MAT 111 College Algebra

Functions and Graphs

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW

September 14, 2021

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 1 / 112
 Outline

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 2 / 112
 Relation

Let us consider the following example:

A = {John, Mary, Faith}

B = {MAT111, BIO 111, PHY111, COM111,LAN111,CHE111}

Suppose John takes takes three courses MAT 111, PHY 111, LAN111,
Mary takes two course MAT 111, COM111, and Faith takes two course
BIO111, CHE 111.
If we define a relation R ”takes courses” between the elements of A and
B, then clearly we can write this in the form of a set of R ordered pairs

R = {(John, MAT 111), (John, PHY 111), (John, LAN111),

(Mary , MAT 111), (Mary , COM111), (Faith, BIO111),
(Faith, CHE 111)}

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 3 / 112
 Relations
Clearly, R ⊆ A × B i.e. R = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B and aRb}

Definition
A relation R from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B is a subset of
the Cartesian product A × B. The subset is derived by describing a
relationship between the first element and the second element of the
ordered pairs in A × A. The second element is called the image of the first
element.

Definition
The set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R from a set
A to a set B is called the domain of relation R.

The set of all second elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R from a
set A to a set B is called range of the relation R. The whole set B is
called codomain of the relation R. Note that range ⊆ codomain.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 4 / 112
 Relations

Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Define a relation R from A to A by

R = {(x, y ) : y = x + 1}

(i) Depict this relation using an arrow diagram.

(ii) Write down the domain, codomain and the range of R.

Solution
(i) By definition of a relation

R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5), (5, 6)}

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 5 / 112
 Relation

(ii) We can see that the

domain = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, range = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

codomain = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 6 / 112
 Functions

Definition
A function f , is a relation in which every element of the domain is paired
with exactly one element of the range. Equivalently, a function is a
relation in which no two distinct ordered pairs have same first element.

The definition above says, for sets A and B, a function is a relation

f ⊆ A × B such that for any a ∈ A, there is at most one b ∈ B such that
(a, b) ∈ f .

It is sometimes denoted as f : A → B.

The set A is called the domain of f , and the set B is called codomain.
Given an element a ∈ A, there is a unique element b ∈ B that is related to
x.The unique element b to which f relates x is denoted by f (a), and is
called f of a, or the value of f at a, or the image of x under f

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 7 / 112
 Functions
Example
Determine whether the following relations are functions:
(i) f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, a)} where X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b}.
(ii) f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c), (1, b)} where A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c}

Solution
(i) Each element of A has exactly one image. Hence, f is a function with
domain A and range {a, b}. The codomain is B = {a, b, c}

(ii) The relation does not define a function since the element 1 has two
images, namely, a and b.
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 8 / 112
 Functions

Example
Determine which of the relation defines a function

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 9 / 112
 Functions

(a). The relation is defined by the set of ordered pairs

{(1, 4), (2, −1), (3, 2)}. We see that for each x in the domain, there is
only one corresponding y in range. Therefore, the relation is a
function.
(b). The relation is defined by the set of ordered pairs
{(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, −1), (3, −2)}. When x = 1, there are two possible
range elements y = 3 and y = 4. Therefore, this relation is not a
function.
(c). The relation is a function. Why?

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 10 / 112
 Functions

Exercises
Determine if the relations define a function
1 {(4, 2), (−5, 4), (0, 0), (8, 4)}
2 {(−1, 6), (8, 9), (−1, 4), (−3, 10)}
3 Refer to the diagram below

4 Which of the following relations from R to R are functions?

(a). y = 3x + 2
(b). y < x + 3
(c). y = 2x 2 + 1

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 11 / 112
 Maps

We sometimes use the word mapping instead of function and say f maps
set X to set Y . This is written as

f :X →Y

If we let y = f (x), then we can write f : x → y

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 12 / 112
 Finding domain and range of a function

To find a domain of a function defined by y = f (x), keep these guidelines

in mind
Exclude values of x that make the denominator of a fraction zero.
Exclude values of x that make negative value within a square root.

Example
Find the domain of each of the following functions
1
(a) y =
x
1
(b) y =
(x + 2)(x − 3)
√
(c) y = x − 2
p
(d) y = (2 − x)(4 + x)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 13 / 112
 Functions

Solution
(a) We see that x can take all the value except x = 0 because the
corresponding image i.e. 01 , is not defined. Therefore, domain is
R − {0} (set of all real number except 0), and the range is R − {0}.
(b) Value of y does not exist for x = −2 and x = 3. Therefore, the
domain is R − {−2, 3}
(c) In order to have real values of y , we must have x − 2 ≥ 0. That is,
we must have x ≥ 2. Therefore the domain is all real numbers greater
than or equal to 2.
(d) How about this?

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 14 / 112
 Injective, Surjective and Bijective

Definition
(Injective or one-to-one) We say that f is injective if for all x, z ∈ A,
f (x) = f (z) implies that x = z. That is, if x ̸= z implies f (x) ̸= f (z)

(Surjective or onto) We say that f is surjective if for all y ∈ Y there is a

corresponding a point x ∈ X such that f (x) = y

(Bijective or bijection) We say that f is bijective if it both injective and

surjective.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 15 / 112
 Injective, Surjective and Bijective

Example
Prove that the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = 4 + 3x is one-to-one.

