QUESTIONS

Chapter: IDS/IPS

1. Define intrusion and its key objectives. (Open-ended)

2. What is the primary difference between IDS and IPS? (Open-ended)
3. Which hardware component is often included in IPS to enhance performance?
(Multiple-choice)
o a) CPU
o b) GPU
o c) ASIC
o d) SSD
4. Explain the role of a data pre-processor in IDS/IPS systems. (Open-ended)
5. Match the following IDS classifications with their descriptions: (Matching)
o Host-based IDS
o Network-based IDS
o Application-based IDS
o Target-based IDS

Chapter: Snort

6. What are the three operational modes of Snort? (Open-ended)

7. Write a simple Snort rule to detect an HTTP request containing "password". (Open-
ended)
8. Identify the correct order of Snort architecture components. (Multiple-choice)
o a) Packet Decoder > Preprocessor > Detection Engine > Output Stage
o b) Output Stage > Packet Decoder > Detection Engine > Preprocessor
o c) Preprocessor > Packet Decoder > Output Stage > Detection Engine
o d) Detection Engine > Output Stage > Preprocessor > Packet Decoder
9. What are the main types of Snort plug-ins? (Open-ended)
10. Explain the significance of the "nocase" option in a Snort rule. (Open-ended)

Chapter: Buffer Overflow

11. What is the most valuable information stored on the stack during a stack overflow
attack? (Open-ended)
12. Identify the function in this code snippet prone to a buffer overflow: (Code Review)

c
‫نسختحرير‬
char input[10];
gets(input);

13. What does “return to libc” refer to in buffer overflow attacks? (Open-ended)
14. Which of the following functions is considered unsafe due to buffer overflow risks?
(Multiple-choice)
o a) printf
 o b) fgets
o c) strcpy
o d) memcpy
15. What are two key defenses against buffer overflow attacks? (Open-ended)

Chapter: Race Conditions

16. Define race conditions in the context of system vulnerabilities. (Open-ended)

17. Describe a real-world example of a race condition exploitation. (Open-ended)
18. How can TOCTTOU vulnerabilities be mitigated? (Open-ended)
19. In what scenarios do race conditions typically occur? (Multiple-choice)
o a) Multi-threaded programs
o b) Sequentially executed programs
o c) Programs with no shared resources
o d) Programs using encryption
20. True or False: Race conditions can only be exploited in multi-threaded
environments. (True/False)

Chapter: SQL Injection

21. What is SQL injection? Provide an example. (Open-ended)

22. Explain the query generated when the input is ' OR 1=1 --. (Open-ended)
23. Which of these is a common prevention method for SQL injection? (Multiple-choice)
o a) Input validation
o b) Using dynamic queries
o c) Allowing unrestricted input
o d) Disabling database constraints
24. Identify the flaw in this SQL query:

sql
‫نسختحرير‬
SELECT * FROM users WHERE username = '$username';

(Open-ended)

25. True or False: Prepared statements can prevent SQL injection. (True/False)

Chapter: Statistical Database Security

26. Define "tracker attack" in statistical databases. (Open-ended)

27. Explain how individual trackers can be prevented in statistical queries. (Open-
ended)
28. What does the predicate Program = 'MIS' represent in tracker attacks? (Open-
ended)
29. Which statistical function is least likely to reveal sensitive individual data? (Multiple-
choice)
o a) COUNT
o b) SUM
o c) AVG
 o d) MAX
30. Match the query predicates with their results: (Matching)
o SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Students WHERE Program='CS'
o SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Students WHERE Sex='F'

Chapter: Blockchain

31. What is a blockchain? (Open-ended)

32. Who introduced the concept of "Distributed Blockchain"? (Multiple-choice)
o a) Vitalik Buterin
o b) Satoshi Nakamoto
o c) Merkle
o d) Ruba Awadallah
33. Explain the function of cryptographic hash functions in blockchain. (Open-ended)
34. List the main components of a blockchain. (Open-ended)
35. What is the purpose of the nonce in blockchain? (Open-ended)

