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CENTRE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF IMAGING TECHNOLOGY

(Under Government of Kerala)

TECHNOLOGY EXTENSION DIVISION

Ground Floor, TC 26/322 (3), Chittezham Lavanya, Behind SMSM Institute
Statue, Thiruvananthapuram - 695 001
Phone Number 0471- 2321360, 2322100
Website :www.tet.cdit.org
E-mail: [email protected]

networking and internet

STUDY MATERIAL
Version 1

For Private Circulation Only

Study Material
Printed on 2023
by
CENTRE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF IMAGING TECHNOLOGY
(Under Government of Kerala)

C-DIT – Head Office

Chithranjali Hills, Thiruvallam P.O.,
Trivandrum - 695027.
Ph: 0471-2380910, 2380912
E-mail:[email protected]
Web:www.cdit.org

©
Centre for Development of Imaging Technology (C-DIT)
This edition is authorised for Private Circulation Only
All rights reserved. This publication may not be reproduced in any way.
 Preface

This course material has been prepared with a broad

perspective by a team of Industry and Academic experts in tune with
the latest industry requirements and trends. This book is designed to
be the clear, concise, normative reference to Networking and Internet.
The chapters are designed to help you understand and grasp
the concepts related to the subject matter. We hope that you find this
material informative and useful in your studies. Please note that this
material should not be considered a substitute for your coursework
or required reading. We encourage you to actively engage with the
material and seek additional resources as needed. We have included
various exercises and activities to help reinforce the concepts
discussed and encourage active engagement.
We request every user of this course material to send the
feedback to us. The suggestions and opinions of the users will serve
as a guideline for future modifications and improvements.
 Contents

Sl. No. Subjects Page No

1 Module I - Computer Networks 07

2 Module II - Introduction to Internet 53

3 Module III - e-Governance and e-Commerce 88

4 Module IV - Mobile Computing and Digital Payment System 115

5 Module V - Social Media & Cyber Security 146

6 Abbreviation 186
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Module I
Computer Networks

Introduction to Computer Networks

A system called a computer network connects a number of unrelated computers so they can
share resources and data. A computer network is a grouping of two or more interconnected computer
systems. A link is a communication channel that enables the data flow between two devices. Consider
any link as a line that connects two points for the purposes of visualisation. The incorporation of
computers and other technologies facilitates user communication. A network connection may be
established through cable or wireless media. Hardware and software are used in any network to
connect computers and tools. Several kinds of nodes make up a computer network. Servers, networking
devices, personal computers, and other specialised or general-purpose hosts can all function as nodes
in a computer network. They can be recognised by their hostnames and network addresses.
Criteria of good network:
1. Performance: Many metrics, including transmission and response times, can be used to
analyse it. The transit time is the amount of time required for a message to go from one
device to another. Response time is the amount of time between a request and a response.
The number of users, the medium used, and the technology are only a few factors that
influence how well the network functions or performs.
2. Reliability: Together with accuracy, reliability is defined by the frequency of errors, how
quickly a link recovers from an error, and how resilient the network is in the face of crisis
or disaster.
3. Security: Concerns with network security include preventing unauthorised access,
safeguarding data against deterioration and development, and putting in place various
guidelines, rules and procedures for dealing with security breaches and data loss.

Evolution of Networking
Need of a Network:
A "network" also enables the sharing of resources like projectors, scanners, plotters, and
storage devices amongst different connected computers. This facilitates user collaboration and
facilitates the collection and management of data. The system simply did not improve overnight;
rather, it needed time to become a system that was even more amazing, effective, and reliable. The
initial step in the development of systems administration was the improvement of the ARPANET,
which led to the development of the web. When such happens, the system's innovation has been
constantly improving since then. Following are some of the phases the system has gone through:

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ARPANET (Advanced Research Agency Network): The network that served as the foundation
for the Internet was ARPANET. It was the first network, created in 1969, and was called by the US
Department of Defence (DoD) and Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). It was a place
where a lot of PCs were connected at different institutions and the US Department of Defence
for exchanging information and messages, playing games for long distances, and connecting with
others to share their respective opinions.
NSFNET (National Science Federation Network): The National Science Federation Network
(NSFNET), a different federal organisation, developed a new network in the middle of the 1980s
that was more capable than ARPANET and served as the first backbone infrastructure for the
corporate public Internet. Its principal objective was to restrict the usage of the network to academic
research and prohibit any sort of private business activities. Later, a large number of privately held
companies with their own proprietary networks merged with ARPANET and NSFNET to create the
much larger and more powerful Internet.
Internet: A network of networks called the Internet was established in. From ARPANET, the
internet has developed. TCP/IP is used by the internet, a system of interconnected networks, to
transmit data. It is known as the internet and enables information exchange between various types
of computers. The world's most popular financial communication channel is the Internet, where the
following services are always available:
• Email & Instant messaging
• Web-enabled audio/video conferencing services
• Online movies and gaming
• Data transfer/file-sharing
• Internet forums & Social networking
• Online shopping
• Financial services

Wired & Wireless Networking

Wired Network - Any physical media connected by wires and cables is referred to as "wired" in
the context of networking. The cables or wires can be copper wire, fibre optic cables, or twisted
pair cables. Wired networking offers each user large bandwidth allotments and high security. Cable
connectivity is actually thought to be highly dependable and have very little delay, in contrast to
wireless communication.
Wireless Network - Network that transmits electromagnetic or infrared signals utilising the air as
a medium is referred to as a "wireless" network. Wireless devices communicate through antennas.
Two key benefits of wireless networking are user mobility and implementation simplicity. Wireless is
more efficient in places where wires cannot be used.

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The following Table 1.1 denotes the differences between these:

Table 1.1: Wired vs Wireless Network

Sl. No Wired Network Wireless Network

Medium based on electromagnetic (EM)

Connects devices, such as desktop and
or infrared (IR) waves that are not wired
1 laptop computers, to the Internet or
together. Antennas or sensors will be found
another network through wires.
on all wireless devices.

2 Transmission speed is fast Transmission speed is slow

3 Low propagation delay High propagation delay

4 More Secure & hence Reliable Less Secure & hence less Reliable

5 More expensive Less expensive

Physical Access Required with the
6 Proximity Required
network
7 Devices must be hard-wired Quick installation
High installation & maintenance or Low installation & maintenance or
8
upgradation cost upgradation cost
9 Uses devices like Hub, Switch, etc. Uses Wireless routers, access points, etc.
Has greater speed, higher noise No Hassles of Cable, Best for mobile
10
immunity devices
11 Takes longer time to perform Very less deployment time

12 Has dedicated connection Has shared connection

Types of Networks
A computer network is a collection of connected or linked computers that enables one
computer communication and the sharing of resources, data, information, and software between
them. The size of a computer network can be used to classify it. The distinction between wired and
wireless connections is a common one in computer networks. Depending on the needs of the network
channel, they are divided into many kinds. Several devices are connected through the network to
share hardware, software, and other resources. There are four primary types of computer networks as
depicted in Figure 1.1

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Fig. 1.1 : Network Types

Local Area Network (LAN) - A LAN is a collection of devices that are connected to one another in a
single physical location, like a house, office, or building. It is a collection of interconnected computers
in a constrained space. A LAN can be tiny or big, with one user's home network or hundreds of users
and devices in an office or school as examples. A LAN is used to connect two or more personal
computers using a communication means like coaxial cable or twisted pair. Because hubs, network
adapters, and Ethernet cables were employed in its development, it is less expensive. In LAN, data is
sent more securely and at an amazingly fast rate.
Wide Area Network (WAN) - A computer network that covers a huge geographic region, such as a
whole nation, continent, or even the entire world, is referred to as a WAN. By the use of cutting-edge
technologies, WAN enables the transmission of data, images, audio, and video over great distances
and between numerous LANs and MANs. A WAN is a considerably larger network than a LAN. It
spans a large geographic area using a phone line, fibre optic cable, or satellite links and is not limited
to a particular location. One of the largest WANs in the world is the internet. In the areas of business,
government, and education, WANs are frequently employed.
Metropolitan area network (MAN) - A MAN links or connects different LANs together to build a
bigger network that covers more ground. This form of computer network connects distantly located
computers by using a shared communication line that spans a city, town, or metropolitan area. A
computer network that serves a single building and is smaller than a WAN and larger than a LAN is
referred to as a MAN. It is made up of several LANs connected by specialised backbone links. The
public use networking infrastructure of a municipality or region may also be mentioned. A private data
network, or MAN, is often used by a single company across several buildings or by several companies
connected in the same location/area. MANs connect many LANs together by using specialised cable
and wireless backbones. A MAN may use a local exchange carrier (LEC) to connect/ link to an
internet exchange point for high-speed communication between the MAN and the public internet.
Additionally, it might create links with other suppliers at a peer exchange or cloud service providers
like Amazon Web Services (AWS) Direct Connect. Frame Relay, RS-232, ISDN, ATM, OC-3, and
ADSL are among the most used MAN protocols.
Personal area network (PAN) - The most fundamental kind of computer network is a PAN. The
PAN was first proposed by research scientist Thomas Zimmerman. This network is limited to a single
user, so that computing device communication is focused solely on the user's workspace. In close
proximity to a user, a PAN connects the electronic devices. The size of a PAN might range from a
few centimetres to a few metres. One of the most frequent PAN cases in real-world applications is the
connection between a Bluetooth earpiece and a smartphone. PANs can connect a variety of electronic
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devices, including computers, tablets, keyboards, and printers. PAN network connections are offered
both wired and wirelessly. Bluetooth, WiFi, IrDA, and Zigbee are examples of wireless connection
technologies, whereas USB and FireWire are examples of wired connection technologies. Between a
user's location and the communication equipment, PAN provides a network range of 10 metres. PAN
examples include USB, computers, smartphones, tablets, printers, PDAs, and more. Depending on
how it is connected, a personal area network can be either wireless or wired.
1. Wireless PAN - Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) is linked by infrared, zigbee,
bluetooth, and ultrawide band transmissions, among others.
2. Wired PAN - Wired PAN connects using cables or wires like Firewire or USB.