Proof.
A function is said to be one-to-one if f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ) whenever x1 ̸= x2 ,
∀x1 , x2 , ∈ R(since the domain here is R). Suppose x1 ̸= x2 . Then
3x1 ̸= 3x2 and so 4 + 3x1 ̸= 4 + 3x2 . This means f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ) and f is
one-to-one.

Example
Prove that the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x 2 is not one-to-one.

Proof.
For 1 ̸= −1, we see that f (−1) = f (1). This means that f is not
one-to-one
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 16 / 112
 Injective, Surjective and Bijective

Example
Prove that the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = 3x + 2 is onto.

Proof.
We must show that for any value of y , there exits a value of x such that
y −2
f : x → y . Let y = 3x + 2 or x = . Therefore, for each y , there
3
exists x such that f : x → y . Thus, f is onto.

Example
Prove that the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x 2 + 1 is not onto.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 17 / 112
 Composition of Function

Definition
Suppose f : A → B and g : B → C are functions with a property that the
codomain of f is the domain of g . The composition of f with g is
another function, denoted g ◦ f and defined as follows: If x ∈ A then

(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x))

Therefore, g ◦ f sends elements of A to elements of C , so (g ◦ f ) : A → C

In other words, for f : A → B and g : B → C , we begin with element

a ∈ A to get f (a) ∈ B. Since the domain of g is B, and f (a) ∈ B, we can
find g (f (a))

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 18 / 112
 Composition

The following diagram depicts this concept graphically.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 19 / 112
 Composition

Example
Let f : R → R and g (x) : R → R be functions defined by f (x) = x 3 and
g (x) = x + 5.

Then the composition of g with f is

(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)) = g (x 3 ) = x 3 + 5

Thus, (g ◦ f )(2) = g (23 ) = g (8) = 8 + 5 = 13

The composition (f ◦ g )(x) is

(f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = f (x + 5) = (x + 5)3 = x 3 + 15x 2 + 75x + 125

Thus, (f ◦ g )(2) = f (g (2)) = f (2 + 5) = f (7) = 73 = 343

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 20 / 112
 Inverse Function

Definition
Given a set A, the identity function on A is the function iA : A → A
defined as iA (x) = x for every x ∈ A

Definition
If f : A → B is bijective then its inverse is the function f −1 : B → A such
that if f : a → b then f −1 : b → a
While the function f takes an input x and returns the output y = f (x),
the inverse function will take y back to x, i.e. f −1 (y ) = x.
The composition of the function with its inverse gives the identity function

f −1 (f (x)) = x = f (f −1 (x))

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 21 / 112
 Inverse Function

Example
The function f : R → R defined as f (x) = x 3 + 1 is bijective. Find its
inverse.

Solution
We begin by writing y = x 3 + 1. Now interchange
√ the variables to obtain
x = y 3 + 1. Solving for y produces y = 3 x − 1. Thus
√
f −1 (x) = 3 x − 1

One can check the answer by computing

p √
3
f −1 (f (x)) = f −1 (x 3 + 1) = x 3 + 1 − 1 = x 3 = x
3

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 22 / 112
 Even and Odd Function

Definition
The function f : X → Y is even function if it is true that f (x) = f (−x)
for all x ∈ X

The function f : X → Y is odd function if it is true that f (−x) = −f (x)

for all x ∈ X .
Even functions are symmetric with respect to the y axis. For example,
the function f (x) = x 2 is an even function.

Odd functions are symmetric with respect to the origin, which means
that they remain unchanged when reflected across both x and y axis. For
example, the function f (x) = x 3 is an odd function.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 23 / 112
 Even and Odd Function

Example
Determine whether f is even , odd, or neither even nor odd.
(a). f (x) = 3x 4 − 2x 2 + 5
(b). f (x) = 2x 5 − 7x 3 + 4x
(c). f (x) = x 3 + x 2

Solution
In each case the domain of f is R. To determine whether f is even or odd,
we begin by examining f (−x), where x ∈ R
(a).

f (−x) = 3(−x)4 − 2(−x)2 + 5

= 3x 4 − 2x 2 + 5
= f (x)
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 24 / 112
 Even and Odd Function

Solution
Since f (−x) = f (x), f is even function.
(b).

f (−x) = 2(−x)5 − 7(−x)3 + 4(−x)

= −2x 5 + 7x 3 − 4x
= −(2x 5 − 7x 3 + 4x) = −f (x)

Since f (−x) = −f (x), f is odd function.

(c).

f (−x) = (−x)3 + (−x)2 = −x 3 + x 2

Since f (−x) ̸= f (x) and f (−x) ̸= −f (x) (note that

−f (x) = −x 3 − x 2 ), the function f is neither even nor odd.
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 25 / 112
 Functions and Graphs

Theorem (Vertical Line Test)

A collection of points is the graph of a function if and only if every vertical
line intersects the graph in at most one point.

