part 1: Initial Settings for Single Trace Operation

Like all complex measuring equipment, necessary settings have to be

configured:
 On the Display Menu, set the Grid setting so that the grid
appears on the display
 On the Channel Menu, i.e. CH1 and CH2, set the Volts/Div
setting to Coarse.
 Still on the Channel Menu set the Probe setting to x1 by default.

Some convention on this document:

 Major divisions indicates the large graduations on
the grid on the oscilloscope screen while minor
divisions indicate the smaller graduations on the
grid. The division pertained on VOLTS/DIV or
SEC/DIV are the major divisions.

Vertical System Controls:

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 Find the vertical controls on the scope.

 Set the vertical mode to Channel 1 by pressing CH1.
Pressing it again shows the menu for Channel 1. It
might also indicate which channels are active by
lighting up the button.
 Set the Channel 1 VOLTS/DIV (it is the vertical
SCALE knob on most digital scopes) selector switch
to the least sensitive position (fully
counterclockwise).
 Set the Channel 1 input coupling to GND. Channel 1
input Coupling can be accessed in the Channel 1
menu.
Note: Some oscilloscopes label their vertical channels
Channel A & B or Channel X & Y instead of Channel 1 & 2.

Horizontal System Controls:

 Find the horizontal controls on the scope.
 Set the SEC/DIV (or MAIN TIME/DIV; it is the horizontal
SCALE knob in most scopes) switch to 0.5 ms.
Trigger System Controls:
 Find the trigger controls on the scope.
 On the trigger menu, do the following:
o Set the trigger mode to EDGE.
o Set the trigger sweep to AUTO.
o Set the trigger source to Channel 1 (internal).
o Set the trigger slope to '↑'.

Part 2: The Display System Controls

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Locating the Beam:

A horizontal line should appear on the screen. You may
have to use the Channel 1 vertical POSITION control
knob to locate the line. Position the line at the center of
the screen (For digital scopes, it is centered by default).
Use the horizontal POSITION control knob to
horizontally center the trace. Try to explore the extreme
positions using these knobs. You will notice that the
position label POS in the screen varies. Return the beam
back to the center of the screen.

Part 3: The Vertical System Controls

Connect the base of a probe to the Channel 1 vertical input connector.
If the probe has an adjustable attenuation, set it to x 10. On digital
oscilloscopes, you can adjust the probe attenuation on the probe
setting in the Channel 1 menu as you initially set. Some probes don't
have an attenuation switch but has default attenuations such as x100,
etc. Check the label/s on your probe.

Compensating the Probe:

Set the Channel 1 VOLTS/DIV switch so that the
oscilloscope displays 0.2 volts/division. The volts/div
setting can be checked via the CH1 label on the screen.
Remember that you are using a x10 probe. Set the
channel 1 input coupling to AC. Connect the probe tip to
the PROBE ADJ terminal (on some oscilloscopes, this is
the CAL terminal; mostly it is labeled by a square wave or
pulse with 2Vpp) provided on the oscilloscope. If the
signal is too small, adjust the VOLTS/DIV knob such that
your signal is at least 1 major division peak-to-peak (i.e.
from minimum to maximum). If the signal on the screen
is not steady, adjust the trigger LEVEL control until the
signal stabilizes. Display 2-3 cycles of the signal by
adjusting the SEC/DIV knob.

1. Draw the exact wave shape that appears on the

screen. Show how the display appears in relation to
the graticule markings on the oscilloscope face. (The

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wave that appears on the screen should be perfectly

square. If it is not, a screwdriver adjustment should be
made on the compensation box at the base of the
probe until a square waveform is obtained.)

2. Set the probe to x1. Choose an appropriate

VOLTS/DIV setting such that the whole waveform is
visible. Draw the exact waveform and indicate the
VOLTS/DIV and SEC/DIV used. What is the difference
between a x1 and a x10 probe? What is the advantage
of one over the other? (If your probe doesn't have a
x10 attenuation switch, borrow from other groups.
Then, return it after trying it out.)
3. Why is compensation needed? What do you actually
do when you compensate a probe? Does an x1 probe
have to be compensated?