Network Devices
The physical equipment that enables hardware on a computer network to connect and
communicate with one another is known as networking hardware, sometimes known as network
devices. A repeater, hub, bridge, switch, router, gateway, NIC, etc. are a few examples.
Hub - A hub functions essentially as a multiport repeater. A hub joins several wires that come from
several branches, such as a connector in a star topology that joins various stations. Data packets are
delivered to all connected devices since hubs are unable to filter data. In other words, there is only
one collision domain for all hosts connected through the Hub. Additionally, they lack the intelligence
to choose the best routing for data packets, which results in waste and inefficiency. Although the
term "hub" is ambiguous, it frequently refers to a multiport repeater. It can be used to build a station
hierarchy with several levels. The RJ-45 connector, whose maximum segment length is 100 metres, is
used by the stations to connect to the hub. It is simple to maintain and diagnose this kind of network
of stations. Figure: 1.2 demonstrates how numerous hubs can be linked together hierarchically to
create a single, larger LAN with many nodes. If a hub's settings have been configured to anticipate the
formatting of the incoming data, it can be utilised with both digital and analogue data.

Fig.1.2: Hub Connection

For instance, the hub must transmit incoming data in packet form if it is digital; however, if the
incoming data is analogue, the hub must transmit it in signal form.
Switch - A switch is a multi-port bridge with a buffer and a design that can increase its performance

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and efficiency (more ports mean less traffic). A switch is a device that connects devices in a local area
network (LAN) and allows them to communicate with each other. It forwards data to the intended
recipient, reducing network congestion and improving network performance. Switches are network
devices that use the OSI model to send and receive data packets over a network.
The data link layer device is the switch. Switches that have the ability to perform error
checking prior to forwarding data are particularly efficient because they only transfer good packets
to the intended port and do not forward packets with errors. In other words, while the broadcast
domain remains the same, the switch splits the collision domain of the hosts. In essence, a switch is
a fast bridge with additional sophistication that enables faster frame processing. Because switches
have the ability to create virtual circuits, they are more efficient for networks than hubs or routers.
Because virtual circuits are more challenging to inspect with network monitors, it also enhances
network security. Consider a switch as a piece of equipment that combines some of the best features
of hubs and routers. It can operate at either the OSI model's Data Link layer or Network layer. One
that can function at both layers, or as a switch and a router, is referred to as a multilayer switch.
Distributed denial of service (DDoS) assaults on switches are possible; flood guards are employed
to stop malicious traffic from shutting down the switch A single switch with multiple ports can
accommodate multiple devices such as computers, printers, and modems. During data transmission,
switches can examine destination addresses and perform error checking. They support all modes of
communication, including unicast, broadcast, and multicast, and send and receive data from source to
destination using packet-switching technology. Furthermore, switches can manage networks. There
are four types:
• Managed switches
• Unmanaged switches
• PoE switches
• LAN switches
Router - Similar to a switch, a router directs data packets depending on their IP addresses. A router is
a device that connects two or more networks and forwards data packets between them. It also provides
security by filtering traffic and blocking unauthorized access. A router is primarily a Network Layer
device. They often connect LANs and WANs and feature a routing table that is dynamically updated
and used to guide routing decisions for data packets. The broadcast domains of hosts connected
by a router are divided. Data packets are routed between two networks using this. To determine its
destination, it reads the information included in each packet. If it is intended for a nearby network to
which it has access, it will remove the outer packet, rewrite the packet's Ethernet address, and send it
over that network. It will repackage the outer packet to be received by the next router and transmit it
to the next router if it is intended for a different network and needs to be delivered to a different router.
In the OSI paradigm, routing takes place at the network layer. They may link networks with various
topologies, including Ethernet and Token Ring. Routers can alter data at the data connection level,
but they cannot convert data from one data format, like TCP/IP, to another, like IPX/SPX. Broadcast
packets and corrupted packets are not sent by routers. A packet is discarded if the routing database
does not show the correct address for it. There are two categories of routers:
1. Manually configured static routers that use information from a router table to determine the
routing of data packets.

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2. Use dynamic routing algorithms when using dynamic routers.

Bridge - A bridge is a repeater with the additional ability to filter material by reading the MAC
addresses of the source and destination. Moreover, it is utilised to connect two LANs that use the
same protocol. It is a 2-port device because it only has one input/output port. A bridge is a piece of
hardware that connects two independent LANs. According to the OSI model, the bridge is a level-2
relay since it operates at layer 2, or the data-link layer. It connects LANs that are similar or dissimilar,
is built to store and forward frames, and is transparent to the end stations because it is protocol
neutral. A bridge does not alter the physical (MAC) addresses in a frame and instead filters and routes
traffic using a table. The ability to address and route traffic is a necessary for a bridge. The use of two
routing algorithms in a bridged LAN context has been recommended. The first is a transparent bridge,
created as an extension of IEEE 802.1 and applicable to all IEEE 802 LANs. The other is based on
source routing approach and was created for the IEEE 802.5 token rings. It applies to a variety of
LAN kinds, including CSMA/CD bus, token ring, and token bus. Bridges can be of two types
• Transparent bridge
• Source routing bridge
Gateway - As the name suggests, a gateway is a path that joins two networks that may use various
networking paradigms. They essentially serve as messengers, taking data from one system, analysing
it, and sending it to another. Protocol converters are another name for gateways, which can work at
any network layer. In general, gateways are more complicated than switches or routers. A gateway can
convert data between several network architectures or data types. So that machines supporting TCP/
IP may communicate with Apple brand computers, it can translate TCP/IP to AppleTalk. Although
they can operate at the network or session layers of the OSI model, gateways typically operate at the
application layer. The lower levels of the OSI model are where gateways will start, stripping data until
it reaches the necessary level, then repackaging the data and moving back towards the hardware layer.
Modem - Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals over analogue
telephone lines. In order to transfer digital signals to a modem at the receiving point, the modem
converts digital signals into analogue signals with a range of frequencies. After executing the reverse
transformation, a connected device, usually a computer, receives a digital output from the receiving
modem. Generally, the RS-232 industry standard interface is used to send or receive digital data from
the modem over a serial line. Modems are used as end terminals by several cable providers and phone
companies to identify and recognise residential and personal users. Modems can support both the
Physical layer and the Data Link layer.
Repeater - A repeater mostly operates at the physical layer. By renewing the signal over the same
network before it is too weak or jumbled, it must extend the amount of time the signal may be
transmitted. It's important to keep in mind that repeaters do not boost the signal. When the signal
weakens, they reproduce it gradually to make it stronger than before. The device has two ports. Its task
is to increase the length to which the signal can be broadcast over the same network by regenerating
the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or garbled. One very important
thing to remember is that repeaters do not improve the signal. They incrementally reproduce the
signal to make it stronger again as it becomes weaker. It is a two port gadget. A repeater is essentially
two transceivers coupled together and connected to two separate coaxial cable segments. Bit by bit,