Thus, every vertical line intersects the graph of a function in at most one
point. In other words, a set of points in the plane represents y as a
function of x if and only if no two points lie on the same vertical line.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 26 / 112
 Functions and Graphs
Example
Use vertical line test to determine whether the following relations define y
as a function x.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 27 / 112
 Properties of Functions
Remember the definition of even function and odd function
A function f is even if, for every number x in its domain, the number
−x is also in the domain, and
f (−x) = f (x)
A function f is odd if, for every number x in its domain, the number
−x is also in the domain and
f (−x) = −f (x)
However, from a graph, we can determine whether the function of the
graph is an even or odd.
Theorem
A function is even if and only if its graph is symmetric with respect to the
y −axis.
A function is odd if anf only if its graph is symmetric with respect to the
origin
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 28 / 112
 Properties of Functions
Example
(a) Let f (x) = |x|. Determine whether f is even, odd or neither.
√
(b) Let f (x) = x. Determine whether f is even, odd or neither.
√
(c) Is the function f (x) = 3 x even, odd or neither.

Solution
(a) The domain of f is R, because absolute value of x exists for every
real number x. If x ∈ R, then

f (−x) = | − x| = | − 1| · |x| = |x| = f (x) even

√
(b) The domain of f (x) = x is set all of positive real numbers.
Therefore, the function is neither even nor odd.
(c) For −x ∈ R,
√
3
√
f (−x) = −x = − 3 x = −f (x) odd
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 29 / 112
 Properties of Functions

Definition
A function f is increasing on an open interval I if, for any choice of x1
and x2 in I , with x1 < x2 , we have f (x1 ) < f (x2 )

A function f is decreasing on an open interval I if, for any choice of x1

and x2 in I , with x1 < x2 , we have f (x1 ) > f (x2 )

A function f is constant on an open interval I if, for all choices of x in I ,

the values of f (x) are equal.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 30 / 112
 Constant Function

f (x) = a, a∈R
Its domain is R.
Its range consists of a single number a.
Its graph is a horizontal line whose y −intercept is b.
It is even function
y

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 31 / 112
 Identity Function

f (x) = x

Its domain and range is the set R.

Its graph is a line whose slope/gradient is 1, and whose y −intercept
is 0.The line consists of all points for which the x−coordinate equals
the y −coordinate.
It is an odd function.
y

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 32 / 112
 Square Functions

f (x) = x 2

Its domain is the set of all real numbers R.

Its range is set of all nonnegative real numbers.
Its graph is a parabola whose intercept is at (0, 0).
Square function is an even function.
y

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 33 / 112
 Cubic Function

f (x) = x 3

Its domain and range is the set R.

The intercept of the graph is at (0, 0).
the function is odd function.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 34 / 112
 Square Root Function

√
f (x) = x

Domain: set of all nonnegative real numbers i.e. [0, ∞).

Range: set of all nonnegative reall numbers.
It is neither even nor odd.
y

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 35 / 112
 Cube Root

√
3
f (x) = x

Domain: set of all real numbers R.

Range: set of all real numbers R.
It is odd function.
y

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 36 / 112
 Reciprocal Function

1
(x) =
x

Domain: R − {0}
Range: R − {0}
The graph has no intercepts
It is odd function

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 37 / 112
 Modulus/Absolute Value Function

f (x) = |x|

Domain: set of all real numbers, R.

Range: set of all nonnegative real number.
If x ≥ 0, then f (x) = x and the graph of f is part of the line y = x. If
x < 0, then f (x) = −x, and the graph of f is part of the line y = −x
y

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 38 / 112
 Greatest Integer Function

Definition
For a real number x, denote by ⌊x⌋, the largest integer less than or equal
to x. Thus, the largest integer function f is defined as

f (x) = ⌊x⌋

where
(i) ⌊x⌋ is the unique integer satisfying x − 1 < ⌊x⌋ ≤ x
(ii) ⌊x⌋ = x if and only if x is an integer.

For eaxmple ⌊2.1⌋ = 2, ⌊1.5⌋ = 1, ⌊−0.5⌋ = −1, ⌊0.5⌋ = 0, ⌊5⌋ = 5.

We observe that for −1 ≤ x < 0, ⌊x⌋ = −1 and for 0 ≤ x < 1 the value of
⌊x⌋ = 0

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 39 / 112
 Greatest Integer Functions
The domain of the greatest integer function is the set of all real
numbers.
Its range is the set of integers.
The x−intercept lie in the interval [0, 1) and the y −intercept is 0.
It is neither odd nor even.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 40 / 112
 Piecewise Defined Functions

Sometimes, a function is defined using different equations on different

parts of its domain. For example, the absolute value function f (x) = |x| is
defined by two equations:
f (x) = x if x ≥ 0, and
f (x) = −x if x < 0
We can write these equations combined into one expression as
(
x if x ≥ 0
f (x) = |x| =
−x if x < 0

When a function is defined by different equations on different parts of its

domain it is called a piecewise-defined function.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 41 / 112
 Piecewise-defined Functions

Example
The function f is defined as

−2x + 1
 if − 3 ≤ x < 1
f (x) = 2 if x = 1

 2
x if x > 1

(a) Find f (−2), f (1) and f (2).

