Chapter 27 Circuits

Masatsugu Sei Suzuki

Department of Physics, SUNY at Binghamton
(Date: July 12, 2019)

1. Basic elements and law

1.1 Lumped circuits
Lumped circuit which is obtained by connecting lumped elements such as resistors,
capacitors, inductors, transformers, and so on.
(1) The key property associated with lumped elements is their small size L0
compared to the wavelength  corresponding to their normal frequency of
operation: L0<<.
(2) From the more general electromagnetic field point of view, lumped
elements are point singularities, that is, they have negligible physical
dimensions.
(3) To exhibit the implications of the restriction on size, let us consider the
following case. f is the frequency and  is the wavelength of waves.

c = 3 x 108 m/s
c 3  108 m / s
For f = 1 GHz = 109 Hz,     0.3m
f 1091 / s
c 3  108 m / s
For f = 100 GHz = 10 Hz,   
11
 0.3cm
f 10111 / s
Consequently, in this case, the lumped approximation may not be good (f
= 100 GHz). At low frequency f (= Hz, kHz, MHz), this approximation is
very good.

For a two-terminal lumped elements, the current through the element and the voltage
across it are well-defined quantities.

1.2 Ideal battery

If the value of an ideal voltage source is constant, that is, it does not change with time,
an ideal voltage source is commonly represented by the equivalent notation.

1.3 Ideal current source

 An ideal current source, which is a device that, when connected anything, will always
pull I (A) into terminal 2 and push I (A) out of terminal 1.

1.4 Ideal voltage source

This is a device that produces a voltage of v (V) across its terminals regardless of
what is connected to it. The terminal 1 is at an electric potential that is v Volts higher than
that of terminal 2.

1.5 Reference directions of voltages

The reference direction for the voltage is indicated by the plus and minus symbols
located near the terminals A and B.

1.6 Branch and node

 In a lumped circuit, the two-terminal elements are called branches, and the terminals
of the elements are called nodes.

A lumped circuit with 6 branches and four nodes

1.7 Open-circuit and short circuit

A two-terminal element is called an open-circuit if it has a branch current identical to

zero, whatever the branch voltage may be.
A two-terminal element is called a short-circuit if it has a branch voltage identical to
zero, whatever the branch voltage may be.

2. Ohm’s law
If a resistor R has a voltage v across it and a current i going through it, then it is true
that v  iR .

where R is a resistance.

3. KCL (Kirchhoff’s current law)

For any lumped electric circuit, for any of its nodes and at any time, the algebraic sum
of all branch currents leaving the node is zero.
((Example))

KCL at node 1

 j5  j1  j6  0 (1)

KCL at node 2

 j8  j2  j5  0 (2)
Addition of Eqs.(1) and (2);

 j8  j2  j1  j6  0

which corresponds to the KCL at the network denoted by the green line

((Note))
1. KCL is independent of the nature of the elements.
2. KCL expresses the conservation of charge at every node.

dqn
i
n
n 0 where in 
dt

((Example)) general source

By KCL,

ia  i  isk (1)

We also have the relation

v  esk  Ria (2)

From Eqs.(1) and (2), we have

v  esk  R (i  isk )

4. KVL (Kirchhoff’s voltage law)

The algebraic sum of the potential difference across all elements in complete around
any closed-circuit loop must be zero.
  V  0
closedloop

(a) KVL applied to the loop I, asserts that

v 4  v5  v 6  0

The reference directions of branches 4 and 5 agree with the reference direction of loop I,
whereas the reference direction of branch 6 does not agree with that of loop I. We,
therefore, assign plus signs to v4 and v5, and a minus sign to v6.

(b) KVL applied to the loop II, asserts that

 v1  v 4  v 5  v 2  0

((Note)) KVL is independent of the nature of the elements.

((Example))
By KVL,

 28  v1  v2  0 for loop I (1)

and

v3  v  v2  0 for loop II (2)

By using Ohm’s law, we obtain

v2
i2  ,
4
v
i3 
3
(3)
v
i1  1
5
v
v3  i3 
3

From Eq.(2),

v 4v
v2  v3  v  v
3 3
1 1 4v v
i2  v2  
4 4 3 3

By KCL at the node A,

 i1  i2  i3  0
v v 2v
i1  i2  i3   
3 3 3
Substituting these into Eq.(1) yields that

10v 4v 14v
28   
3 3 3
v  6V

5. typical circuits

(a) Wheatstone bridge

A Wheatstone bridge is a measuring instrument invented by Samuel Hunter Christie
in 1833 and improved and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. It is used to
measure an unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one
leg of which includes the unknown component. (Wikipedia).