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Controlling Vertical Sensitivity:

Set the probe attenuation back to x10, VOLTS/DIV
setting to 0.2 volts/div and SEC/DIV to 0.5 ms/div. If you
do not have an attenuation switch, you can use the probe
attenuation setting on the Channel 1 menu to make it
x10. If your probe has an attenuation switch, make sure
that the probe setting in the scope is at x1 so that you can
use the x10 attenuation on your probe.

Adjust the Channel 1 vertical POSITION control knob to

line up the lower edge of the PROBE ADJ waveform with
the center graticule line.

4. How many major divisions is the height of the

displayed waveform? What is the corresponding
peak-to-peak voltage of the PROBE ADJ signal?

Confirm your estimate peak-to-peak voltage by using the measure

function. Choose
Measure → Voltage → Peak-to-peak.
5. Turn the Channel 1 VOLTS/DIV switch two click stops
to the right (clockwise). What is the new Channel 1
scale factor?

6. How many major divisions is the height of the

displayed waveform now? Is this consistent with the
measurement made in 4 above?

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Coupling the Signal:

Set the Channel 1 input coupling to GND and position the
trace on the center graticule line.

7. With the probe connected to the PROBE ADJ

terminal, switch the Channel 1 input coupling to AC.
What is the eventual position of the waveform on the
screen?

8. Is this true for all settings of the VOLTS/DIV switch?

9. Now switch Channel 1 input coupling to DC. What

happens to the displayed signal?

10. What is the difference between AC and DC coupling?

When should one be used in place of the other? (Use
the trigger level to stabilize the waveform in case it is
unstable).

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The Vertical Mode Controls:

Connect a probe to the channel 2-input connector. Do not
forget to set the probe to x10 if it is adjustable. Set the
Channel 2 VOLTS/DIV switch to 0.2 volts. Set the channel
2 input coupling to GND.

Set the vertical mode to CH 2(channel 2) only by turning

off Channel 1. The displayed signal will now come from
the channel 2 connector. Vertically position the channel 2
trace to the center of the screen with the vertical
POSITION control.

Set the channel 2 coupling to AC and check the

compensation of the channel 2 probe as you did with the
channel 1 probe. Play around with the channel 2 controls
as you did with the channel 1 controls to give you a feel
for using channel 2.

With both the channel 1 and channel 2 probes connected

to the PROBE ADJ terminal, set their corresponding
input coupling to AC and turn on both channels. The
signals from both probes will simultaneously appear on
the screen. Use the vertical POSITION control to
separate the traces by pressing the corresponding
channel you want to move and move it using the position
knob.

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Part 4: The Horizontal

System Control Making Time Measurements:
Switch the vertical mode back to CH 1 (turn off Channel
2) and display the PROBE ADJ signal at the center of the
screen. Use the horizontal POSITION control knob to
adjust the display until one rising edge of the displayed
waveform is aligned with the center vertical graticule
(For digital scopes, it is aligned by default).
11. How many major and minor horizontal graticule
markings is it to the next rising edge of the waveform?
How many seconds does this correspond to?

Confirm your estimate by using the measure function for Time →

Period.
12. Change the sweep SEC/DIV setting to 0.2 ms. How
many graticule markings is one period of the
displayed waveform now? Are your two
measurements consistent?

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Part 5: The Trigger System

Slope Control:
Use the oscilloscope to display, through channel 1, a 12
KHz, 2 volt peak-to-peak sinusoidal voltage with no DC
offset produced by the function generator. Adjust the
SEC/DIV so that two to three cycles of the waveform are
displayed.

13. Move the Trigger LEVEL control knob back and forth
through all of its travel. How does this affect the start
of the trace? Why?