(b) Determine the domain of f .
(c) Locate the intercepts.
(d) Graph f .
(e) use the graph to find the range of f .

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 42 / 112
 Piecewise-defined Functions

Solution
(a) Observe that when x = −2, the equation for f is given by
f (x) = −2x + 1. So,

f (−2) = −2(−2) + 1 = 5

When x = 1, the equation for f is f (x) = 2. So,

f (1) = 2

When x = 2, the equation of f is f (x) = x 2 . So,

f (2) = 22 = 4

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 43 / 112
 Piecewise-defined Functions

Solution
(b) To find the domain of f , look at its definition. Since f is defined for
all x greater than or equal to −3, the domain of f is

{x|x ≥ −3} or [−3, ∞)

(c) The y −intercept of the graph of the function is f (0). Now, since
when x = 0, the equation of f is f (x) = −2x + 1, the y −intercept is
f (0) = −2(0) + 1 = 1.

The x−intercepts of the graph of a function f are the real solutions

to the equation f (x) = 0. For our given function f , to find the
x−intercepts, solve f (x) = 0 for each piece of f .

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 44 / 112
 Piecewise-defined Functions
Solution
(c)
1
f (x) = 0 ↔ −2x + 1 = 0 ↔ −2x = −1 ↔ x =
2
f (x) = 0 ↔ 2 = 0 (No Solution)
f (x) = 0 ↔ x 2 = 0 ↔= x = 0
The first solution satisfies the condition −3 ≤ x < 1, so x = 12 is an
x−intercept. The second potential x−intercept, x = 0, does not
satisfy the condition x > 1, so x = 0 is not an x−intercept. The
intercepts are
1
(0, 1) and ( , 0)
2
(e) From the graph, we conclude that the range of f is

{y |y > −1} or (−1, ∞)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 45 / 112
 Piecewise-defined Functions

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 46 / 112
 Graph Techniques

Suppose we know the graph of y = f (x). It is easy to sketch the graphs of

y = f (x) + a and y = f (x) − a

for any positive real number a.

Here, we see the relationship among graphs. Whole families of graphs of

functions can be related to each other through few transformations.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 47 / 112
 Graphs of Functions Transformation

Suppose we know what the graph of y = f (x) looks like. Suppose a ∈ R is

some real number greater than0, and we are asked to graph the function
f (x) + a. The graph of the new function is easy to describe: just take
every point of f (x) and move it up a distance of a. That is, if (x, y ) is a
point in the graph of f (x), then x, y + a is a point in the graph of f (x) + a

This kind of transformation is called vertical shift. Other kinds of graph

transformations are horizontal shifts, compression, stretch,reflections.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 48 / 112
 Vertical Shift

Definition
Let f be a function and c be a positive real number.
The graph of f (x) + c is the graph of f (x) shifted c units vertically
upward.
The graph of f (x) − c is the graph of f (x) shifted c units vertically
downward.
Here, f (x) + c adds c to the y −coordinates of the points on the graph of
f (x), while f (x) − c subtracts c from the y −coordinates of the graph of
f (x).

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 49 / 112
 Vertical Shift f (x) ± c

y y

f (x) + c
x x
f (x) f (x)

f (x) − c

Vertical shifts operates on graphs to translates them parallel to the y −axis.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 50 / 112
 Vertical Shift f (x) + c and f (x) − c
Example
Use the graph of f (x) = |x| to obtain the graph of g (x) = |x| − 4

Solution
The graph of g (x) = |x| − 4 has same shape as the graph of f (x) = |x|.
However, it is shifted vertically downward 4 units.
y
|x|

g (x) = |x| − 4
x

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 51 / 112
 Vertical Shift f (x) ± c
Example
Sketch the graph of g (x) = x 2 + 2.

Solution
The graph of g (x) = x 2 + 2 has the same shape as the graph of
f (x) = x 2 . However, it is shifted vertically upward by 2 units.
y
g (x) = x 2 + 2

f (x) = x 2

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 52 / 112
 Horizontal Shift f (x + c) and f (x − c)

Consider the graph of f (x) = x 2 , the standard quadratic function. Its

graph is passes through the origin and has y −axis as line of symmetry.
y

f (x) = x 2

Suppose we add a positive real number 1 to the variable of the function

f (x) to have function g (x) = f (x + 1) = (x + 1)2 .

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 53 / 112
 Horizontal Shift f (x + c) and f (x − c)
The function of g (x) = f (x + 1) = (x + 1)2 becomes
y f (x)

We see that the graph of the f (x) has horizontally shifted to the left 1
units (black line).
Similarly, if 1 is subtracted from the variable of the function, we have a
function h(x) = f (x − 1) = (x − 1)2 . We observe that the graph
horizontally shifts to the right by 1 units (blue line).
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 54 / 112
 Horizontal Shift f (x + c) and f (x − c)

Definition
Let f be a function and c a positive number
The graph of y = f (x + c) is the graph of y = f (x) shifted to the left
c units.
The graph of y = f (x − c) is the graph of y = f (x) shifted to the
right c units.