For loop 1

R1 I1  R5 I 5  R2 I 2  0

For loop 2

R3 ( I1  I 5 )  R4 ( I 2  I 5 )  R5 I 5  0

For loop 3
 R2 I 2  R 4 ( I 2  I 5 )  E  0

We use Mathematica to solve these equations.

E ( R2 R3  R1R4 )
I5 
R1R2 R3  R1R2 R4  R1R3 R4  R2 R3 R4  ( R1  R3 )( R2  R4 ) R5

E{R4 R5  R2 ( R3  R4  R5 )}
I1 
R1R2 R3  R1R2 R4  R1R3 R4  R2 R3 R4  ( R1  R3 )( R2  R4 ) R5

E{R3 R5  R1 ( R3  R4  R5 )}
I2 
R1R2 R3  R1R2 R4  R1R3 R4  R2 R3 R4  ( R1  R3 )( R2  R4 ) R5

When I5 = 0, we have the condition

R1 R4  R2 R3

Suppose that R1, R2, and R3 are known and R4 is unknown. Using the above relation, R4
is determined as

R2 R3
R4 
R1

((Mathematica))
For mesh 1

In[1]:= eq1 = R1 I1 + R5 I5 − R2 I2 0

Out[1]= I1 R1 − I2 R2 + I5 R5 0

For mesh 2

In[2]:= eq2 = R3 HI1 − I5L − R4 HI2 + I5L − R5 I5 0

Out[2]= HI1 − I5L R3 − HI2 + I5L R4 − I5 R5 0

For mesh 3

In[3]:= eq3 = R2 I2 + R4 HI2 + I5L E1

Out[3]= I2 R2 + HI2 + I5L R4 E1

In[4]:= eq4 = Solve@8eq1, eq2, eq3<, 8I1, I2, I5<D êê

FullSimplify

Out[4]= 88I1 → HE1 HR4 R5 + R2 HR3 + R4 + R5LLL ê

HR1 R2 R3 + R1 R2 R4 + R1 R3 R4 +
R2 R3 R4 + HR1 + R3L HR2 + R4L R5L,
I2 → HE1 HR3 R5 + R1 HR3 + R4 + R5LLL ê
HR1 R2 R3 + R1 R2 R4 + R1 R3 R4 +
R2 R3 R4 + HR1 + R3L HR2 + R4L R5L,
I5 → HE1 HR2 R3 − R1 R4LL ê
HR1 R2 R3 + R1 R2 R4 + R1 R3 R4 +
R2 R3 R4 + HR1 + R3L HR2 + R4L R5L<<

We consider the case R1=x, R2 = R3 = R4= R5=1 W, and E=1 V. What

is the dependnce of x on the current I5?

In[8]:= I51 = I5 ê. eq4@@1DD ê.

8R1 → x, R2 → 1, R3 → 1, R4 → 1, R5 → 1,
E1 → 1<
1−x
Out[8]=
1 + 3 x + 2 H 1 + xL

In[11]:= Plot@I51, 8x, 0.8, 1.2<,

AxesLabel → 8"R1", "I5"<,
PlotStyle → 8Thick, Red <,
Background → LightGrayD
I5

0.02

0.01
Out[11]=
R1
0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2

-0.01

-0.02
(b) Ladder circuit: application of the principle of superposition

We consider a ladder circuit where all the resistors has R ( ). What are the current of the
branches and voltages of nodes. Suppose that VF = V0.
 VF  V0
V0
I1 
R
VE  VF  I1R  2V0
VE 2V0
I2  
R R
3V
I 3  I1  I 2  0
R
VD  VE  RI 3  2V0  3V0  5V0
VD 5V0
I4  
R R
3V0 5V0 8V0
I5  I3  I4   
R R R
VC  VD  RI 5  5V0  8V0  13V0
VC 13V0
I6  
R R
21V0
I7  I5  I6 
R
VB  VC  RI 7  13V0  21V0  34V0
VB 34V0
I8  
R R
55V0
I 9  I 7  I8 
R
VA  VB  RI 9  34V0  55V0  89V0

E
where E  89V0 . , or V0  . Using this value of V0, we can determine the current and
89
voltages.

(c) 2x2 square lattice

We consider a 2x2 square lattice. Each branch has a 1. What is the total resistance
between A and B?
 From the symmetry, the points with red circles has the same electric potential. The
same things occur for the points with green circles and the points with blue circles.

Then we can fold this square lattice along the AB line (symmetric line).
or

Then the total resistance between A and B is 3/2 .