14. Draw the resulting traces as you vary the SLOPE

control from '↑' to '↓'. How does each setting affect the
display? Explain why.

Notice that while the signal might lose synchronism at

some level control settings, the trace never disappears.

15. Set the Trigger Sweep switch to NORMAL. Now when

you use the trigger LEVEL control to move the
triggering point, you'll find places where the trace
disappears or freezes. Explain this difference in
behaviour between normal and auto triggering.

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Reset the trigger mode to AUTO. Increase the VOLTS/DIV

setting to the next more sensitive position (clockwise).

16. Move the trigger point using the trigger LEVEL

control as you did in 13 above. Which VOLTS/DIV
setting allows the trigger level control knob to have a
larger range of motion before the waveform becomes
unstable? If you do not perceive any difference, try an
even more sensitive VOLTS/DIV setting.

17. Is the trigger level a voltage level or a 'number of divisions'

level? Explain.

Dual Trace Triggering:

Set the vertical mode to DUAL TRACE by turning on
both channels. Simultaneously display the signal
generator output and the CAL signal.

18. Onlyone of the signals can be made stable using the

Trigger control knob? Which one and why? Does your
scope have the capability of making the other trace
appear stable? Explain.

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External Trigger:
Reset the scope for single trace Channel 1 operation and
redisplay the signal generator output. Now set the trigger
source to EXT.

19. Can the trace be stabilized using the trigger LEVEL

control knob? Why or why not?

20. Transfer the channel 2 probe to the EXT TRIGGER

input connector on the scope (this means that the 2
probes are in parallel with the signal source) and
connect the probe tip to the signal generator output as
well. The display can now stabilize when the external
trigger input is connected to the signal source. Why? If
not, try adjusting the trigger knob to find a stable
signal.

21. Does the trigger LEVEL control behave in the same

manner as with internal triggering when the vertical
sensitivity is increased? (observed in 16)

22. Do the SLOPE ('↑' , '↓') control and the mode AUTO
and NORMAL setting still behave in the same way?

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Line Triggering:

23. Set the trigger source to LINE. The display should

destabilize. Why?

24. Lower the signal generator output frequency (around

500 Hz) until the display stabilizes. (Adjust the
SEC/DIV as well to display 3-4 periods of the trace). At
what frequency is a stable display achieved?

25. Continue lowering the signal generator output. Obtain

four to five frequencies at which a stable display is
obtained.

26. What signal frequencies can be displayed with

stability with the trigger source set to line? Why?
What possible use could this feature have?

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The following are empty grid scales that you can use in sketching waveforms.

Volts/Div: Time/Div: Volts/Div: Time/Div:

Volts/Div: Time/Div: Volts/Div: Time/Div:

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Volts/Div: Time/Div: Volts/Div: Time/Div:

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Experiment 7
AC Detection – Diodes

I. OBJECTIVE
To maximize the oscilloscope's function as a tool in AC analysis

II. MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT

(1) Oscilloscope (3 to 4) alligator clips (2 each) 1kΩ and 10kΩ resistors
(1) Signal Generator (1) Digital Multimeter [DMM] (1) 1N4001 diode
(1) Potentiometer box (1) Protoboard (1) 0.1uF ceramic capacitor
(1) 1mA movement (1) Full wave bridge rectifier

III. PROCEDURE

A. V-I Characteristic of a Diode

1. Using a digital multimeter at diode mode, measure the
effective forward voltage (Vf) of a conducting diode. Connect
the positive terminal to the anode and the negative terminal to
cathode. DMMs usually display the diode voltage in mV. Vf =
mV

Figure 1. Exploring the V-I characteristic of a diode. [4-1]

2. Refer on the figure above. Display both Vr and Vd in the oscilloscope by using the
dual display capability. To display the correct voltage polarity, let probe A
measure Vd and probe B measure Vr. Place the negative terminals of probe A and
probe B to point n. This is a requirement of the oscilloscope dual display to have
the probes share the same ground in order to achieve stable and synchronized
display. Place the positive terminal of probe A to the (+) side of Vd while the
positive terminal of probe B at (-) side of Vr. You can insert the probe pins to holes
of the breadboard. Pull the CH B position knob to INVert the signal
Diode V-I Characteristic

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(push/latch button in some oscilloscopes). This effectively

follows the polarity based on Figure 1.