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the repeater transmits the digital signal between the two segments in both directions. The signal is
amplified and regenerated at the opposite end when it travels via a repeater. If there is a collision on
one segment, it is generated again on the other segment because the repeater does not isolate one
segment from the other. The two parts come together to create a single LAN, which is invisible to the
rest of the system. The bits it gets are simply repeated, retimed, and amplified. The repeater is only
used to increase the range of a single LAN.
Access Point - An access point (AP) is a wireless device even though it technically might also entail a
cable connection. The Data Link layer of the OSI model is where an AP operates. An AP can function
as a router or as a bridge, transferring data transfers from one access point to another. A transmitter
and receiver (transceiver) device are used to construct a wireless LAN by a wireless access point
(WAP) (WLAN). The transmitter, antenna, and adaptor for an AP are often built into a separate
network device. A connection point between WLANs and a wired Ethernet LAN is provided by
APs using the wireless infrastructure network mode. Also, they contain a number of ports, providing
you the option to expand your network to accommodate more users. To offer complete coverage, a
network may need one or more APs, depending on its size. To increase the number of wireless clients
that may connect to the network and to increase its range, additional APs are utilised. The farthest
distance a client can be from an AP and still receive a useable signal and a reasonable data transfer
rate is the transmission range of each AP. The actual distance between a client and an access point
depends on the wireless protocol, any obstacles, and the surrounding environment. Higher quality
APs include powerful antennas that allow them to increase the range of a wireless signal. Moreover,
APs may offer a large number of ports that can be used to expand a network's capacity for firewalls
and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) services.
Ethernet card - A network adapter used to set up a wired network is an Ethernet card, commonly
referred to as a Network Interface Card (NIC card). It serves as the network's and computer's interface.
It is a circuit board that is attached to the motherboard of a computer. The machine is linked to
the network through NIC using an Ethernet connection. 10 Mbps to 1 Gbps of data transport are
supported by Ethernet cards (1000 Mbps). A MAC address, which is present on every NIC, aids in
uniquely identifying each computer on the network.
RJ11 - A particular type of connector called an RJ11 is used to link conventional PSTN (Public
Switched Telephone Network) telephone networks. Telephone lines are terminated using the four-pin
RJ11 connection. Out of the six connections that can be used to wire a single phone line, the RJ11
employs the middle two. It is the common connection used to attach a handset to a phone and a phone
to the wall. For cords that connect to an RJ11 interface, a 6P2C connection is necessary. Nonetheless,
RJ11 cables frequently employ 6P4C connectors (six-position, four-conductor, with four wires). Two
of the six possible contact point’s link tip and ring, and the other two conductors are not in use.
RJ45 - An eight-pin connector known as RJ 45, or Registered Jack-45, is only used with Ethernet
cables for networking. All network cables have this common networking interface at their ends. It
essentially consists of a tiny plastic plug that connects to the RJ-45 jacks of Ethernet cards found
in a variety of computing systems. Ethernet cables are connected to various electronic equipment
using RJ45, a contemporary, modular, self-securing, and small technology. Ethernet connections are
connected by an eight-pin connection called RJ45. Each plug has eight locations where individual
wires are inserted using specialised cable crimping tools, each spaced eight times, or about 1 mm
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apart. An 8P8C connector, which stands for eight positions and eight contacts, is the name for this
kind of connection.
Network Security Devices
Network security is the set of rules and procedures used to guard against unauthorised access,
abuse, modification, and denial of a computer network and its resources. It requires approving
users' access to data on a network, which the network administrator can change. Network security
prevention, protection, and security have three main components. The ultimate objective of network
security is to build a connected network that safeguards against illegal activity while enabling you to
carry out tasks that are necessary.
Active Devices - These security tools stop the extra traffic. Examples of these devices include firewalls,
antivirus scanning equipment, and content filtering equipment.
Passive Devices – These gadgets, like intrusion detection equipment, recognise and record unauthorised
traffic.
Preventative Devices - These tools analyse networks to find any potential security issues. Tools for
vulnerability analysis and penetration testing, for instance.
Unified threat management (UTM) - One method to information security known as UTM uses a
single hardware or software installation to perform various security duties like intrusion prevention,
antivirus, content filtering and so forth. This differs from the conventional approach, which used
point solutions for each security function. Because the security administrator just needs to monitor
and report solely on a single product from one vendor rather than juggling many products from
various suppliers, UTM streamlines information-security administration. UTM appliances have
quickly become popular, in part due to how easy installation, configuration, and maintenance are
made possible by the all-in-one design. When opposed to managing various security systems, this
arrangement saves time, money, and personnel. A UTM can offer the following features:
• Firewall for networks.
• Detection of intrusions.
• Preventing intrusion.
• Gateway antivirus software.
• Firewall proxy.
• Deep packet examination
• Filtering of content and web proxy.
• Data loss prevention (DLP).
• Security information and event management (SIEM).
• Virtual private network (VPN).
• Network tarpit.
Firewalls - A firewall device blocks or defends one network from another, making it one of the
first lines of security in a network. Firewalls can be freestanding units or included in other pieces
of network hardware, such as servers or routers. There are hardware and software firewall options
available, and some firewalls are also offered as appliances that act as the main barrier separating
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two networks. Firewalls stop unwanted network traffic from getting to the organization's systems by
blocking it. The firewall may fully block some traffic or all traffic, perform a verification on some or
all of the traffic, or do a verification depending on the organization's firewall policy. There are two
types of firewall policies that are frequently used:
• Whitelisting – The firewall only allows connections that are explicitly identified as acceptable,
rejecting all other connections.
• Blacklisting – The firewall accepts all connections aside from those that are deliberately
blocked.
There are four different kinds of firewalls: proxy firewalls, web application firewalls, packet-
filtering firewalls, and stateful packet-filtering firewalls.
A fundamental and straightforward sort of network security firewall is one that uses
packet filtering. It features filters that evaluate incoming and outgoing packets in comparison to
a predetermined set of guidelines to determine whether to permit them to flow through or not. The
ruleset (also known as an access list) is often predefined based on a number of metrics. Source/
destination IP addresses, source/destination port numbers, and protocols can all be included in rules.
In the OSI model, layer 3 and layer 4 are where packet filtering takes place. The standard filtering
choices are as follows:
• source IP address of the incoming packets
• destination IP addresses
• type of Internet protocols the packet contains
You can filter traffic based on the protocol information that packets convey in order to stop
it from being delivered by a specific protocol. Due to the fact that the majority of the work is done
at Layer 3 or lower and significant application-level knowledge is not necessary, the main benefit
of packet-filtering firewalls is the speed at which the firewall operations are accomplished. Packet-
filtering firewalls are most frequently used as the very last line of defence in a company's security
networks. For instance, packet-filtering firewalls offer excellent defence against denial-of-service
(DoS) assaults, which are designed to bring down sensitive systems on internal networks.
They do, however, also have some drawbacks. It is not possible for packet-filtering firewalls
to inspect application-level data because they operate at OSI Layer 3 or lower. Application-specific
attacks can therefore readily access inside sensitive networks. Firewall filters are useless in filtering
this Layer 3 data when an attacker forges network IP addresses. Spoofed IP or ARP addresses cannot
be detected by many packet-filtering firewalls. Instead of protecting against targeted assaults, the
major goal of deploying packet-filtering firewalls is to thwart the most widespread DoS attacks.
By employing a sophisticated methodology, stateful packet-filtering approaches keep the
fundamental capabilities of packet-filtering firewalls. The most important thing is that they operate at
Layer 4, and connection pairs typically have the following four parameters:
• Source address
• Source port
• Destination address
• Destination port

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State tables for incoming and existing connections are kept in a dynamic memory by stateful
inspection techniques. The connection parameters are stored in state tables each time an external host
tries to connect to your internal host. Similar to firewalls with packet-filtering, you can build rules to
specify which packets can pass through. Stateful packet filtering firewalls work well, but they lack
the flexibility and sturdiness of conventional packet-filtering firewalls. The firewall's design becomes
more complex when a dynamic state table and other features are added, which directly slows down
operation. Users experience this as a slowdown in network performance. Stateful packet filtering
firewalls also have limited access to application services and higher-layer protocols for inspection.
Simple packet-filtering firewalls and stateful packet-filtering firewalls both track the communication
as a whole, whereas stateful packet filtering firewalls track only the current packet. Stateful network
inspections take place at all levels and add extra security, particularly for connectionless protocols
like the User Datagram Protocol and the Internet Control Message Protocol.
Proxy firewalls focus their operations on the OSI model's Application layer. Such proxies may
be set up between a remote user and the internet-based dedicated server. The remote user doesn't know
the identity of the server he/she is actually interacting with because all he/she can see is the proxy.
Similar to this, the server just finds the proxy and is unaware of the real user. A proxy firewall may
be a useful barrier and filter between unprotected internal or private networks and public networks.
These firewalls are particularly effective for sensitive applications since applications are protected by
the proxy and actions happen at the application level. The ability to set up authentication procedures,
such as passwords and fingerprints, for accessing the proxies strengthens security solutions. You can
configure a firewall to allow or reject packets based on addresses, port information, and application
information using this proxy system. For example, you may configure the firewall to block all incoming
packets from EXE files, which are frequently contaminated with viruses and worms. Proxy firewalls
typically maintain highly thorough logs that provide details about the data components of packets.
The biggest drawback of employing application proxy firewalls is speed. Application proxies
are limited by speed and cost because these firewall activities take place at the application level and
need a significant amount of data processing. Yet, among all firewall systems, application proxies
provide some of the finest security.
By filtering and keeping track of HTTP traffic between a web application and the Internet, a
WAF, or web application firewall, aids in the protection of online applications. Typically, it defends
online applications against threats like SQL injection, file inclusion, cross-site scripting (XSS), and
cross-site forgery. In the OSI model, a WAF is a protocol layer 7 defence and is not intended to thwart
all kinds of attacks. The majority of the time, this attack mitigation technique is a component of a
group of tools that together form a comprehensive defence against a variety of attack vectors.
A WAF is deployed in front of a web application to create a barrier between it and the Internet.
A WAF is a form of reverse-proxy that shields the server from exposure by requiring clients to pass
through it before accessing the server, whereas a proxy server protects a client machine's identity
by utilising an intermediary. A WAF operates by a set of guidelines known as policies. By filtering
out harmful communication, these policies seek to defend against vulnerabilities in the application.
A WAF's value stems in part from how quickly and easily policy changes can be made, enabling
faster reaction to various attack vectors. For instance, during a DDoS attack, changing WAF policies
immediately enables rate restriction.

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Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

These are a group of protocols providing concurrent digital voice, video, data, and other
network services transmission on traditional PSN channels. Prior to the introduction of the Integrated
Services Digital Network (ISDN), telephone systems were considered of as a means of conveying
voice with certain specialised services for data.
A set of communication protocols referred to as "ISDN" were developed by the telephone
companies to allow the transfer of voice, data, and other sorts of sources across telephone networks.
As the telephone network is being digitised, voice, data, text, pictures, music, video, and other source
material can now be transmitted via the existing telephone network. Among other ISDN applications,
the telecommuting industry can gain from more telephone lines in homes, fast file transfers, and
videoconferencing. Most people view ISDN as a T1 wide area telephone service (WATS) and frame
relay substitute. Being able to integrate speech and data on the same lines, which was not possible
with the conventional telephone system, is the main advantage of ISDN. ISDN is a circuit-switched
telephone network system in addition to being a packet-switched network that supports digital speech
and data transmission. This could result in speech or data quality that is better than what an analogue
phone is capable of providing. It provides a packet-switched connection that has a 64 kilobits per
second data transfer rate. The benefits of digital connectivity are numerous.
• Make all digital video, packet switched data, and phone network services accessible.
• Using out of band channel signalling, call setup is much quicker.
• Bearer (B) channel services with a 64kbps per channel data rate that is much higher.
Devices for ISDN include terminals.
Termination adapters (TAs), termination devices for networks, termination equipment for
lines, and termination devices for exchanges. There are two types of ISDN terminals. Terminal
equipment type 1 (TE1) refers to specialised ISDN terminals. Terminal equipment type 2 (TE2) refers
to non-ISDN terminals like DTE. A four wire, twisted-pair digital link is used by TE1s to connect to
the ISDN network. Using a TA, TE2s connect to the ISDN network.
The network termination type 1 (NT1) or type 2 (NT2) device is the next ISDN network
connection point after the TE1 and TE2 devices. These network termination devices join the traditional
two-wire local loop to the four-wire subscriber cable. The NT1 is a piece of customer premises
equipment (CPE) in North America. The NT1 is a component of the carrier's network in the majority
of other parts of the world. The NT2, a more complex device that often conducts Layer 2 and Layer 3
protocol tasks as well as concentration services, is found in digital private branch exchanges (PBXs).
There is also a single device called an NT1/2 that combines the capabilities of an NT1 and an NT2.
The logical interfaces between various functional groups, including TAs and NT1s, are defined by a
number of reference points in the ISDN specification. Among the ISDN reference points are:
• R - The point of comparison between TAs and non-ISDN devices
• S - The NT2 and user terminals' shared reference point.
• T - The NT1 and NT2 devices' common reference point.
• U - In the carrier network, this is the point of reference for NT1 devices and line-termination
hardware. Only in North America, where the carrier network does not support the NT1
capability, is the U reference point applicable.
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Networking Topologies
A network topology with nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver is referred to
as having a topology. Computer networks can be organised logically or physically. One of the types
of network topology that describes how computer connections and other network devices are laid
out is called physical topology. The logical topology of a network reveals details about its physical
architecture. In a computer network, there are numerous forms of network topology. Let's examine
the different network topologies that are available.
Bus Topology - A network configuration known as a bus topology, also known as line topology,
connects every computer and network device to a single cable or backbone. Every node, or piece
of equipment on the network, is connected to a single main cable line in a bus topology. Data is
sent from one location to another along a single path. Data cannot be transmitted in both directions.
Linear Bus Topology is the name given to this topology when it has exactly two terminals. Most tiny
networks make advantage of it. A coaxial cable or an RJ-45 network cable is used to connect different
types of computer network cards to one another. It can be represented as given in Figure 1.3.
The data only goes in one direction, and the terminator cuts it off from the line when it reaches
the opposite end. One computer serves as the server and the other computers function as clients in a
bus architecture. A bus topology example involves a single line linking two floors.
Merits of bus topology
• When you have a tiny network, it functions well.
• It is the simplest network structure for linearly connecting computers or peripherals.
• In comparison to a star topology, it needs shorter cables.