(d) Hexagon
Each branch has a resistance of 1 . From the symmetry, we choose the currents of
branches. We calculate the resistance between A and B.
 Vtot  VAB  2i2  2i1  i3
VAO  i2  2i1  i3
I tot  2i1  i2

We get

i2  2i3
3
i1  i3
2

Vtot 4i3 4
R   
I tot 5i3 5

(e) Three dimensional circuits with high symmetry

 We consider a cubic circuit where each side has a resistance of 1 . What is the total
resistance between the points A and B?
We notice that the points B, C, and D are at the same electric potential. The points E,
F and G are at the same potential. So we can put together these points. The equivalent
circuit is given by

Then the total resistance between A and H is

2 1 5
Rtot    
3 6 6

5. Examples of circuits from textbook

((Example-1))
Figure 27-12 shows a circuit whose elements have the following values:
The three batteries are ideal batteries. Find the magnitude and direction of the current in
each of the three branches.

i1 = -0.5 A, i2 = 0.25 A.

((Mathematica))

eq1 = 2 i1 − 3 + 2 i1 + 4 Hi1 + i2L + 6 0 êê Simplify

3 + 8 i1 + 4 i2 0

eq2 = − 6 + 2 i2 + 4 Hi1 + i2L + 6 + 2 i2 0 êê Simplify

i1 + 2 i2 0

Solve@8eq1, eq2<, 8i1, i2<D

1 1
::i1 → − , i2 → >>
2 4

((Example-2))
Electric fish is able to generate current with biological cells called electroplaques,
which are physiological emf devices. The electroplaques in the type of electric fish
known as a South American eel are arranged in 140 rows, each row stretching
horizontally along the body and each containing 5000 electroplaques. The arrangement is
suggested in Fig. 27-13 a; each electroplaque has an emf of 0.15 V and an internal
resistance r of 0.25 Ω.
We now consider the circuit shown in Fig.b. From the symmetry of the circuit, the point
b are at the same electric potential. Then we can put together these points b, leading to
much more simple circuit shown in Fig.c.

  row  Rwi  Reqi  0

 row 750
i   0.93 A
Rw  Req 808.92

where

 row  750V
5000  0.25
Req   8.92
140
Rw  800

6. Maximum power transfer (impedance matching)

What value of RL will result in the maximum amount of power absorbed by the load
resistance RL? Here Rs is the internal resistance of the battery.
By Ohm’s law,

vs  ( Rs  RL )iL
vs
iL 
Rs  RL

The power dissipated at the load RL is given by

2 2
2 RL vs v x
P  RLiL   s
( Rs  RL ) 2
Rs ( x  1)2

RL
with x  .
Rs
2
vs
P has a maximum at x = 1. The maximum value of P is Pmax  .
4 Rs

((Impedance matching))
Given a practical voltage source with an internal resistance Rs, the maximum power that
can be delivered to a resistance load RL is obtained when RL = Rs and the power is

2
v
Pmax  s .
4 Rs

((Mathematica))
Fig. P/(vs2/Rs) vs x = RL/Rs. This has a maximum at x = 1.

7. RC circuit

(a) Charging

In the above circuit, the switch is connected to the terminal a at t = 0,

    RiC  vC  0
dvC
iC  C
dt

Then we have a first-order differential equation,

dvC
RC  vC  
dt

with an initial condition, vC (0)  0 and iC (0)  0 .

The solution of this differential equation is

t

vC (t )   (1  e RC
)

The current iC is obtained as


t

iC (t )  e RC
R

Note that  = RC is a time constant. vC(t) is continuous at t = 0, while iC(t) is

discontinuous at t = 0. In this sense, vC(t) is a variable suitable to the solution of the
differential equation.

((Mathematica))
Fig. time dependence of vC/ (red, continuous at t = 0) and iC/(/R) (green,
discontinuous at t = 0).

((Note)) How to determine the relaxation time . The tangential line at t = 0, passes at (t =
, V = V0).
 VêV0

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8
Out[10]=
0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 têt
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

(b) Discharging

RiC  vC  0
dvC
iC  C
dt

Then we have a first-order differential equation,

dvC
RC  vC  0
dt

with an initial condition, vC (0)   and iC (0)  0 . The solution of this differential
equation is

t

vC (t )  e RC

The current iC is obtained as

 
t

iC (t )   e RC
R

((Mathematica))

Fig. time dependence of vC/ (red, continuous at t = 0) and iC/(/R) (green,

discontinuous at t = 0).