To view the diode’s V-I characteristics, set the oscilloscope

coupling to X-Y and set the vertical mode to DUAL with both at
1V/div. Sketch the Id (y-axis) vs Vd (x-axis) characteristics of
the diode. Note that Vr is used to represent Id (series
configuration) since the current through the resistor is
proportional to the voltage across it. Use Vs = 10Vpp sinusoid
1kHz.

B. Some Diode Circuits

The four circuits shown in Figure 2 are diode-resistor and diode-
capacitor combinations that demonstrate clipping, rectification, level
shifting and filtering. NOTE: Ask your instructor to discuss the
differences between these four.
Use the sine wave from the signal generator with frequency of 1
kHz as the AC voltage source (input), and adjust the amplitude to 4
volts peak-to-peak, no offset. Use R = 1 kΩ and C = 0.1 uF.
Assuming an ideal input voltage, sketch the output voltage for
each circuit (the signal here now should NOT be inverted). Use 3-4
cycles of the output waveform. Make sure to set the coupling to DC

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so that you will be able to view if there are any voltage offsets in the
output signals. This is essential so that you cannot mistake clipping
with rectification.
Explain what the circuit does (i.e., its operation). In addition,
observe what happens when you reverse the diode (no sketches
required for the reversed-diode setup). Discuss your observations.

Figure 2. Diode circuits

Circuit No. 1
Circuit No. 1 Operation

Circuit No. 2
Circuit No. 2 Operation

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Circuit No. 3

Circuit No. 3 Operation

Circuit No. 4
Circuit No. 4 Operation

NOTE: Before proceeding with the succeeding sections, ask your

instructor to discuss the difference between Vave and Vrms.

C. The Half – Wave Detector

1. Compute for the value of Rs in the circuit of Figure 3 that will
allow the 1mA movement to indicate a full scale reading when
the supply voltage Vs is 10 Vpeak (this is equivalent to 20 V-
peak-to-peak or 20Vpp). Assume a sinusoidal input voltage

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waveform.

NOTE: The 1mA movement measures the average current passing

through it.

2. Set up the circuit using 1 kHz input. Obtain Rs from a

potentiometer. The current reading in the 1mA movement
should correspond to the level of peak voltage from the input,
hence, a half(full)-wave detector! Check the operation of your
detector by comparing its reading with the reading of the
multimeter (average voltage or Vdc at the output) for the
different AC input voltages from your signal generator.
Tabulate your results.
TABLE I
HALF-WAVE DETECTOR
Peak
1mA movement Voltmeter Reading Computer
Voltage
Reading (mA) at the Output (Vdc) Vs – from Im
Vs (V)
10
8
5
2

3. Using the oscilloscope, display Vout with 3-4 cycles. Draw the
waveform. Indicate the volts/div and time/div settings used.

D. The Full – Wave Detector

1. Repeat Procedure C with the circuit in Figure 4. Use the full-wave
bridge rectifier.
NOTE: Be careful in handling the full-wave bridge rectifier. The
lead legs are fragile and bending/twisting too much can easily
snap a leg off. The full-wave bridge rectifier has 4 diodes inside.
TABLE II
FULL-WAVE DETECTOR

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Peak
1mA movement Voltmeter Reading Computer
Voltage
Reading (mA) at the Output (Vdc) Vs – from Im
Vs (V)
10
8
5
2

E. Peak Detection
1. Compute for the theoretical value of Rs in the circuit of Figure
5 that will allow the 1mA movement to indicate the peak value
of Vs with full scale range of 10 V.
HINT: What is the theoretical value of Vout?