Fig 1.3: Bus topology

Limitations of bus topology
• In the event that the entire network goes down, it may be challenging to pinpoint the issues.
• Troubleshooting individual device problems can be challenging.
• For large networks, bus topology is not the best option.

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• The main cable must have terminators on both ends.

• The network is slowed down by more devices.
• The network fails or divides in two if a main cable is damaged.
Star Topology - A star topology, also referred to as a star network, is one of the most common types of
network architectures. With this configuration, each node is connected to a hub, switch, or computer
that serves as the hub for the entire network. The main network device serves as a server, and the other
network nodes function as clients. Depending on the network card type in each computer, a coaxial
or RJ-45 network cable is utilised in a star topology configuration. The Figure 1.4 shows how the
network architecture earned its name since it resembled a star. A star topology can theoretically and
technically link an infinite number of computers together. However, network performance may suffer
as a result of more machines being linked, slowing down network speeds.
Merits of star topology
• The star topology boasts speedy performance since there is little network traffic.
• The Hub may be readily upgraded as and when needed.
• The steps for setup and modification are both easy.
• A star topology is easy to troubleshoot and diagnose.
• If a node malfunctions or fails, it can be swiftly replaced without affecting or impairing the
performance of the network's other nodes.

Fig.1.4: Star topology

Demerits of star topology
• It is expensive to use and has a high installation cost.
• The hub serves as the centre for all nodes.
Ring Topology - When connected devices form a "ring topology" network topology, a circular data
channel is produced. Every networked device has two points on a circle connecting it to two other
devices. A ring topology's connected devices collectively form a ring network. In a ring network,
data packets go from one device to the next until they reach their destination. The majority of ring
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topologies are unidirectional ring networks, which only permit one-way packet movement. Others
allow data to travel in either direction and are referred to as bidirectional. Both LANs and WANs are
compatible with ring topologies. A coaxial cable or an RJ-45 network cable is used to connect or link
with the computers together in a ring topology, depending on the type of network card each computer
has. It can be represented as given in Figure 1.5. This topology's primary computer, referred to as
the monitor station, is in charge of all the operations. Tokens are used to help with data interaction
and communication between devices. The computer station has to have the token in order to send
data. In order for other computer stations to use the token for data transmission, the token must first
be released after the transmission is finished. Bit by bit, or sequentially, is the mechanism used for
data transmission. In order to get to the destination node, data must therefore go via each node in the
network.

Fig.1.5 : Ring topology

In a Ring topology, repeaters are used to mitigate data transmission loss. These repeaters are
particularly useful when the network topology includes a large number of nodes and the data needs to
reach every node. Dual Ring Topology is what this is called. In this case, two ring networks are built,
each with data flowing in a different direction.
Benefits of the ring topology
• By having all data flow in one way, the likelihood of packet collisions is decreased.
• Network communication between each workstation can be managed without a network server.
• Workstations can transfer data at rapid rates.
• Adding more workstations is possible without affecting the network's performance.
Limitations with ring topology
• Because every workstation on the network must travel through every piece of data being
transferred, it can be slower than a star topology.
• If one workstation crashes, it will have an effect on the entire network.
• Compared to Ethernet cards and hubs/switches, the hardware required to connect each
workstation to the network is more expensive.

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Mesh topology - This is a type of topology where every node is linked to every other node by a
network channel. There is a point-to-point link in mesh topology. It can connect n nodes using n(n-
1)/2 network channels. Routing and flooding are two of the data transfer methods available in mesh
topology. The nodes in the routing method each have a routing logic, such as the logic for the quickest
path to the target node or the logic to avoid routes with broken connections. The network nodes in the
flooding strategy all receive the same data. We no longer require routing logic as a result. Although this
method strengthens the network, it adds unneeded load. It can be represented as given in Figure 1.6:

Fig.1.6: Mesh topology

This topology comes in two variations: a fully connected mesh and a partially disconnected
mesh. Every computer in the network is connected to every other computer in the network when
the topology is fully mesh. The following formula, where n is the total number of machines in the
network, can be used to determine how many connections there are in this system: n(n-1)/2. At least
two computers in the network have connections to numerous other computers in the network in a
partially-connected mesh topology. It is a low-cost method of adding redundancy to a network. The
rest of the network continues to function normally even if one of the main machines or connections
fails.
Mesh topology benefits
• Controls heavy traffic because numerous devices can transmit data at once.
• A malfunction of one device does not stop the network or data transfer.
• Adding more devices doesn't interfere with how data is sent between them.
Limitations with mesh topology
• Because it is more expensive to implement than other network topologies, it is a less preferable
choice.
• Creating and maintaining the topology takes effort and time.
• There is a significant likelihood of redundant connections, which raises the expenses and
raises the prospect of decreased efficiency.
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Tree Topology - A particular kind of structure called a "tree topology" has many connected parts
arranged like the branches of a tree. For instance, tree topologies are widely used to arrange the data
in a database or the machines in a business network. A tree topology is sometimes referred to as a
star bus topology in computer networks. Both a bus topology and a star topology have elements in
it. A sort of structure known as a "tree topology" involves a hierarchical connection between each
computer. In a tree topology, the top node is referred to as the root node, and all subsequent nodes are
its offspring. For the data transmission between two nodes, only one path is available. As a result, a
parent-child hierarchy results. It can be represented as given in Figure 1.7.

Fig. 1.7: Tree topology

Merits with Tree topology
• It is simple to extend the network with extra nodes.
• It is straightforward to maintain and control.
• A network error is simple to find.
Problems with Tree Topology
• It is really wired.
• Compared to other topologies, it is pricey.
• The network will also collapse if the root node does.
Hybrid Topology - A network topology that combines two or more different topologies is known as a
hybrid topology. It is an expensive topology but one that is also dependable and scalable. It benefits
and suffers from the topologies that were utilised to construct it. Hybrid topology is defined as the
combination of two or more distinct topologies; comparable topologies connected to one another
do not produce hybrid topology. For instance, if HDFC Bank has a bus topology in one branch
and a ring topology in another branch, connecting the two will provide a hybrid topology. It can be
diagrammatically represented as given in Figure 1.8.

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Fig.1.8: Hybrid Topology

Hybrid Topology's advantages
• It has basic error-detection methods and is straightforward to troubleshoot.
• It has an adaptable network structure, which makes it very efficient.
• It is scalable because it is simple to increase the size.
Difficulties with Hybrid Topology
• It is difficult to design.
• It is expensive since it uses multiple topologies.

Nodes in a Networked Communication

A network node is the point at which network devices such as routers, printers, or switches
can receive and send data from one endpoint to the other. A Network Node is a physical component
of a network infrastructure. Switches and routers, as well as data devices like computers, printers,
and servers, are examples of network nodes. Each node on the network must be distinct in order for
the network to properly route information to the appropriate device. If two computers on the network
appeared to be identical due to having the same address, the network would attempt to send data to
both devices rather than just the correct one. This distinction is made using the IP address.