Chapter: Blockchain (Continued)

36. Describe how blocks are linked together in a blockchain. (Open-ended)

37. What are the three types of blockchain access mechanisms? (Open-ended)
38. Match the blockchain type to its characteristic: (Matching)
o Public blockchain
o Private blockchain
o Consortium blockchain
39. Which consensus mechanism is most commonly associated with Bitcoin? (Multiple-
choice)
o a) Proof of Stake
o b) Proof of Work
o c) Proof of Authority
o d) Byzantine Fault Tolerance
40. Explain the term "distributed ledger". (Open-ended)
41. What are the key differences between permissioned and permissionless
blockchains? (Open-ended)
42. What does "tamper resistance" mean in the context of blockchain? (Open-ended)
43. How does Proof of Stake differ from Proof of Work? (Open-ended)
44. What is a "smart contract"? (Open-ended)
45. Which component ensures the authenticity of transactions in blockchain? (Multiple-
choice)
o a) Hashing
o b) Asymmetric cryptography
o c) Nonce
o d) Timestamp
Chapter: Advanced Anti-Virus Techniques

46. Define the role of a "memory-resident program" in third-generation antivirus

software. (Open-ended)
47. What distinguishes fourth-generation antivirus software from earlier generations?
(Open-ended)
48. True or False: First-generation antivirus software relies on heuristic rules.
(True/False)
49. Which of the following is a feature of the digital immune system? (Multiple-choice)
o a) Emulation and virus detection
o b) Memory encryption
o c) Code obfuscation
o d) Multi-threading
50. Explain the arms race concept in antivirus software development. (Open-ended)

Chapter: Blockchain Architectures

51. Compare public and private blockchains in terms of transaction speed and
scalability. (Open-ended)
52. What role does redundancy play in the security of public blockchains? (Open-ended)
53. Describe a use case for consortium blockchains. (Open-ended)
54. Why might a private blockchain be preferable for government applications? (Open-
ended)
55. Which blockchain type is suitable for business-to-business interactions? (Multiple-
choice)
o a) Public blockchain
o b) Private blockchain
o c) Consortium blockchain

Chapter: IDS Classification

56. List the methods used for anomaly detection in IDS systems. (Open-ended)
57. How does misuse detection differ from anomaly detection? (Open-ended)
58. What are the limitations of misuse detection? (Open-ended)
59. True or False: Anomaly detection relies on pre-defined signatures to detect threats.
(True/False)
60. Explain the concept of "false positives" in IDS systems. (Open-ended)

Chapter: SQL Injection (Continued)

61. Write a SQL query that is safe from SQL injection using prepared statements. (Code
Writing)
 62. What is the main goal of input sanitization in preventing SQL injection? (Open-
ended)
63. Which of the following is a common SQL injection attack vector? (Multiple-choice)
o a) URL parameters
o b) User input fields
o c) Cookies
o d) All of the above
64. Provide an example of a "blind SQL injection" attack. (Open-ended)
65. Why are dynamic SQL queries more vulnerable to injection attacks? (Open-ended)

Chapter: Statistical Database Security (Continued)

66. What are the main challenges of securing statistical databases? (Open-ended)
67. How does a tracker attack exploit statistical queries? (Open-ended)
68. Match the statistical function with its purpose: (Matching)
o COUNT
o AVG
o MAX
o MIN
69. What is the importance of query constraints in statistical databases? (Open-ended)
70. True or False: Statistical queries with fewer than three records should always be
denied to protect privacy. (True/False)

Chapter: Buffer Overflow (Continued)

71. What is the role of the return address in a stack overflow attack? (Open-ended)
72. Name two programming functions that should be avoided to prevent buffer
overflow vulnerabilities. (Open-ended)
73. How does Address Space Layout Randomization (ASLR) defend against buffer
overflow attacks? (Open-ended)
74. Write a secure version of the following code snippet to prevent buffer
overflow:

char buffer[10];

gets(buffer);