8. Circuit including the capacitor C: technique how to solve the problem

 We now consider the difference between the voltage vC across a capacitor at a time t
= t0 and that at a time t = t0+,

t0 
1
vC (t0   )  vC (t0 ) 
C i
t0
C (t )dt

where iC(t) is the current flowing through the capacitor. This integral gets arbitrarily
small if  gets arbitrarily small. This means that vC(t) is continuous at any time t0.

In conclusion, if we choose iL and vC as the variables for the analysis of the circuits, we
can determined smoothly the time dependence of iL and vC from their initial conditions.

((Example-1)) RC circuits

For t<0, there is no current across the capacitance.

v v v
6   or v(0)  12V
3 6 2
v  6i or i(0) = 2A.
vC  3i  6V or vC(0) = 6V
iC(0) = 0
For t≥0
 1
 i  iC  vC  0
3
v
i  C
6
1 dvC
iC 
10 dt
1
v  3i  vC
2

Then we have a first order differential equation,

dvC
 5vC  0 , or vC (t )  vC (0)e 5t  6e 5t
dt

1 dvC
iC (t )   3e 5t
10 dt

v(t )  3e 5t

((Mathematica))
 −5 t
VC = If@t < 0, 6, 0D + IfAt > 0, 6 , 0E;
−5 t
IC = If@t < 0, 0, 0D + IfAt > 0, − 3 , 0E;
−5 t
V = If@t < 0, 12, 0D + IfAt > 0, 3 , 0E;
Plot@8VC, IC, V<, 8t, − 0.5, 1<,
PlotStyle → 88Thick, Red<, 8Thick, Green<, 8Thick, Blue<<,
AxesLabel → 8"tHsL", "vC,iC,v"<D
vC,iC,v
12

10

tHsL
- 0.4 -0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
-2

Fig time dependence of vC (red), iC (green), and v (blue). Only vC(t) ic continuous at t
= 0.

10 Typical examples
10.1 Problem 27-39 (SP-27)
In Fig.,  = 12.0 V, R1 = 2000 , R2 = 3000 , and R3 = 4000 . What are the
potential differences (a) VA – VB, (b) VB – VC, (c) VC – VD, and (d) VA – VC?

((Solution))
 = 12.0 V
R1 = 2 k
R2 = 3 k
R3 = 4 k

i1  i2  i3 

Loop 1:

   R2i2  R1 (i2  i4 )  0

Loop 2:

R1i3  R3i4  R2i2  0

Loop 3

R3i4  R2 (i3  i4 )  R1 (i2  i4 )  0

We have 4 unknown parameters and 4 equations. So we can solve. See the Mathematica
calculations for detail.

i1 = 4.875 mA, i2 = 2.250 mA

i3 = 2.625 mA, i4 = -0.375 mA.

(a) v A  vB  R1i3  5.25V

(b) vB  vC   R3i4  1.50V

(c) vC  vD  R1 (i2  i4 )  5.25V

(d) v A  vC  R2i2  6.75V

((Note))

( R1  R2  R3 )
i1   4.875mA
2 R1R2  R1R3  R2 R3
( R1  R3 )
i2   2.250mA
2 R1R2  R1R3  R2 R3
( R2  R3 )
i3   2.625mA
2 R1R2  R1R3  R2 R3
( R1  R2 )
i4   0.375mA
2 R1R2  R1R3  R2 R3

((Mathematica))
 eq1 = i1 i2 + i3
i1 i2 + i3

eq2 = −ε + R2 i2 + R1 Hi2 − i4L 0

Hi2 − i4L R1 + i2 R2 − ε 0

eq3 = R1 i3 − R3 i4 − R2 i2 0
i3 R1 − i2 R2 − i4 R3 0

eq4 = R3 i4 + R2 H i3 + i4L − R1 H i2 − i4L 0

− H i2 − i4L R1 + Hi3 + i4L R2 + i4 R3 0

sq1 = Solve@8eq1, eq2, eq3, eq4<, 8i1, i2, i3, i4<D êê

Simplify
HR1 + R2 + 2 R3L ε HR2 + R3L ε
::i1 → , i3 → ,
R2 R3 + R1 H2 R2 + R3L R2 R3 + R1 H2 R2 + R3L
H R1 + R3L ε HR1 − R2L ε
i2 → , i4 → >>
R2 R3 + R1 H2 R2 + R3L R2 R3 + R1 H2 R2 + R3L