Types of Nodes
A network is defined as the interconnection of various communication devices via various
communication links. The network allows network devices, also known as network nodes, to exchange,
store, send, and retrieve data. Each network node serves as a data transmission, process recognition,
packet switching, and network distribution point. Nodes are generally programmed to recognise,
process, and transmit data from one node to another. Depending on the application and network, they
can perform a variety of functions. Multiple nodes are used in a network. A node is something like a
computer, printer, switch, or router. To form a network connection, nodes rely heavily on the referred

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network and protocol layer. In addition, each node on a network has its own IP address. In a threaded
environment, nodes can be classified into two types:
• Routers: A router node's role is to transmit packets from network devices. It facilitates easy
and quick connections between devices that are having difficulty connecting to the network
and provides safe commissioning services.
• End device: The role of an end device is to connect and interact with a router.
The various types of network nodes in a distributed network are outlined below based on the
application and function.
• Internet network nodes: In internet networks, host computers are referred to as physical
network nodes. These nodes can be identified by their unique IP addresses; however, some
data link equipment, such as WLAN access points, do not include an IP address.
• Data communication nodes: These are physical nodes or communication devices such as
switches, routers, hubs, bridges, modems, and others. These nodes are situated between data
communication circuits and Data Terminal Nodes (DTE), and their primary function is to
perform signal conversion, coding, and line clocks. DTE devices include host computers,
digital telephones, printers, and servers.
• Telecommunications: Telephone nodes can be computers that provide intelligent network
services or private or public telephones that can exchange data. Base station controllers are
present in cellular network nodes. These controllers' primary function is to control multiple
base stations.
• LANs and WANs: LANs and WANs are made up of physical nodes or devices that each have a
unique MAC address for the Network Interface Card (NIC). Computers, wireless LAN access
points, modems, and other network devices fall into this category.
• Distributed nodes: Distributed nodes refer to the nodes involved in a distributed network
environment. They can be physical or virtual nodes and are used to maintain transparency
within the network. Nodes in distributed systems, such as peer-to-peer networks, can function
as both servers and clients. There are super nodes in these networks, which are relay nodes
that handle data flow and linking for other network users.
• Cable System Nodes: Cable systems, such as those that connect fibre optic cables, can connect
large areas. They are made up of interconnected homes and offices that receive data signals.
The locations in a cable television network where signals are amplified and distributed to
multiple subscribers are known as cable system nodes.
• Telecommunications Network Nodes: These are the switches that phone service providers use
to send audio signals to their customers. These nodes are typically set up as part of wide area
networks to allow communication over long distances.
• Some examples of network nodes include:
• Bridges
• Router
• Switch
• Modem
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• Gateway
• Firewall
• Access point
The explanation for each of these has been given in previous section.

MAC Address
A network adapter's MAC address is a one-of-a-kind value. MAC addresses can also be referred
to as hardware addresses or physical addresses. They uniquely identify a LAN adapter The MAC
address is commonly found on a device's NIC and is typically specified as a unique identifier during
device manufacturing. When attempting to locate a device or performing diagnostics on a network
device, a MAC address is required. The MAC address is part of the OSI model's data link layer, which
includes the MAC addresses of the source and destination in the header of each data frame to ensure
node-to-node communication. Each network interface in a device is assigned a unique MAC address,
so a device can have multiple MAC addresses. For example, if a laptop has both an Ethernet cable
port and built-in Wi-Fi, the system configuration will show two MAC addresses. . MAC addresses
are hexadecimal 12-digit numbers (48 bits in length). MAC addresses are typically written in one of
the following formats:
MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS
MMMM-MMSS-SSSS
The first half (24 BITS) of a MAC address contains the adapter manufacturer's ID number. An Internet
standards body governs these IDs. The serial number assigned to the adapter by the manufacturer is
represented by the second half (24 MORE BITS) of a MAC address. In the example,
00:A0:C9:14:C8:29
the prefix
00A0C9
indicates the manufacturer is Intel Corporation.

IP Address - IPv4, IPv6

An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique identifier assigned to each device
connected to a network that communicates using the Internet Protocol. It is a numerical label that
identifies the location of each device in the network and allows communication between devices.
IP addresses can be IPv4 (32-bit) or IPv6 (128-bit), and they are made up of a series of numbers
separated by periods. An IPv4 address might be
192.168.1.1,
while an IPv6 address might be
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334.
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) or network administrators assign IP addresses to devices.
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IP addresses serve as a way for devices to locate and communicate with each other on a
network, allowing data to be sent and received between devices. The basic working of an IP address
involves the following steps:
• When a device (such as a computer or smartphone) is connected to a network, it is assigned
an IP address by the network's DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server. This IP
address is unique to the device and identifies its location on the network.
• Whenever a device on the network wants to communicate with another device, it uses the
destination device's IP address to send the data to the correct location. The data is broken
down into small packets, each of which contains the IP address of both the sender and the
recipient.
• The packets are then sent through the network using routers and switches, which use the IP
addresses to direct the packets to the correct destination.
• When the packets reach their destination, they are reassembled into their original form, and
the recipient device uses its own IP address to send a response back to the sender.
• The response follows the same process, using the sender's IP address to ensure that the response
is sent to the correct location.
There are two main types of IP addresses:
• IPv4 addresses: This is the most common type of IP address, and it is formatted in 32 bits.
IPv4 addresses contain four numbers separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.1.1). There are over 4
billion unique IPv4 addresses, but as the internet grows and more devices connect to it, the
number of available IPv4 addresses is becoming limited.
• IPv6 addresses: This is a more recent type of IP address with a 128-bit format. IPv6 addresses
are much longer and more complex than IPv4 addresses, consisting of eight groups of four
hexadecimal digits separated by colons (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
IPv6 addresses provide a far greater number of unique addresses than IPv4, making them a
more sustainable solution for the growing Internet.
IP addresses can also be classified according to their purpose or scope. Based on their scope, the
following are some of the most common types of IP addresses:
• Public IP addresses - these are unique addresses assigned to devices that are directly connected
to the internet by an Internet Service Provider (ISP). Public IP addresses are globally routable
and can be used to connect to the internet and communicate with other network devices.
• Private IP addresses - these are non-unique addresses assigned to devices on a private network
by a local network administrator. Private IP addresses are not routable on the internet and are
only used for internal network communication.
• Dynamic IP addresses - these are temporary addresses assigned to a device by an ISP for a
limited time. When a device connects to the network, its IP address can change.
• Static IP addresses - these are permanent addresses assigned to a device by an ISP that do
not change over time. Static IP addresses are frequently used for servers or other devices that
require a fixed address for remote access.

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The Internet Protocol hierarchy contains several classes of IP Addresses that can be used efficiently
in a variety of situations depending on the number of hosts per network. The IPv4 Addressing system
is divided into five IP Address classes. The first octet of an IP address identifies all five classes.

Class Range Supports

Class A 0-127 Each of the 127 networks can support 16 million hosts.

Class B 128-191 Each of the 16,000 networks can support 65,000 hosts.

Class C 192-223 Each of the 2 million networks can support 254 hosts.

Class D 224-239 This is reserved for multicast groups.

Class E 240-255 Reserved for future use or for research and development.

Classless Addressing
An enhanced IP addressing system is a classless addressing system or classless interdomain
routing (CIDR). This is a method of IP address assignment that allows for more flexible allocation
of IP addresses than the older classful addressing method. A block of IP addresses is dynamically
assigned in a CIDR according to predetermined rules.
In classless addressing, the IP address is divided into a network portion and a host portion,
but the boundary between the two portions can be placed anywhere within the address. CIDR
notation is used to represent IP addresses in classless addressing. It consists of the IP address followed
by a forward slash and a number, which indicates the length of the network portion of the address.
For example, 192.168.0.0/16 indicates that the first 16 bits of the IP address are used to identify the
network portion, leaving 16 bits for the host portion. CIDR allows for more efficient allocation
of IP addresses than classful addressing as it enables the creation of subnets of any size, and
addresses can be assigned more precisely to the exact number of devices required. This reduces IP
address wastage and maximizes the use of available address space. Another advantage of classless
addressing is that it allows for more efficient routing of IP packets. With classful addressing, the size
of the network was determined by the class of the IP address, which often led to routing inefficiencies.
In contrast, classless addressing allows for a more hierarchical routing structure, with smaller subnets
being aggregated into larger networks, which can then be more efficiently routed.

Types of connectivity
Connectivity refers to the ability of devices to communicate with each other and with networks.
There are numerous connections available for internet access. Each connection has its own speed
range that can be used for a variety of purposes, such as at home or for personal use. There are several
types of connectivity:
Dial-up Connection
Dial-up internet access is a type of internet connection that uses a phone line to connect a
computer to an Internet Service Provider (ISP). When high-speed internet was not widely available in
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the early days of the internet, dial-up connections were popular. The dial-up modem and a telephone
line are required for a computer to establish a dial-up connection. The modem is a device that
converts digital data from a computer into analogue signals that can be transmitted over a telephone
line. The modem dials the ISP's phone number and establishes a connection. Once the connection is
established, the user will be able to access the internet via the ISP's network. Dial-up connections are
notorious for their slow data transfer rates, which are limited by the telephone line's capabilities. A
dial-up connection typically consists of a computer linked to a modem, which is linked to a phone
line. A series of LED lights on the modem indicate the status of the connection, such as whether it
is dialling, connecting, or disconnected. When the connection is established, the modem produces
a series of sounds known as the "dial-up sound”. Figure 1.9 demonstrates the working of the same.

Fig. 1.9: Dial-up connection

Dial-up Internet connections typically provide data transfer rates of up to 56 kbps, which
is significantly slower than modern broadband connections. Dial-up connections are also prone to
frequent disconnections and line noise, which can cause internet access to be interrupted. Dial-up
connections are no longer widely used due to their limitations. However, dial-up connections may
still be used as a last resort for internet access in some remote areas where broadband internet is not
available.