75. True or False: Integer overflows can also lead to buffer overflow vulnerabilities.
(True/False)

Chapter: Race Conditions (Continued)

76. Explain the term "TOCTTOU" in the context of race conditions. (Open-ended)
 77. Why is atomicity important in preventing race conditions? (Open-ended)
78. Which of the following is NOT a common strategy to mitigate race conditions?
(Multiple-choice)
o a) Locking mechanisms
o b) Using faster processors
o c) Avoiding shared resources
o d) Implementing transactions
79. Provide an example of a race condition in file handling. (Open-ended)
80. True or False: Time-of-check to time-of-use vulnerabilities are unique to multi-
threaded systems. (True/False)

Miscellaneous Topics

81. What is the role of cryptographic hash functions in ensuring data integrity? (Open-
ended)
82. Define "nonce" and its significance in the proof-of-work model. (Open-ended)
83. How do digital signatures enhance the security of blockchain transactions? (Open-
ended)
84. What are the three primary properties of cryptographic hash functions? (Open-
ended)
85. True or False: A blockchain with tampered blocks can still maintain its integrity.
(True/False)

Snort Chapter: Additional Questions

86. What is the main purpose of Snort as a network security tool? (Open-ended)
87. Explain the difference between Sniffer mode and Packet Logger mode in Snort.
(Open-ended)
88. Which of the following command-line switches puts Snort into NIDS mode?
(Multiple-choice)
o a) -s
o b) -c <config file>
o c) -l <log directory>
o d) No switches; it's the default mode
89. Write a Snort rule to detect incoming traffic on port 22 (SSH) from an external
network. (Code Writing)
90. What is the role of the "Preprocessor" in the Snort architecture? (Open-ended)
91. True or False: Snort rules consist of two main parts—header and options.
(True/False)
92. What type of data does the "Detection Engine" in Snort analyze? (Open-ended)
93. Match the Snort rule components with their function: (Matching)
o msg
o content
o sid
o flags
94. Explain the purpose of the following Snort rule snippet:
 alert tcp any any -> any 80 (msg: "HTTP traffic detected"; sid:
1001;)

(Open-ended)

95. How does Snort handle output, and what are the common output formats? (Open-
ended)
96. Which of these is a valid Snort rule action? (Multiple-choice)
o a) block
o b) alert
o c) log
o d) Both b and c
97. True or False: Snort can integrate with third-party tools for enhanced data
visualization and management. (True/False)
98. What is the function of the "sid" field in a Snort rule? (Open-ended)
99. Why is it important to use variables (e.g., $HOME_NET) in Snort rules? (Open-ended)
100. Write a Snort rule that generates an alert for any ICMP traffic. (Code Writing)
101. Explain the purpose of the "nocase" option in content-based Snort rules.
(Open-ended)
102. What does the following Snort rule detect, and why is it useful? (Scenario-
based)
plaintext alert tcp $EXTERNAL_NET any -> $HOME_NET 1433 (msg:"SQL
Server access attempt"; content:"|73 71 6c 20|"; sid:2001;)
103. What is the primary role of the "Rules Header" in a Snort rule? (Open-ended)
104. List three types of Snort rule categories (e.g., exploit.rules) and their
purpose. (Open-ended)
105. True or False: Snort’s plug-in system allows users to extend its capabilities
without modifying its core. (True/False)
106. Describe how statistical anomaly detection differs from signature-based
detection in Snort. (Open-ended)
107. What is the significance of setting thresholds in Snort rules? (Open-ended)
108. How does Snort use BPF (Berkeley Packet Filter) in Sniffer mode? (Open-
ended)
109. Provide an example of a multi-mode packet logging option in Snort. (Open-
ended)
110. Why is Snort considered a "lightweight" network intrusion detection
system? (Open-ended)
ANSWERS
Chapter: IDS/IPS