2. Set up the circuit using 1 kHz input. Obtain Rs from

potentiometer. Check the operation of your detector by using it
to measure the peak values of the different AC input voltages
from your signal generator. For each reading, record the RMS
value of the input signal from the function generator as
measured by a multimeter. Tabulate your results.

TABLE III
PEAK DETECTOR

Peak RMS Voltage of 1mA Voltmeter

Computer Vs –
Voltage Vs Input using movement Reading at the
from Im
(V) Voltmeter Reading (mA) Output (Vdc)

10

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3. Using the oscilloscope, display Vout with 3-4 cycles. Draw the
waveform. Indicate the volts/div and time/div settings used.

Figure 3. Half-wave detector circuit.

Figure 4. Full-wave detector circuit.

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Figure 5. Peak-detector circuit.

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Experiment 8
AC Analysis – RLC Circuits

I. OBJECTIVE
To familiarize the student with the basics of AC circuit analysis.

II. MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT

(1) Digital Multimeter [DMM] (1) Ceramic capacitor (0.1uF)
(1) Oscilloscope (1) Resistor (1KΩ)
(1) Signal generator (1) Protoboard
(1) Transformer (secondary will
serve as inductor) Alligator clips
and connecting wires

III. PROCEDURE

A. Impedance of a Practical Inductor

1. With the function generator and with the aid of the
oscilloscope, produce a 10 volt (p-p), 60 Hz sine wave without
DC offset (this will serve as your supply voltage, VS, in Figure
1).

2. Use the secondary of the transformer as your inductor (e.g. one

end at 0V and another end at 12V). Measure the resistance RL
of this inductor using the DMM. Wire up Figure 1 using R =
1KΩ. Measure RMS voltages values VT, VR and VZ using the Vac
of the multimeter. Verify using the oscilloscope (the Vpeak and
Vrms are related – note that we have a sinusoidal signal)
3. Compute the values of current I, the inductance L and the
inductive reactance XL.

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TABLE I
IMPEDANCE OF PRACTICAL INDUCTOR

Measured Values Computed Values

RL = I =

VT = L =

VR = XL =

VZ =

B. Making RMS Measurements

1. Set the function generator to 60 Hz sinusoidal waveform.
Connect it to the multimeter. Set the multimeter to AC volts.
2. Adjust the amplitude knob of the function generator until you
get a multimeter reading of 5 V. Use the oscilloscope to display
the generated signal. Measure the amplitude of the voltage and
the period of the waveform. What is the relationship of the
voltage from the multimeter reading to the voltage measured
using the oscilloscope?

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C. K.V.L. in AC circuits

C.1. Inductive Circuits

Connect the oscilloscope probe as shown in Figure 2 using the

same source as in PART A. Use CHOP mode and invert the signal in
CHANNEL 2. Adjust your VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV settings to
obtain a fairly large and wide (at least one to two periods) waveform.
Draw the traces indicating the significant points. Include volts/div
and time/div settings.

By how much does VR lag VZ? In degrees, how much is this

equivalent to? Add the two traces using the ADD function of the
oscilloscope. Draw the trace indicating the significant points. Take
note of the amplitudes of the traces. With the use of a phasor
diagram, show that the sum of VR and VZ equals VT.

C.2. Capacitive Circuits

Wire up Figure 3 using R=1KΩ and C=0.1uF. For VS, use 7 volt
(p-p), 1500 Hz sine wave without DC offset. Use the VERTICAL mode
in ALT mode and invert the signal in CHANNEL 2. Adjust your
VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV settings to obtain a fairly large and wide
waveform. Draw the traces indicating the significant points.