Wired broadband connectivity

Wired broadband connectivity is a type of internet connection that connects a device to the
internet via physical cables. This type of connectivity is typically faster and more reliable than wireless
connectivity. There are various types of wired broadband connectivity, including:
• Digital Subscriber Line (DSL): DSL is an abbreviation for Digital Subscriber Line. It connects
to the internet via the telephone line (network). DSL is a type of broadband communication
that is always on; no phone is required to connect. DSL is a type of broadband connection
that transmits data over telephone lines. DSL is more reliable than dial-up connections and
is widely available in urban and suburban areas. DSL connections use routers to transport
data, and their speeds range from 128k to 8Mbps depending on the service provided. A DSL
connection can transmit data at a rate of 5 million bytes per second (mbps). Due to the high-
frequency band nature of DSL, it can be delivered alongside wired telephone service on the
same telephone line.
• ISDN: ISDN is an acronym that stands for Integrated Service Digital Network. It is a circuit-
switched telephone network system that also provides access to packet-switched networks
that transmit both voice and data over a digital line. It sends data as well as voice over a

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digital line. Consider it a set of communication standards for transmitting data, voice, and
signalling. These digital lines may or may not be copper lines. It offers a packet-switched
connection for data at 64 kilobit/s increments. ISDN connections are faster and of higher
quality than traditional connections. It offered a maximum bandwidth of 128kbit/s in both the
upstream and downstream directions. It was created to replace outdated landline technology
with digital technology. ISDN connections have a reputation for being faster and more reliable
than traditional connections. Data transmissions can travel more reliably with faster speeds
and better connections.
• Cable Internet: It is a type of broadband access cable modem that can provide extremely
fast internet access. This connection's speed varies, making it suitable for either uploading
or downloading data. It connects to the internet via cable modem and operates over cable
TV lines. The cable connection speed ranges from 512k to 20Mbps. Cable Internet is a type
of broadband Internet access that provides Internet services through the infrastructure of the
cable TV network. Cable Internet access, like digital subscriber line and fibre to the premises
services, provides network edge connectivity from an Internet service provider to an end user.
It is integrated into the cable television infrastructure in the same way that DSL is integrated
into the existing telephone network. The two most common types of residential Internet
access are cable TV networks and telecommunications networks. Fiber deployments, wireless
networks, and mobile networks have recently increased competition for both.
• Leased Line: A dedicated data connection with a fixed bandwidth is referred to as a leased
line. It allows small, medium, and large businesses to connect to the internet securely, reliably,
and efficiently, with maximum download capacity, resilience, and uptime. Leased lines can be
connected directly to the premises or via a fibre optic cable. A fibre optic leased line operates
by sending light pulses. The transmitted data travels at the speed of light. Large organisations
typically buy leased lines from telephone message carriers to connect different geographic
locations. A leased line is also known as a dedicated line in some situations. For smaller
businesses, leased lines can be an expensive option. Public switched telephone networks
(PSTNs) with secure messaging protocols, asymmetric digital subscriber lines (ADSLs),
broadband, and virtual private networks are alternatives to leased lines (VPNs). Broadband
and leased lines both offer telecommunications and internet access for a fixed monthly fee;
however, a leased line establishes a dedicated connection between the organization's premises
and the local exchange. Broadband also has variable bandwidth and asymmetric data speeds.
Leased Lines Characteristics
 Leased lines are symmetrical, which means that download and upload speeds are equal.
 Leased line connections are uncontended, implying that they cannot be shared with others.
 They connect two points - the ISP and the business location.
• FTTH : FTTH stands for "Fiber to the Home". It is a type of broadband network architecture
that uses fibre optic cables to deliver high-speed internet, phone, and television services
directly to individual homes or buildings. A fibre optic cable is run from the service provider's
central office to a network interface device (NID) located at or near the customer's premises in
a FTTH network. A fibre optic cable is then run from the NID to an Optical Network Terminal
(ONT) installed inside the customer's home or building. The optical signal is converted by
the ONT into electrical signals that can be used by the customer's devices such as computers,

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televisions, and phones. FTTH networks provide symmetrical internet speeds, which means
that upload and download speeds are identical. In contrast, traditional networks provide
asymmetrical speeds, with upload speeds typically much slower than download speeds. FTTH
networks offer significantly faster internet speeds than traditional copper-based networks,
allowing for faster downloads and uploads as well as a better overall internet experience.

Wireless broadband (WiBB) connectivity

The use of wireless technology to provide high-speed internet access to devices such as
computers, smartphones, and tablets without the use of physical wires or cables is referred to as
wireless broadband connectivity. Wireless broadband networks transmit data over the air using
radio waves, allowing users to connect to the internet from anywhere within the network's coverage
area. Wi-Fi, cellular (3G, 4G, and 5G), satellite, and fixed wireless are the most common wireless
broadband technologies.
Wi-Fi is the most widely used type of wireless broadband, and it can be found in homes,
businesses, and public places such as coffee shops and airports. Wi-Fi networks employ a wireless
router to establish a local network to which devices can connect. Cellular networks, on the other hand,
use radio towers to connect devices with cellular data plans to the internet. Satellite broadband is used
in places where traditional wired broadband is unavailable. To provide internet access, a satellite dish
is installed on the customer's property and communicates with an orbiting satellite. Fixed wireless
broadband provides high-speed internet access to a fixed location, such as a home or business, via
radio waves. Wireless broadband offers several benefits over traditional wired broadband, including
convenience, mobility, and flexibility. It allows users to access the internet from anywhere within
the network's coverage area and eliminates the need for physical wires or cables. However, wireless
broadband can be affected by interference, signal strength, and weather conditions, which can impact
the quality and speed of the internet connection.
• Mobile broadband - Mobile broadband is wireless internet access delivered via cellular
networks via mobile devices such as smartphones, tablets, and mobile hotspots. Mobile
broadband employs the same underlying technology as traditional cellular voice services, but
it allows users to connect to the internet via their mobile devices, typically via a cellular data
plan. Mobile broadband is ideal for people who require internet access while on the move or
in areas where traditional wired broadband is unavailable. Users of mobile broadband can
connect to the internet almost anywhere within the network's coverage area. Mobile broadband
plans are available in a variety of sizes and data allowances, and users can select a plan based
on their data usage requirements. Mobile broadband is typically delivered via 3G, 4G, or 5G
cellular networks, each of which offers varying speeds and levels of service quality. 5G is
the most recent and fastest cellular technology, with theoretical speeds of up to 10 gigabits
per second (Gbps), though actual speeds are typically much lower. 4G networks can provide
download speeds of up to 100 megabits per second (Mbps), whereas 3G networks can only
provide download speeds of up to 3.1 Mbps. Mobile broadband is available via a variety
of devices, including smartphones, tablets, and mobile hotspots. Mobile hotspots are Wi-Fi
networks that multiple devices can connect to, allowing users to share their mobile broadband
connection with others. Mobile WiBB, also known as mobile broadband, is a high-speed
broadband connection provided by mobile phone service providers that is accessible from any
location. The locations are within the coverage area of mobile service provider phone towers,
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and the connections are subject to the user's monthly service plan subscription. Because of its
portability, mobile broadband can be more expensive. Except in urban areas, they generally
have varying or limited speed.
• WiMAX - Wi-MAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a wireless
communication standard that uses radio waves to provide high-speed broadband connectivity
over long distances. WiMAX is a 4G (fourth generation) technology that provides wireless
internet access to devices such as laptops, tablets, and smartphones. WiMAX can deliver
broadband speeds of up to 75 Mbps over long distances, making it ideal for providing internet
access in rural or remote areas. WiMAX transmits data over the airwaves using a technology
known as OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing), which allows multiple
devices to share the same bandwidth. WiMAX operates on licenced and unlicensed frequency
bands and can be used to provide wireless internet access to customers by internet service
providers (ISPs). WiMAX can also be used to provide cellular network backhaul connectivity,
allowing mobile network operators to expand their coverage in areas where wired backhaul is
unavailable. Despite its potential benefits, WiMAX has not gained widespread adoption and
has been largely replaced by LTE (Long-Term Evolution), another 4G wireless communication
standard widely used in cellular networks. WiMAX, on the other hand, is still used in some
parts of the world, particularly in areas where wired broadband is unavailable.
• Satellite broadband - Satellite broadband is a type of internet service that delivers high-speed
internet access via a satellite orbiting the Earth. People who live in rural or remote areas where
traditional wired broadband options such as cable or DSL are unavailable should consider
satellite broadband. Satellite broadband sends and receives data to and from a satellite in
geostationary orbit, which is approximately 22,000 miles above the Earth's surface, via a
satellite dish installed at the customer's location. The data is wirelessly transmitted between
the satellite and the customer's dish via radio waves. Satellite broadband has several
advantages over traditional wired broadband, including a larger coverage area, availability
in remote locations, and ease of installation. Satellite broadband can provide internet access
to nearly any location on the planet with a clear view of the sky. As a result, it is a popular
option for people who live in rural or remote areas where traditional wired broadband is
unavailable. However, satellite broadband has some drawbacks. It is typically more expensive
than traditional wired broadband and has lower data allowances and slower speeds. Satellite
broadband is also subject to latency or delays as a result of the time it takes for data to travel
between the satellite and the Earth, which can be an issue for real-time applications like online
gaming or video conferencing. Satellite broadband is a viable option for people who require
internet access in areas where traditional wired broadband is not available.

Internet Access sharing methods

There are several ways to share internet access among multiple devices or users, including:
• Wired network: Ethernet cables connect devices to a central hub or switch in a wired network.
This is a dependable and secure method of sharing internet access that can support high speeds.
• Wireless network: A wireless network connects devices to a wireless router via Wi-Fi. Because
devices can connect wirelessly without the use of cables, this is a convenient way to share
internet access. Wireless networks, on the other hand, can be less secure than wired networks
and are susceptible to interference.
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• Mobile hotspot: A mobile hotspot is a device that uses a cellular data connection to connect
to the internet and provide internet access to other devices. This is a convenient way to share
internet access while on the go, but it is more expensive than other options and may have data
usage limits.
• ISP sharing: Some ISPs provide plans that allow multiple users to share internet access
through a single account. This is a convenient way for a household or office to share internet
access, but it may not be suitable for larger groups or businesses.
• Powerline networking: Powerline networking is the use of a home's electrical wiring to send
data signals between devices. This is an easy way to share internet access in locations where
Wi-Fi signals are weak or unreliable.