1. Define intrusion and its key objectives.

Intrusion refers to actions aimed at compromising security goals such as
confidentiality, integrity, and availability.
2. What is the primary difference between IDS and IPS?
IDS detects intrusions and alerts the operator, while IPS detects and actively
blocks malicious traffic.
3. Which hardware component is often included in IPS to enhance
performance?
Answer: c) ASIC (Application-Specific Integrated Circuit).
4. Explain the role of a data pre-processor in IDS/IPS systems.
The data pre-processor collects and formats data for analysis by the detection
algorithm.
5. Match the following IDS classifications with their descriptions:
o Host-based IDS: Monitors local systems and logs.
o Network-based IDS: Inspects network traffic.
o Application-based IDS: Monitors application-specific data.
o Target-based IDS: Ensures integrity using checksums or hashes.

Chapter: Snort

6. What is the main purpose of Snort as a network security tool?

Snort is a lightweight intrusion detection system that analyzes network traffic in
real-time.
7. Explain the difference between Sniffer mode and Packet Logger mode in
Snort.
Sniffer mode decodes and displays packets in real-time; Packet Logger mode logs
packets for later analysis.
8. Which of the following command-line switches puts Snort into NIDS mode?
Answer: d) No switches; it's the default mode.
9. Write a Snort rule to detect incoming traffic on port 22 (SSH) from an
external network.
Answer: alert tcp $EXTERNAL_NET any -> $HOME_NET 22 (msg:"SSH
traffic detected"; sid:1001;)
10. What is the role of the "Preprocessor" in the Snort architecture?
Preprocessors analyze packets before the detection engine processes them,
handling tasks like normalization.
11. True or False: Snort rules consist of two main parts—header and options.
Answer: True.
12. What type of data does the "Detection Engine" in Snort analyze?
It analyzes packets for predefined patterns or anomalies.
 13. Match the Snort rule components with their function:
o msg: Specifies the message to log.
o content: Defines the payload to match.
o sid: Unique identifier for the rule.
o flags: Specifies TCP flags to match.
14. Explain the purpose of the following Snort rule snippet:

plaintext
‫نسختحرير‬
alert tcp any any -> any 80 (msg: "HTTP traffic detected"; sid:
1001;)

This rule detects any TCP traffic directed to port 80 (HTTP) and logs it with a
specific message and ID.

15. How does Snort handle output, and what are the common output formats?
Snort outputs logs/alerts in formats such as plain text, tcpdump, or database
entries.
16. Which of these is a valid Snort rule action?
Answer: d) Both b (alert) and c (log).
17. True or False: Snort can integrate with third-party tools for enhanced data
visualization and management.
Answer: True.
18. What is the function of the "sid" field in a Snort rule?
It provides a unique identifier for the rule.
19. Why is it important to use variables (e.g., $HOME_NET) in Snort rules?
Variables allow flexibility and easier rule management for different environments.
20. Write a Snort rule that generates an alert for any ICMP traffic.
Answer: alert icmp any any -> any any (msg:"ICMP traffic
detected"; sid:2001;)

Chapter: Buffer Overflow

21. What is the most valuable information stored on the stack during a stack
overflow attack?
The return address.
22. Identify the function in this code snippet prone to a buffer overflow:

c
‫نسختحرير‬
char input[10];
gets(input);

The gets() function is unsafe and prone to buffer overflow.

 23. What does “return to libc” refer to in buffer overflow attacks?
It redirects execution to a function in the C standard library instead of injecting
custom shellcode.
24. Which of the following functions is considered unsafe due to buffer overflow
risks?
Answer: c) strcpy.
25. What are two key defenses against buffer overflow attacks?
Input validation and Address Space Layout Randomization (ASLR).