Here, f (x + c) shifts the graph of f (x) to the left c units by subtracting c

from x−coordinates of the points on the graph of f , and f (x − c) shifts
the graph of f (x) to the right c units by adding c to the x−coordinates of
the points on the graph of f .

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 55 / 112
 Horizontal Shift f (x + c) and f (x − c)

y y

f (x) + c f (x) − c
x
x
f (x) f (x)

Horizontal shift works on the x−axis: the operation transforms graph

parallel to x−axis.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 56 / 112
 Horizontal Shift f (x + c) and f (x − c)

Example
√
Use the graph of f (x) = x to obtain the graph of the following
√
(a) g (x) = x − 2
√
(b) h(x) = x + 2

Solution
√
(a) We see that the function g (x) = x − 2 is basically a square root
√
function f (x) = x with f (x − 2) = g (x). To obtain the graph of
g (x), we shift the graph of f (x) 2 units to the right as shown below
f (x)
y
g (x)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 57 / 112
 Horizontal Shift f (x + c) and f (x − c)

√
(b) The graph of h(x) = x + 2 is similar to the that of f (x) but is
shifted to the left by 2 unit.
g (x)
y f (x)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 58 / 112
 Horizontal Shift f (x + c) and f (x − c)

Example
Graph the function f (x) = |x + 3| − 5. Find the domain and range of f .

Solution
To sketch the graph of f , we do it in steps. First, note that the rule of f is
basically an absolute value function, so begin with the graph of y1 = |x| as
shown below
y
y1 = |x|

(−2, 2) (2, 2)

x
(0, 0)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 59 / 112
 Horizontal Shift f (x + c) and f (x − c)

Solution
Next, to get the graph of y2 = |x + 3|, shift the graph of y1 = |x|
horizontally 3 units to the left. The graph of y2 = |x + 3| is shown below
y
y2 = |x + 3|

(−5, 2) (−1, 2)

x
(−3, 0)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 60 / 112
 Horizontal Shift f (x + c) and f (x − c)
Solution
Finally, to get the graph of f (x) = |x + 3| − 5, shift the graph of
y2 = |x + 3| vertically down 5 units.
y

y2 = |x + 3| − 5

(−5, −3) (−1, −3)

(−3, 5)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 61 / 112
 Horizontal Shift f (x + c) and f (x − c)
Here are the steps on how the graph will plotted
y
y2 = |x + 3|

y1 = |x|

y2 = |x + 3| − 5

The domain of f is all real numbers, or (−∞, ∞). The range of f is

[−5, ∞)
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 62 / 112
 Reflections −f (x) and f (−x)
Definition
Suppose y = f (x) is a function
The graph y = −f (x) reflects the graph of y = f (x) about the
x−axis by multiplying the y −coordinates of the points on the graph
of f by −1.
The graph y = f (−x) reflects the graph of y = f (x) about the
y −axis by multiplying the x−coordinates of the point on the graph of
f by −1.
y f (x) y

x f (−x)
f (x)
x
−f (x)
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 63 / 112
 Reflections −f (x) and f (−x)
Example
Let f (x) = x 2 . Use the graph of f (x) to obtain the graph of g (x) = −x 2

Solution
Since we know the graph of f (x) = x 2 , we can obtain the graph of g (x)
by multiplying the y −coordinates of points of f (x) by −1. This procedure
gives us the reflection about the x−axis.

y f (x) = x 2

g (x) = −x 2
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 64 / 112
 Reflections −f (x) and f (−x)
Example
√ √
Let f (x) = √x. Use the graph pf f to obtain the graphs of g (x) = − x
and h(x) = −x

Solution
Compare the equations of the f and g . We see that
√
g (x) = − x = −f (x). Therefore, the graph of g is the reflection about
the x−axis of the graph of f . The graph is shown below
y
√
f (x) = x

x
√
g (x) = − x
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 65 / 112
 Reflections −f (x) and f (−x)

Solution
√
Comparing the equations of f and h, we see that h(x) = −x = f (−x).
Therefore, then h(x) is the reflection of f (x) about the y −axis.
y
g (x)
f (x)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 66 / 112
 Vertical Stretching and Shrinking cf (x), c1 f (x)
Definition
Let f be a function, and c a positive real number
If c > 1, the graph of y = cf (x) is the graph of y = f (x) vertically
stretched by multiplying each of its y −coordinates by c.
If 0 < c < 1, the graph of y = cf (x) is the graph of y = f (x)
vertically shrunk (compressed) by multiplying each of its
y −coordinates by c.
y
y
cf (x)
f (x) f (x)
1
c f (x) x
x

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 67 / 112
 Vertical Stretching and Shrinking cf (x), c1 f (x)
Example
Sketch the graph of the equation
(a) y = 4x 2
(b) y = 14 x 2