LAN
A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects devices in a specific geographical area,
such as a home, office building, or campus. LANs are commonly used to allow multiple devices to
share resources such as files, printers, and internet access. Both wired and wireless technologies can
be used to implement LANs. A wired LAN connects devices to a central switch or hub via Ethernet
cables. Wi-Fi connects devices in a wireless LAN to a wireless access point. A local area network
(LAN) can be used to connect to the internet by connecting the LAN to a router or modem that
provides internet access.
Follow these general steps to connect a LAN to the internet:
• Connect the LAN to an internet access router or modem. Connect an Ethernet cable from the
LAN's switch or hub to the router or modem to accomplish this.
• Configure the router or modem to provide LAN internet access. This may entail configuring
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) to automatically assign IP addresses to LAN
devices and configuring NAT (Network Address Translation) to allow LAN devices to connect
to the internet.
• Connect LAN devices to the internet by configuring their network settings to use the gateway
address of the LAN (i.e., the address of the router or modem). This enables the devices to
connect to the internet via the LAN.
• Once the LAN is connected to the internet, devices on the LAN can use a web browser or
another internet-enabled application to access the internet.
• It is important to note that the speed and reliability of the internet connection provided by
the router or modem, as well as the quality of the LAN's infrastructure, will determine the
performance of internet access via a LAN (i.e., cables, switches, etc.).

Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology that allows devices to connect to the internet and
other devices wirelessly. Wi-Fi networks transmit data between devices using radio waves, typically
over a few hundred feet. Wi-Fi networks are typically implemented with a wireless access point or
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router, which provides wireless connectivity to devices within a specific geographic area. A wireless
adapter allows Wi-Fi enabled devices, such as laptops, smartphones, and tablets, to connect to a
Wi-Fi network.
Wi-Fi networks can use a variety of frequency bands, including the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands.
The 2.4 GHz band is typically more congested and susceptible to interference from other devices,
whereas the 5 GHz band provides faster speeds and less interference. To connect to the internet via
Wi-Fi, you'll need a Wi-Fi-enabled device, such as a laptop, smartphone, or tablet, as well as access
to an internet-accessible Wi-Fi network.
Follow these general steps to connect to the internet via Wi-Fi:
• Turn on your device's Wi-Fi. This is typically accomplished by going to the device's network
settings and turning on the Wi-Fi switch.
• From the list of available networks, select the Wi-Fi network to which you want to connect.
To connect if the network is secure, you must enter the correct password.
• Once connected to the Wi-Fi network, you should be able to use a web browser or other
internet-enabled application to access the internet.
It is critical to understand that the quality and speed of your Wi-Fi network will have an impact
on the performance of your internet access. The quality of your Wi-Fi internet access is affected by
factors such as signal strength, the number of devices connected to the network, and the speed of the
internet connection provided by the network.

Li-Fi
Li-Fi is a wireless communication technology that sends data between devices using light
waves. It stands for "light fidelity" and is also known as "visible light communication" at times.
LED (light-emitting diode) lights are used in Li-Fi technology to transmit data by modulating light
waves. A device with Li-Fi capability can receive data by detecting changes in the intensity of light
waves and converting them into electrical signals. Li-Fi has some advantages over other wireless
communication technologies, such as Wi-Fi. It has higher bandwidth, faster data transfer rates, and is
more secure because light waves cannot penetrate walls, reducing the risk of unauthorised access. It
is also resistant to electromagnetic interference, which can be a problem in environments with a high
concentration of electronic devices. To use Li-Fi to connect to the internet, you'll need a Li-Fi-enabled
device and access to a Li-Fi network. Li-Fi networks transmit data using LED lights, so you must be
within range of an LED light source equipped with Li-Fi technology.
Follow these general steps to connect to the internet via Li-Fi:
• Check that your device is Li-Fi capable. Not all devices currently support Li-Fi technology.
• Make sure you're within range of an LED light source that has Li-Fi technology. Because Li-
Fi signals cannot pass through walls or other solid objects, you must be in the same room as
the light source.
• Connect your device to the Li-Fi network. Entering a network password or other credentials
may be required.
• Once connected to the Li-Fi network, you should be able to use a web browser or other
internet-enabled application to access the internet.
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It is important to note that Li-Fi networks are still in their early stages and are not widely used.
As a result, Li-Fi network availability may be limited, and you may not be able to find a network in
all locations. Furthermore, the Li-Fi network's quality and speed will be determined by a variety of
factors, including the strength of the LED light source and the number of devices connected to the
network. Finally, not all internet service providers support Li-Fi technology, so check with your ISP
to see if Li-Fi is available for your internet connection.

Services on Internet
There are numerous types of services available on the internet. Among the most common are:
Internet World Wide Web (WWW) -
The World Wide Web (WWW or simply the Web) is a network of web pages and other resources
linked together by hyperlinks and URLs (Uniform Resource Locators). It is an internet service that
enables users to access and interact with information, multimedia content, and applications via a web
browser. The World Wide Web (WWW) is a service offered via the internet. It is one of the most
popular and widely used internet services, enabling users to access and interact with information,
multimedia content, and applications via a web browser. The WWW is a section of the internet
that contains a massive collection of web pages and other resources that are linked together using
hyperlinks and URLs (Uniform Resource Locators). Web servers, which are computers connected to
the internet and specifically designed to deliver web pages to users, host these web pages.
Users must have an internet connection and a web browser such as Google Chrome, Mozilla
Firefox, or Microsoft Edge to access the WWW. They can then navigate to web pages by typing
URLs or search terms into the address bar of their browser. The World Wide Web has transformed the
way we access and share information, making it easier and faster than ever to find and disseminate
knowledge. It has also changed how we do business, communicate with one another, and interact with
the world around us.

Web Browser-
A web browser is a piece of software that allows you to access and view content on the
World Wide Web (WWW). It enables users to interact with web pages, search engines, and other
internet resources. To request web pages and other resources from web servers, web browsers use the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). When a user enters a URL or search term into the address bar
of a browser, the browser sends an HTTP request to the web server, which then returns the requested
content. Web browsers use Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), and
JavaScript to display web pages. They interpret these languages to create web pages that include text,
images, videos, and other types of media. Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Apple Safari, Microsoft
Edge, and Opera are some of the most popular web browsers. Each browser has its own set of features
and user interface, but they all allow users to access and navigate the World Wide Web in the same
way.
Web browsers, in addition to displaying web pages, support a variety of other features such
as bookmarks, tabbed browsing, history, and plugins. They also offer security features like privacy
settings, phishing protection, and warnings about potentially dangerous websites. Google Chrome,

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Mozilla Firefox, Apple Safari, Microsoft Edge, and Opera are some of the most popular web browsers.
Each browser has its own set of features and user interface, but they all allow users to access and
navigate the World Wide Web in the same way. Web browsers, in addition to displaying web pages,
support a variety of other features such as bookmarks, tabbed browsing, history, and plugins. They
also offer security features like privacy settings, phishing protection, and warnings about potentially
dangerous websites.

Web browsing -
Navigating through web pages and interacting with web-based applications and services are
all part of it. When you open a web browser and type a URL or search term into the address bar, the
browser sends a request to a web server in order to retrieve the desired content. The content is then
returned to the server by the browser, which displays it on the screen. Web browsing can be used for
a variety of things, including:
• Web browsing is a useful tool for researching and learning about almost any topic. You can
use search engines like Google to find relevant web pages and resources quickly.
• Communication and social networking: Many web-based applications, such as email, instant
messaging, and social media, enable real-time communication and the sharing of information
and media.
• Entertainment: The web provides a plethora of multimedia content, such as videos, music, and
games, that can keep you entertained for hours.
• Many online retailers provide web-based shopping platforms that allow you to browse and
purchase products from the comfort of your own home.
Web browsing has become an essential part of modern life, and the internet continues to evolve
and expand as new technologies and services emerge. You can access a wealth of information,
entertainment, and services from anywhere in the world using a web browser and an internet
connection.

Search Engines -
Search engines are online tools that are used to find and search for information on the WWW.
They let users enter keywords or phrases related to their topic of interest, and then display a list of web
pages, images, videos, and other media that match or closely match the user's search terms. Google,
Bing, Yahoo!, and DuckDuckGo are examples of popular search engines. Each search engine has its
own algorithm for indexing and ranking web pages based on factors such as relevance, popularity,
and authority.
When you use a search engine, the engine's algorithm analyses the text of the search query
and compares it to content in its index. The search engine then returns the most relevant results, with
the most relevant results appearing first. Advanced search features on search engines allow users to
refine their searches by language, date range, location, and other criteria. Specialized search engines
for specific types of content, such as images, videos, or news, may also be included. Search engines
have evolved into an essential tool for locating information on the internet. They have changed the

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way we access and share information, making it easier and faster to find relevant information on
almost any topic. They do, however, raise concerns about privacy, data security, and the possibility
of biased search results.