Chapter: Race Conditions

26. Define race conditions in the context of system vulnerabilities.

A race condition occurs when the behavior of a system depends on the sequence
or timing of events, potentially leading to vulnerabilities.
27. Describe a real-world example of a race condition exploitation.
TOCTTOU attacks where a file’s attributes are checked before being used.
28. How can TOCTTOU vulnerabilities be mitigated?
By using atomic operations or file descriptors instead of filenames.
29. In what scenarios do race conditions typically occur?
Answer: a) Multi-threaded programs.
30. True or False: Race conditions can only be exploited in multi-threaded
environments.
Answer: False.

Chapter: SQL Injection

31. What is SQL injection? Provide an example.

SQL injection is a vulnerability where an attacker injects malicious SQL into a
query. Example: ' OR 1=1 --.
32. Explain the query generated when the input is ' OR 1=1 --.
It modifies the query to always return true, bypassing authentication.
33. Which of these is a common prevention method for SQL injection?
Answer: a) Input validation.
34. Identify the flaw in this SQL query:

sql
‫نسختحرير‬
SELECT * FROM users WHERE username = '$username';

The query directly incorporates user input without sanitization.

35. True or False: Prepared statements can prevent SQL injection.

Answer: True.
Chapter: Statistical Database Security

36. Define "tracker attack" in statistical databases.

A tracker attack uses statistical queries to infer sensitive information about
individual records.
37. Explain how individual trackers can be prevented in statistical queries.
By enforcing query constraints, such as requiring at least three records per query
result.
38. What does the predicate Program = 'MIS' represent in tracker attacks?
It serves as a condition that isolates specific records for targeted statistical
analysis.
39. Which statistical function is least likely to reveal sensitive individual data?
Answer: a) COUNT.
40. What is the importance of query constraints in statistical databases?
Query constraints prevent attackers from isolating and identifying individual
records.

Chapter: Blockchain

41. What is a blockchain?

Blockchain is a distributed, tamper-resistant ledger of cryptographically signed
transactions grouped into blocks.
42. Who introduced the concept of "Distributed Blockchain"?
Answer: b) Satoshi Nakamoto.
43. Explain the function of cryptographic hash functions in blockchain.
They ensure data integrity by generating unique, fixed-size outputs for each
block.
44. List the main components of a blockchain.
Cryptographic hash functions, blocks, consensus mechanisms, public/private
keys, and ledgers.
45. What is the purpose of the nonce in blockchain?
It is a random value used in proof-of-work to vary hash results and meet difficulty
targets.
46. Describe how blocks are linked together in a blockchain.
Each block contains the hash of the previous block, forming a chain.
47. What are the three types of blockchain access mechanisms?
Public, private, and consortium blockchains.
48. Match the blockchain type to its characteristic:
o Public blockchain: Open to everyone, high transparency.
o Private blockchain: Controlled by one entity, limited access.
o Consortium blockchain: Managed by a group of organizations, semi-
decentralized.
49. Which consensus mechanism is most commonly associated with Bitcoin?
Answer: b) Proof of Work.
 50. Explain the term "distributed ledger."
A distributed ledger is a decentralized database shared among network
participants, ensuring transparency and security.
51. What are the key differences between permissioned and permissionless
blockchains?
Permissioned blockchains restrict access to authorized nodes, while
permissionless blockchains allow anyone to participate.
52. What does "tamper resistance" mean in the context of blockchain?
It refers to the difficulty of altering past blocks due to cryptographic linking and
consensus mechanisms.
53. How does Proof of Stake differ from Proof of Work?
Proof of Stake uses ownership of tokens to validate transactions, while Proof of
Work relies on solving computational problems.
54. What is a "smart contract"?
A self-executing contract with the terms of the agreement directly written in code.
55. Which component ensures the authenticity of transactions in blockchain?
Answer: b) Asymmetric cryptography.