Solution
(a) To sketch the graph of y = 4x 2 , we may refer to the graph of y1 = x 2
and multiply the y −coordinate of each point by 4. This stretches the
graph of y = x 2 vertically by factor 4. The graph of y = 4x 2 is shown
in the figure below by blue line.
(b) The graph of y = 14 x 2 may be sketched by multiplying the
y −coordinates of points on the graph of y = x 2 by 14 . This
compresses the graph of y = x 2 vertically by factor of 1/ 14 = 4 and
gives us a wider parabola that is flatter at the vertex, as shown in the
figure below by gray line.
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 68 / 112
 Vertical Stretching and Shrinking cf (x), c1 f (x)

y 4x 2 x 2 1 2
4x

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 69 / 112
 Vertical Stretching and Shrinking cf (x), c1 f (x)

Example
√ √
(a) Use the graph of f (x) = x to sketch the graph of g (x) = 2 x
(b) Use the graph of f (x) = |x| to obtain the graph of h(x) = 12 |x|

Solution
√
(a) The graph of f (x) = x is vertically stretched by factor of 2 to
√
obtain the graph of g (x) = 2 x
y √
g (x) = 2 x
√
f (x) = x

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 70 / 112
 Vertical Stretching and Shrinking cf (x), c1 f (x)

1
(b) The graph of f (x) = |x| is compressed by the factor of 2 to obtain
the graph of g (x) = 21 |x|.
y
|x|
1
2 |x|

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 71 / 112
 Horizontal Stretching and Shrinking, f (cx), f ( c1 x)

Definition
Let f be a function, and c a positive real number
If c > 1, the graph of y = f (cx) is the graph of y = f (x) horizontally
compressed (shrunk) by multiplying the each of its x−coordinates by
c.
If 0 < c < 1, the graph of y = f (cx) is the the graph of y = f (x)
horizontally stretched by multiplying each of its x−coordinates by c.

y
y

cf (x)
f (x)
x x
1
c f (x)
f (x)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 72 / 112
 Horizontal Stretching and Shrinking, f (cx), f ( c1 x)

Example
Sketch that graph of g (x) = 4x 2

Solution
The graph of g (x) is the graph of f (x) = x 2 by replacing x with 2x.
Thus, g (x) = 4x 2 = (2x)2 = f (2x) So to obtain the graph of g , we
compress horizontally the graph of f by 2 units.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 73 / 112
 Horizontal Stretching and Shrinking, f (cx), f ( c1 x)

y 4x 2 x 2

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 74 / 112
 Graph Transformations

Example
√ √
Use the graph of f (x) = x to graph g (x) = 1−x +3

Solution
p require the form x − h, we write f (x) as
Because√horizontal shifts
f (x) = 1 − x + 3 = −(x − 1) + 3. To graph g (x), we follow the
sequences.
√
Step 1 Sketch y1 = x √
Step 2 Sketch the reflcetion of y1 . That is, sketch y2 = −x
y
y2
y1

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 75 / 112
 Graph Transformations

Solution
Step 3 Horizontally shift y2pto the right by 1 unit by replacing x by
(x − 1). Thus, sketch y3 = −(x − 1)
Step 4 Vertically
p shift y3 upwards by 3 units by adding 2 to y3 . Thus, we
sketch y = −(x − 1) + 3
y

y3

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 76 / 112
 Summary of Graph Transformations
Methodology (Graphing Techniques)
Let y = f (x) be a a function, and assume that a > 0, k > 0 and h > 0. In
comparison with graph of y = f (x)
1 The graph of y = f(x)+k is translated k up.
2 The graph of y = f(x)-k is translated k down.
3 The graph of y = f(x+h) is translated h units to the left.
4 The graph of y = f(x-h) is translated h units to the right.
5 The graph of y = af(x) is a vertical stretching of the vertical
stretching of the graph of y = f (x) if a > 1. It is a vertical shrinking
if 0 < a < 1.
6 The graph of y = f(ax) is a horizontal stretching of the graph of
y = f (x) if 0 < a < 1. It is a horizontal shrinking if a > 1.
7 The graph of y = -f(x) is reflected across the x−axis.
8 The graph of y = f(-x) is reflected across the y −axis.
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 77 / 112
 Polynomial Functions

Definition
A polynomial function in one variable is a function of the form

f (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0

where an , an−1 , · · · , a1 , a0 are constants called the coefficients of the

polynomial, n ≥ 0 is an integer, and x is variable. n is called the degree of
the polynomial. The domain of a polynomial function is the set of all real
numbers.

Definition
A power function of degree n is a function of the form

f (x) = ax n

where a is a real number, a ̸= 0, and n > 0 is an integer.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 78 / 112
 Quadratic Functions

Definition
A function f is a quadractic function if

f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c

where a, b and c are real numbers with a ̸= 0.

If b = c = 0, then the f (x) = ax 2 is the graph of the parabola with vertex

at the origin. If b = 0 and c ≠= 0, then f (x) = ax 2 + c is the graph of
parabola shifted c units up i.e. its vertex is at the point (0, c).
The simplest quadratic function is a squaring function f (x) = x 2 , whose
graph is called parabola

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 79 / 112
 Quadratic Functions

Parabolas are symmetric with respect to a line (y-axis). This line is axis of
symmetry, or axis of the parabola.
The point where axis intersects the parabola is the vertex of a parabola.