rule1 = 8R1 → 2000, R2 → 3000, R3 → 4000, ε → 12.0<

8R1 → 2000, R2 → 3000, R3 → 4000, ε → 12.<

sq2 = sq1 ê. rule1

88i1 → 0.004875, i3 → 0.002625,
i2 → 0.00225, i4 → − 0.000375<<

vAB = R1 i3 ê . sq1@@1DD ê. rule1

5.25

vBC = − R3 i4 ê. sq1@@1DD ê . rule1

1.5

vCD = R1 Hi2 − i4L ê. sq1@@1DD ê. rule1

5.25

vAC = R2 i2 ê . sq1@@1DD ê. rule1

6.75

11. Hint of HW-26

Problem 27-68

Figure displays two circuits with a charged capacitor that is to be discharged through a
resistor whena switch is closed. In Fig.(a), R1 = 20.0  and C1 = 5.00 F. In Fig.(b), R2 =
10.0  and C2 = 8.00 F. the ratio of the initial charges on the two capacitors is q20/q01 =
1.50. At time t = 0, both switches are closed. At what time t do the two capacitors have
the same charge?

((Hint))
R1 = 20.0 
C1 = 5.00 F
R2 = 10.0 
C2 = 8 F
q02/q01 = 1.5

v1  R1i1  0
dv1
i1  C
dt

or

dv1
v1  R1C1 0
dt
v1 (t )  v1 (0)e  t /( R1C1 )
Q1 (t )  C1v1 (t )  C1v1 (0)e  t /( R1C1 )  q01e  t /( R1C1 )

_______________________________________________________________________
APPENDIX

1. Ammeter and voltmeter

In carrying out experiments on electric circuits in the laboratory, it is frequently
useful to have available a means for measuring the current flow through – and the
potential drop across – a given circuit element. The two instruments that have been
developed for these purposes are the ammeter and the voltmeter. An ammeter is a device
used to measure current. Normally it is connected in series with other circuit elements. In
ideal case, there is no internal resistance. In other words, there is no potential drop across
the ammeter. A voltmeter measures the potential difference between any two points in a
circuit. In ideal case, the internal resistance is infinity. No current flows in the voltmeter.
In this circuit, the ammeter (denoted by A in the circle) measures the current flowing in
the resistor R1, while the voltmeter (denoted by V in the circle) measures the voltage
across the resistor R2.

2. Fruit battery; how to get an ideal battery

I had a good opportunity to do some experiment of fruit battery at my home. Through

the experiments, I learned how to get a high quality fruit battery which has a high voltage
and a small internal resistance. Note that an ideal battery has no internal resistance.
When copper and zinc electrodes were installed in fruit (lemon), a voltage is
generated between two electrodes. The voltage was about 0.95 V. I found a relatively
large internal resistance between two electrodes. When the distance between two
electrodes was less than 2 mm, the internal resistance drastically decreased. Based on this,
my fruit battery was greatly improved. I found one of the best way to get a battery with
relatively high voltage and small internal resistance. The copper and zinc electrodes are
separated by a wet paper towel with a small amount of lemon drops and salt (NaCl), so
that the distance between two electrodes is less than 2 mm. When four of these batteries
are connected in series, I get a battery with the voltage 3.8 V and a small internal
resistance. When a LED is connected, a bright light was on.
3. Exercises
I got the following problem from Japanese book on Problems and Solutions in
Electriciy and Magnetism, which I used when I was a undergraduate student.

The circuit consists of resistance R and capacitance C in series. The following voltage is
applied between A and C. Find the time dependence of the voltage between B and A.

vs  v R  vC  Ri  vC  V0 [u1 (t  ti )  u1 (t  t f )]
 1 dvC
C
vC  idt , i C
dt

Thus we have

dv C
vs  CR  vC
dt

For 0  t  ti , vC  0
The initial condition at t  ti : vC  0 . For ti  t  t f ,

dv C
CR  vC  V0
dt

The solution of the first order differential equation

vC (t )  V0 [1  e  (t ti )/( RC ) ]

At t  t f

 ( t f  ti )/( RC )
vC (t f )  V0 [1  e ]

For t  t f

dv C
CR  vC  0
dt

The solution is

 ( t  t f )/( RC )
vc (t )  vC (t f )e
 ( t f  ti )/( RC )  ( t  t f )/( RC )
 V0 [1  e ]e
 ( t  t f )/( RC )
 V0 [e  e  (t ti )/( RC ) ]
 eti /( RC ) ]e  t /( RC )
t /( RC )
 V0 [e f

The charge Q0 is stored in the capacitor C, When the resistance R is connected to both
sides of capacitor. Find the time dependence of voltage and charge of the capacitor.

The charge q
 dvC
vC  iR  0 . vC  RC 0
dt

with the initial condition

Q0
vC 
C

where

dq dv
i C
dt dt

The solution of the first order differential equation

Q0 t /( RC )
vC  e
C

4. Infinite resistor network (square)

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