Chapter: Advanced Anti-Virus Techniques

56. Define the role of a "memory-resident program" in third-generation

antivirus software.
It identifies viruses by monitoring their actions in memory.
57. What distinguishes fourth-generation antivirus software from earlier
generations?
It combines multiple techniques like scanning, activity traps, and access controls.
58. True or False: First-generation antivirus software relies on heuristic rules.
Answer: False.
59. Which of the following is a feature of the digital immune system?
Answer: a) Emulation and virus detection.
60. Explain the arms race concept in antivirus software development.
It describes the continuous evolution of malware and antivirus technologies to
outpace each other.

Chapter: Buffer Overflow (Continued)

61. What is the role of the return address in a stack overflow attack?
It determines where the system executes code after a function call.
62. Name two programming functions that should be avoided to prevent buffer
overflow vulnerabilities.
gets() and strcpy().
63. How does Address Space Layout Randomization (ASLR) defend against
buffer overflow attacks?
 It randomizes memory addresses to make it harder for attackers to predict
locations.
64. Write a secure version of the following code snippet to prevent buffer
overflow:

c
‫نسختحرير‬
char buffer[10];
fgets(buffer, sizeof(buffer), stdin);

65. True or False: Integer overflows can also lead to buffer overflow
vulnerabilities.
Answer: True.

Chapter: Race Conditions (Continued)

66. Explain the term "TOCTTOU" in the context of race conditions.

Time-of-check to time-of-use (TOCTTOU) refers to a race condition where a
system state changes between a check and its use.
67. Why is atomicity important in preventing race conditions?
Atomic operations ensure actions are completed as a single unit without
interruption.
68. Which of the following is NOT a common strategy to mitigate race
conditions?
Answer: b) Using faster processors.
69. Provide an example of a race condition in file handling.
An attacker replacing a file between a security check and its access.
70. True or False: Time-of-check to time-of-use vulnerabilities are unique to
multi-threaded systems.
Answer: False.

Miscellaneous

71. What is the role of cryptographic hash functions in ensuring data integrity?
They generate unique outputs, making tampering easily detectable.
72. Define "nonce" and its significance in the proof-of-work model.
A nonce is a random number used to meet a blockchain's hashing difficulty target.
73. How do digital signatures enhance the security of blockchain transactions?
They verify the authenticity and integrity of a transaction using asymmetric
cryptography.
74. What are the three primary properties of cryptographic hash functions?
Collision resistance, hiding, and puzzle-friendliness.
 75. True or False: A blockchain with tampered blocks can still maintain its
integrity.
Answer: False

Chapter: SQL Injection (Continued)

76. Write a SQL query that is safe from SQL injection using prepared
statements.

sql
‫نسختحرير‬
SELECT * FROM users WHERE username = ? AND password = ?;

Parameters ? are replaced with user inputs after validation.

77. What is the main goal of input sanitization in preventing SQL injection?
To ensure user inputs do not alter the intended structure of SQL queries.
78. Which of the following is a common SQL injection attack vector?
Answer: d) All of the above.
79. Provide an example of a "blind SQL injection" attack.
Blind SQL injection occurs when the attacker extracts data by observing
responses to true/false queries, such as using:

sql
‫نسختحرير‬
' AND 1=1 --

80. Why are dynamic SQL queries more vulnerable to injection attacks?
Dynamic queries directly embed user input into the SQL code, making them
prone to manipulation.

Chapter: Blockchain (Continued)

81. Compare public and private blockchains in terms of transaction speed and
scalability.
Public blockchains are slower and less scalable due to their distributed nature and
consensus mechanisms. Private blockchains are faster and more scalable due to
centralized control.
82. What role does redundancy play in the security of public blockchains?
Redundancy ensures that multiple copies of the ledger exist, making it difficult
for attackers to alter the blockchain.
83. Describe a use case for consortium blockchains.
Consortium blockchains are ideal for industries where multiple organizations
collaborate, such as supply chain management or financial networks.
 84. Why might a private blockchain be preferable for government applications?
Private blockchains offer controlled access, better privacy, and faster transaction
times suitable for sensitive government data.
85. Which blockchain type is suitable for business-to-business interactions?
Answer: c) Consortium blockchain.