Axis
Vertex

Vertex
Axis

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 80 / 112
 Quadratic Functions
We know that if f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c, then by completing square, the
graph of f is same as the graph of the function of the form

y = a(x − h)2 + k

The graph of y can be obtained from the graph of f (x) = ax 2 by means of

horizontal and vertical shift.
y

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 81 / 112
 Quadratic Functions

y y

(h, k)
x x
(h, 0) (h, 0)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 82 / 112
 Quadratic Functions

If a > 0 the point (h, k) is the lowest point on te parabola, and the
function has a minimum value F (h) = k. If a < 0, the parabola opens
downward, and the point (h, k) is the highest point on the parabola. In
this case, the function f has a maximum value f (h) = k.

Definition (Standard equation of Parabola with Vertical Axis)

The graph of equation
y = a(x − h)2 + k
for a ̸= 0 is a parabola that has vertex V (h, k) and a vertical axis. The
parabola opens upward if a > 0 or downward if a < 0.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 83 / 112
 Quadratic Functions

Compared to the basic graph of f (x) = x 2 , the graph of

g (x) = a(x − h)2 + k with a ̸= 0 has the following characteristics
The parameter a: vertically stretched (narrower) if |a| > 1, and
vertically shrunk (wider) if 0 < |a| < 1.
Parameter h: horizontally shifts to the right h units if h > 0, and
horizontally shifts left |h| units if h < 0.
Parameter k: vertically shifts k units up if k > 0, and vertically shifts
|k| units down if k < 0.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 84 / 112
 Quadratic Functions
Example
Graph the function f (x) = 2x 2 + 8x + 5. Find the vertex and axis of
symmetry.

Solution
By completing the square on the right side

f (x) = 2x 2 + 8x + 5 = 2(x 2 + 4x) + 5 = 2(x 2 + 4x + 4) + 5 − 8

= 2(x + 2)2 − 3

The graph of f (x) can be obtained from the graph of y = x 2 by following

steps:
Step 1: Sketch y = x 2
Step 2: Sketch y1 = 2x 2
Step 3: Sketch y2 = 2(x + 2)2
Step 4: Finally sketch f (x)
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 85 / 112
 Quadratic Functions

y y y

x x x

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 86 / 112
 Quadratic Functions

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 87 / 112
 Determining Vertex of a Parabola
Theorem
The vertex of the parabola y = ax 2 + bx + c has x−coordinate
b
h=−
2a
and y −coordinate  
b
k =f −
2a

Proof.
Let us begin by writing y = ax 2 + bx + c as
 
2 b
y = a x + x+ +c
a

Thus, vertex
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 88 / 112
 Determining a Vertex of a Parabola

Proof.

2
We complete the square by adding and subtracting 12 ba at the right
hand side. Thus
b2 b2
   
2 b
y =a x + x+ 2 + c− 2
a 4a 4a
 2  2

b b
=a x+ + c− 2
2a 4a
b 2
If we let h = − 2a and k = 4ac−b
4a we have y = a(x − h)2 + k which is the
equation of the parabola with vertex (h, k).

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 89 / 112
 Graph Vertices of other type of Functions

Absolute Value Function/Modulus: f (x) = a|x − h| + k has vertex at

(h, k).
Cubic function: f (x) = a(x − h)3 + k has vertex at (h, k).
√
Square Root function: f (x) = a x − h + k has vertex at (h, k)

Definition
In general the graph of equation

y = af (x ± h) ± k

for a ̸= 0 is a graph that has vertex V (h, k).

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 90 / 112
 Exponential Functions
Definition
If a > 0 and a ̸= 1, then the exponential function with base a is

f (x) = ax

The domain of f is the set of all real numbers, R The base a is the
growth factor.

The graphs of exponential functions as shown below

y y
a>1

0<a<1
x x

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 91 / 112
 Exponential Functions

Definition (Characteristics of the Graph of f (x) = ax )

There are no x−intercepts; the y −intercept is 1.
1
The points (−1, ), (0, 1) and (1, a) are on the graph.
a
If a > 1, then f is increasing function. If 0 < a < 1, then f is
decreasing function.
The x-axis is the horizontal asymptote
The domain of f is (−∞.∞), and the range is (0, ∞)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 92 / 112
 Exponential Functions

Theorem (Exponential Function is One-to-One)

The exponential function f given by f (x) = ax for 0 < a < 1 or a > 1 is
one-to-one. Thus, the following conditions are satisfied for real numbers x1
and x2
If x1 ̸= x2 , then ax1 ̸= ax2 .
If ax1 = ax2 , then x1 = x2 .

For example, if 73x = 72x+5 , then 3x = 2x + 5, or x = 5.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 93 / 112
 Transformations of Graphs Exponential Functions

Let f (x) = ax be an exponential function, and let c > 0, k > 0 and h > 0.
In comparison with graph of f (x),
The graph of f (x) + k = ax + hk is the graph of f (x) translated
vertically upward h units.
The graph of f (x) − h = ax − h is the graph of f (x) translated
vertically downward h units.
The graph of f (x − k) = a(x−k) is the graph of f (x) translated k
units to the right.
The graph of f (x + k) = a(x+k) is the graph of f (x) translated k
units to the left.
The graph of f (−x) = a−x is the graph of f (x) reflected across the
y −axis.
The graph of −f (x) = −ax is the graph of f (x) reflected across the
x−axis.