By how much time does VR lead VC? In degrees, how much is

this equivalent to? Add the two traces using the ADD function of the
oscilloscope. Draw the trace indicating the significant points, taking
note of the amplitudes of the traces. Again, using phasor diagrams,
show that the sum of VR and VC equals VT.

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Experiment 9
Transducers and Operational Amplifiers
I. OBJECTIVES
a) Describe the operation and electrical characteristics of
commonly-used transducers and sensors.
b) Perform measurements using transducers, sensors and electrical
measurement circuits.
c) Account errors introduced by non-ideal characteristics of the
transducers and sensors on the measurements made.
d) Use operational amplifier to condition the signal produced by
transducers and output corresponding signal/indicators.

II. MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT

(1) Oscilloscope (1) LM35 Centigrade Temperature Sensor wires and clips
(1) Signal generator (1) UEI447 NTC Thermistor soldering iron
(1) Digital multimeter (1) Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) (5) 1kΩ resistors
(2) Variable DC supply (1) LF353 Operational Amplifier (1) 10kΩ pot

III. PROCEDURE

A. Thermistor
1. Expose the thermistor to ambient
temperature (about 25°C). Do not touch the
body of the thermistor itself.
2. Record the time it takes for the resistance
reading to stabilize from the instant of point
of contact. Stable reading is when the
measured value varies insignificantly.
Measure and record the resistance of the
thermistor.
3. Place the thermistor in contact with the
human body (average normal body
temperature is 37°C). Placing it between the
hands/fingers is usually most convenient.
Repeat A.2.
4. Plug-in the soldering iron and wait for about 2-3 minutes until

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it reaches its heating temperature (about 120°C)*. Place the tip

of the iron in contact with the body of the thermistor. Be extra
careful that the tip touches ONLY the thermistor. Repeat A.2
then unplug the soldering iron.
5. Tabulate your resistance measurements and plot them against
temperature.

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B. LM35 Centigrade Temperature Sensor

1. Connect the LM35 sensor to a +5V
DC single power supply and
voltmeter to measure Vout as
shown on the right. DOUBLE CHECK
YOUR CONNECTIONS BEFORE
TURNING ON THE POWER. Make
sure the clips are not shorted with
adjacent pin/clips! Set the
voltmeter, if not automatic, to 2V
DC scale.
2. Repeat Steps A.1-A.6 but this time
measuring the output voltage of
LM35 instead of resistance.

C. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

1. Connect the LDR to a digital ohmmeter. Expose
the LDR to room or ambient lighting on your
table and record its “room-light” resistance.
2. Partially cover the LDR to prevent some light
from reaching it. Record its “shadow”
resistance.
3. Cover the LDR completely. It will help to use any
black material so as to prevent all light from
reaching the LDR. Record its “dark” resistance.
4. Place the LDR near the room lights and record its “light” resistance.
5. Plot your results. Use intensity of light on the x-axis and the resistance
on the y-axis.

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D. Operational Amplifier used as Voltage Comparator

RECALL: How to use negative DC supply? Who sets the “GND”?

1. Wire-up the circuit as shown on the left. Power up using,

Vcc+ = +5 Vdc and Vcc- = - 5 Vdc

NOTE: Only 1 op-amp will be used –

choose.

Let Vcompare/ref be connected to ground (essentially 0 Vdc) and Vin =

3Vpp 0Vdc offset, 1kHz sinusoidal signal. The schematic of LF353 is
as shown below (you can use either of the two op- amps inside).

The length-wise center of the protoboard (the canal-like) is designed

to fit component packages such as LF353.
2. Probe both input and output signals with their zero-levels
overlapped. Use DC coupling. Make sure the probes have
ground connection. Display the output with two to three
periods. Draw the waveforms and state your observations.
3. Vary the DC offset of the input signal in increment/decrement of
0.1Vdc but not exceeding
+/-1.5Vdc. Observe what happens to the output waveform.
4. From your observations, explain how the circuit operates as a voltage
comparator.

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