Chapter: IDS Classification

86. List the methods used for anomaly detection in IDS systems.
Statistical methods, artificial intelligence, data mining, and biological system
abstractions (e.g., neural networks).
87. How does misuse detection differ from anomaly detection?
Misuse detection uses known signatures to detect specific attacks, while anomaly
detection identifies deviations from normal behavior.
88. What are the limitations of misuse detection?
It cannot detect new or unknown attacks and may require frequent updates to its
signature database.
89. True or False: Anomaly detection relies on pre-defined signatures to detect
threats.
Answer: False.
90. Explain the concept of "false positives" in IDS systems.
False positives occur when normal activities are incorrectly flagged as malicious.

Chapter: Advanced Anti-Virus Techniques (Continued)

91. What is the primary role of heuristic rules in second-generation antivirus

software?
Heuristic rules identify potential threats by spotting behaviors characteristic of
viruses.
92. How does a digital immune system improve upon traditional antivirus
solutions?
It automates virus detection, analysis, and response using emulation and general-
purpose detection systems.
93. Explain the concept of "generic decryption" in antivirus systems.
Generic decryption uses CPU emulation to examine program behavior before
execution, identifying hidden malware.
94. What distinguishes "behavior-based" antivirus detection from signature-
based detection?
Behavior-based detection identifies malicious software by monitoring actions,
rather than relying on pre-existing signatures.
95. True or False: Memory-resident antivirus programs detect malware by
analyzing system logs.
Answer: False.
Chapter: Blockchain Architectures (Continued)

96. What are the main advantages of public blockchains?

Decentralization, transparency, and resilience to attacks.
97. How does Proof of Authority (PoA) differ from Proof of Work (PoW)?
PoA uses trusted validators rather than computational power, making it more
efficient and scalable.
98. What is the purpose of a "genesis block" in a blockchain?
The genesis block is the first block in a blockchain, serving as the foundation for
all subsequent blocks.
99. Why is immutability important in blockchain systems?
Immutability ensures data integrity and trust by preventing unauthorized
modifications to recorded transactions.
100. Explain the difference between permissioned and permissionless
participation mechanisms.
Permissioned blockchains restrict participation to authorized nodes, while
permissionless blockchains allow anyone to join.

Miscellaneous Topics

101. How does asymmetric cryptography enable secure communication in

blockchain?
It allows users to sign transactions with private keys, which can be verified using
public keys.
102. What is the significance of Merkle trees in blockchain?
Merkle trees efficiently verify the integrity of large datasets by using hash
functions to summarize transactions in a block.
103. Explain how consensus mechanisms maintain the integrity of a
blockchain.
Consensus mechanisms ensure all nodes in the network agree on the validity of
transactions before adding them to the blockchain.
104. What are the challenges of scaling public blockchains?
High computational requirements, slow transaction speeds, and limited
throughput.
105. True or False: Private blockchains are always more secure than
public blockchains.
Answer: False.
106. Describe a situation where a consortium blockchain is more effective
than a public blockchain.
In industries requiring collaboration, such as healthcare or finance, where
transparency and partial decentralization are needed.
107. What is the role of smart contracts in blockchain-based systems?
Smart contracts automate agreements by executing predefined conditions without
intermediaries.
108. How does the "Byzantine Fault Tolerance" consensus model work?
It allows the network to reach consensus even if some nodes act maliciously or
fail.
109. What is double-spending, and how does blockchain prevent it?
Double-spending is the risk of spending the same digital asset twice. Blockchain
prevents it using consensus mechanisms and a distributed ledger.
110. How does blockchain achieve tamper resistance?
By cryptographically linking blocks, ensuring that altering one block requires
changing all subsequent blocks in the chain.