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 94 / 112
 Transformations of the Graph of Exponential Function

The graph of f (cx) = x cx is a horizontal stretching of the graph of

f (x) if the 0 < c < 1. It is a horizontal shrinking if c > 1.
The graph of cf (x) = cax is vertical shrinking of graph of f (x) if
0 < c < 1, and it is vertical stretching of f (x) if c > 1.

Example
Sketch each function. Show the graph of y = 2x for comparison. Give the
domain and range
(a) y = −2x
(b) y = 2−x
(c) y = 2x+2
(d) y = 2x−2 − 1

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 95 / 112
 Transformations of Graphs of Exponential Functions

y
2x

−2x

y
2x

2−xx

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 96 / 112
 y
2x+2
2x

2x
2x−2 − 1

x
y = −1

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 97 / 112
 The Number e
The number e is defined as the number that the expression
1 n
 
1+
n
approaches as n → ∞.

n
n 1 + n1
1 2
2 2.25
5 2.48832
10 2.59374
100 2.70481
1000 2.71692
10,000 2.71815
1,000,000 2.71828
In mathematics, e is a real number that has value of
e ≈ 2.718281828459045
Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 98 / 112
 Natural Exponential Function

Definition
The natural exponential function f is defined by

f (x) = e x

for every real number x.

y
3x
ex
2x

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 99 / 112
 Exponential Functions
Example
Sketch the graph of g (x) = −e x−3 and determine the domain and range
of the function.

Solution
The graph of g (x) is the graph of f (x) = e x reflected about x-axis and
shifted to the right by 3 units.
We begin by plotting the graph of f (x) = e x
y
ex

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 100 / 112
 Exponential Functions

Solution
The we reflect the graph of f (x) about x-axis by multiplying it by −1.
Thus we plot −e x
y
x

−e x

Finally, we shift the reflected graph 3 units to the right. We sketch

g (x) = −e x−3

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 101 / 112
 Exponential Function

y
x

−e x−3

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 102 / 112
 Logarithmic Functions

Definition
If a > 0, a ̸= 1 and x > 0, then the logarithmic function with base a is

f (x) = loga x

The definition says thelogarithm of x with base a is defined by

y = logxa if and only if x = ay

The logarithmic function with base a is the inverse of the exponential

function with base a. So the graph of y = loga x is obtained by reflecting
the graph of y = ax through the line y = x

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 103 / 112
 Logarithmic Function

y y
ax 0<a<1
y =x y =x

a>1 loga x

ax
x x

loga x

The domain of y = loga x is (0, ∞) and its range is (−∞, ∞).

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 104 / 112
 Properties of Logarithmic Functions

The domain is the set of all positive real numbers, or (0, ∞); the
range is the set of all real numbers, or (−∞, ∞).
The x−intercept of the graph is 1. There is no y −intercept.
The y-axis (x = 0) is the vertical asymptote of the graph.
The logarithimic function is decreasing if 0 < a < 1 and increasing if
a > 1.
The graph of f contains points (1, 0), (a, 1), ( 1a , −1)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 105 / 112
 Natural Logarithmic Function

If the base of a logarithmic function is the number e, the result is the

natural logarithmic function. It occurs so frequently in applications that
it is given a special symbol ln (from the Latin logarithmus naturalis).

y = ln(x) if and only if x = e y

Likewise, because y = ln(x) is the inverse of y = e x , the graph of

y = ln(x) can be obtained by reflecting the graph of y = e x about the line
y =x

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 106 / 112
 Graph of f (x) = ln(x) vs f (x) = e x

y
ex y =x

ln(x)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 107 / 112
 Logarithmic Functions

Example
Graph each function. Give the domain and range
(a) g (x) = log2 (x − 1)
(b) h(x) = (log3 x) − 1
(c) g (x) = log4 (x + 2) + 1

Solution
(a) The graph of g (x) = log2 (x − 1) is the graph of f (x) = log2 x
translated 1 unit to the right. The vertical asymptote has x = 1.
Since logarithms can only be found for positive number, we solve
x − 1 > 0 to find the domain (1, ∞)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 108 / 112
 Logarithmic Function

Solution
y
log2 (x) log2 (x − 1)

(b) The function h(x) = (log3 x) − 1 has the same graph as f (x) = log3 x
translated 1 unit down. Th domain is (0, ∞) and the range is
(−∞, ∞)

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 109 / 112
 Logarithmic Functions

Solution
y
log3 (x)
(log3 x) − 1
x

(c) The graph of g (x) = log4 (x + 2) + 1 is obtained by shifting the graph

of f (x) = log4 x to the left 2 units and up by 1 unit. The domain is
found by solving x + 2 > 0 which yields (−2, ∞).

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 110 / 112
 Logarithmic Functions

Solution
y
log4 (x + 2) + 1
log4 (x)
x

x = −2

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 111 / 112
 The End

Eric Mwanandiye– University of Malawi, MW MAT 111 College Algebra September 14, 2021 112 / 112