E-mail -
Email, which is an abbreviation for electronic mail, is a method of exchanging digital
messages between individuals or groups of people via the internet or other computer networks. It was
initially created in the 1960s and has since grown to be one of the most widely used communication
channels worldwide. It enables users to send and receive text, image, file, and other types of content
in messages. Email is a popular internet service that allows users to send and receive digital messages
over the internet or other computer networks. It is a fundamental component of the internet and a vital
communication tool for individuals, businesses, and organisations all over the world.
Email hosting services are provided by email service providers, allowing users to create and
manage email accounts. These services usually include features like inbox organisation, spam filters,
virus protection, and the ability to access email from anywhere. Inbox organisation, spam filters,
virus protection, and the ability to access email from multiple devices are common features of these
services.
Users must have an email address and access to an email client or webmail interface in order to
use email as an internet service. An email account may be set up using a free emails service provider
like Google, Yahoo! Mail, or Outlook.com. Using webmail interfaces or email client programs like
Microsoft Outlook or Apple Mail, users can access their email accounts. An email address is a one-
of-a-kind identifier used to direct email messages to a specific recipient. Email clients are computer
or mobile device software applications that allow users to send and receive email messages. Webmail
interfaces are online platforms that provide users with access to their email accounts via a web browser.
Email is frequently used as an internet service for personal communication, such as staying in touch
with friends and family, sharing photos and other media, and sending messages and invitations. It
is also widely used for professional communication, such as sending business emails, resumes, and
other important documents.
Compared to more conventional communication channels like the phone and snail mail, email
has many benefits. It is quick, practical, and accessible from any location with an internet connection.
Asynchronous communication, which means that the sender and the recipient do not have to be online
at the same time, is another feature of email. Email can be used for a variety of things, including
customer service, marketing, and corporate communication. It has developed into a crucial tool for
companies and organisations, enabling them to interact with clients and consumers, share information,
and work together with co-workers. An email is an essential tool for digital communication, providing
users with a convenient, secure, and professional way to communicate. It is one of the most popular
methods of communication, allowing people to send messages quickly and easily from any location
with an internet connection. Email is also widely used in professional settings, such as business and
academic environments, for sending memos, reports, and other important information. Additionally,
businesses can use email for marketing purposes, sending promotional messages and newsletters
to their customers and subscribers. Furthermore, email can be used as a storage system, allowing
users to store and retrieve important conversations at a later time. Finally, email can be encrypted to
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ensure the privacy and security of sensitive information, such as personal or financial data. Email has
become an essential tool for communication in both personal and professional settings for several
reasons:
• Speed: Email makes it possible to contact with others almost instantly, especially those who
are located in different time zones or regions.
• Convenience: Email may be accessed from any location with an internet connection, enabling
communication between parties who are not present in the same physical space.
• Documentation: Email offers a written record of communication that can be used for
documentation or to track discussions or go back to earlier messages.
• Professionalism: In many workplaces, email is a commonly used and expected form
of communication. A willingness to use technology to communicate effectively and
professionalism may both be shown while using email for communication.
• Marketing: As email allows for focused messages and can be used to gradually develop
connections with customers, it is a popular and economical way for businesses to communicate
with their clients.
• Security: Email is a secure way to transmit crucial information since it may be encrypted to
prevent unauthorised access to critical data.
Email is a versatile and powerful internet service that has transformed the way we communicate
and share information. Despite the challenges posed by spam, phishing, and other forms of malicious
activity, email continues to be an important tool for staying connected and getting things done in
today's digital world.

Social media -
Online platforms that allow users to create, share, and exchange content, ideas, and information
with others are referred to as social media. Social media can take many different forms, such as social
networking sites, messaging apps, photo and video sharing platforms, blogging platforms, and so on.
Facebook, Twitter, Whatsapp, Telegram, Instagram, Snapchat, LinkedIn, and TikTok are some of the
most popular social media platforms. Each platform has its own distinct features and target audience,
but they all strive to connect people and facilitate online interactions.
Social media is a well-known internet service that enables users to create and share content as
well as engage in social networking. Social media platforms are web-based services that allow users
to create, share, and exchange information, ideas, and content with others in virtual communities and
networks. User profiles, news feeds, messaging systems, sharing options, and privacy settings are
common features of social media platforms. Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn, and TikTok are
some of the most popular social media platforms. As an internet service, social media has changed
the way people interact, communicate, and share information. It has opened up new avenues for
socialising, self-expression, and entertainment. Social media has also played an important role in the
facilitation of social and political movements, the promotion of cultural exchange, and the growth of
businesses.
However, social media has also raised privacy and security concerns, as well as the spread of
misinformation or fake news. Social media platforms are also being questioned about data privacy, user
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safety, and content moderation. Despite these obstacles, social media as an internet service remains
a powerful and influential force in today's digital landscape. It has evolved into an indispensable
communication tool for individuals, businesses, and organisations all over the world, connecting
people in novel and exciting ways and shaping the future of online interactions and communities.
Various stages of Data Transfer from Server to Client -
Data transfer from a server to a client via the internet involves several stages. The following
are some of the major stages:
• Request: The client requests a specific resource from the server, such as a webpage, file, or
database record. The request contains information such as the resource type and any parameters
or data required to process the request.
• Processing: After receiving the request, the server processes it by retrieving the requested
resource and performing any necessary computations or database queries to generate the
response.
• Response: The server sends back to the client a response containing the requested resource
or data. Headers that provide metadata about the response, such as content type, caching
information and length, are typically included in the response.
• Transmission: The response is sent from the server to the client via the internet. This involves
multiple layers of communication protocols, such as TCP/IP, HTTP, and SSL/TLS.
• Rendering: After receiving the response, the client exhibits it in the appropriate format, such
as displaying a webpage in a web browser or downloading a file to the local file system.
• Interaction: The client can now interact with the resource by performing actions such as
clicking links or buttons on a webpage or manipulating data in a downloaded file. This may
entail sending more requests to the server and repeating the process.

Domain Name-
A domain name is a unique address on the internet that identifies a website. It consists of two
parts: the domain name and the top-level domain (TLD). In the domain name "example.com," for
example, "example" is the domain name and ".com" is the TLD. Domain names are used to provide
a human-readable method of navigating to websites, which are actually identified by IP addresses.
When a user enters a domain name into a web browser, the domain name system (DNS) converts the
domain name into an IP address that can be used to connect to the website's web server.
Domain registrars, which are authorised organisations that assign domain names to individuals,
businesses, or other entities, register and manage domain names. A registrant must select an available
domain name and pay a registration fee to the registrar in order to register a domain name. The
registrant can then manage the domain name by configuring DNS settings, renewing the registration,
or transferring it to another owner. TLDs for domain names include ".com," ".org," ".net," and many
others. Different TLDs have different registration rules and requirements, and some are restricted to
specific types of organisations or geographical regions. New generic top-level domains (gTLDs) have
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Resolution
The process of translating a domain name into an IP address that can be used to connect to a
web server hosting the associated website is referred to as resolution in the context of domain names.
The domain name system (DNS) handles this process by acting as a distributed database that maps
domain names to IP addresses. When a user enters a domain name or clicks on a link to a website,
the browser sends a request to the DNS to resolve the domain name to an IP address. The DNS then
searches its database for the domain name and returns the corresponding IP address to the browser.
The IP address is then used by the browser to connect to the web server and retrieve the website
content.
The resolution process is critical for the proper operation of the internet because it allows
users to access websites using human-readable domain names rather than IP addresses. It also allows
for load balancing, failover, and other advanced features by associating multiple IP addresses with a
single domain name.

Mobile communication
The exchange of information via wireless networks using mobile devices such as smartphones,
tablets, and other portable electronic devices is referred to as mobile communication. While on the
move, mobile communication allows users to make voice calls, send text messages, browse the internet,
and access various applications and services. Mobile communication is based on wireless networks
that transmit and receive data between mobile devices and base stations using radio frequency (RF)
signals. These networks are typically operated by mobile network operators (MNOs), who offer
network access through a variety of subscription plans and packages. With the introduction of new
technologies such as 3G, 4G, and now 5G networks, mobile communication has evolved rapidly over
the last few decades. These technologies have enabled faster data transfer rates, lower latency, and
better coverage, allowing users to access more advanced mobile applications and services.
Mobile communication has also enabled new forms of communication and collaboration, such
as video conferencing, social media, and messaging apps, which have changed how people interact
with one another and with businesses. Mobile communication is expected to play an even greater role
in shaping the future of communication and information exchange as mobile devices become more
powerful and ubiquitous.

Generations in mobile communication

Mobile communication has evolved through several generations, each of which represents a
significant advancement in mobile network technology and capabilities. The following are the major
generations of mobile communication:
First Generation - The term "First Generation (1G) mobile communication" refers to the first
commercially available wireless communication technology, which debuted in the 1980s. Analog
signals were used in 1G networks to transmit voice calls between mobile phones and base stations.
The first 1G networks were designed primarily for voice calls, and they had limited capacity, range,
and quality. In 1983, the first commercial mobile phone was released, and throughout the 1980s
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and the beginning of the 1990s, technology continued to advance. It is only intended for voice
communication. The following are some 1G communication characteristics:
• Weak sound quality at speeds of up to 2.4 kbps
• Long battery life on large phones
• Lack of data security
1G mobile communication was distinguished by the use of large and bulky mobile phones
primarily used for voice calls. The first 1G networks were run by a few large telecommunications
companies, and the service was costly and only available in a few areas.
Although 1G networks were revolutionary at the time, they were not without limitations,
such as poor call quality, limited range, and security concerns. Furthermore, 1G networks could not
support other types of data communication, such as text messaging or internet browsing. Despite
these limitations, 1G networks laid the groundwork for future mobile communication technologies
by demonstrating the viability of wireless communication and igniting interest in the development of
more advanced technologies, which eventually led to the evolution of 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G networks.
Second Generation - Second Generation (2G) mobile communication refers to the second wave of
commercially available wireless communication technology that debuted in the 1990s. 2G networks
were a significant improvement over 1G networks in that they allowed not only voice calls but also
text messaging and basic data services. 2G networks converted voice calls into digital signals, which
could then be transmitted more efficiently and securely than analogue signals used by 1G networks.
Encryption was also used in 2G networks to ensure communication privacy and security. Digital
signals, which were made available by the second generation of mobile communication technology,
improved speech quality and made it possible to send simple data like text messages. The first GSM-
based 2G network was introduced in 1991, and throughout the late 1990s and early 2000s, it dominated
the mobile industry. The following are some salient features of 2G communication:
• Data rates as high as 64 kbps
• Messaging by text and other media is possible.
• superior to 1G in quality
Mobile phones became smaller and more affordable with the introduction of 2G networks,
making them more accessible to a wider range of users. Text messaging, or SMS (short message
service), became a popular mode of communication, and basic data services such as email and internet
browsing became available. The use of SIM (subscriber identity module) cards in 2G networks
allowed users to switch between different mobile devices without changing their phone number or
service provider. Roaming was also introduced by 2G networks, allowing users to make and receive
calls and messages while travelling outside of their home network. 2G networks were a significant
improvement over 1G networks, paving the way for further advancements in mobile communication
technology.
• GSM - GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is a 2G mobile communication
system standard. It was created in the 1980s by the European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ETSI) and quickly became the most widely used mobile communication standard
in the world. GSM technology is based on digital signal processing, which allows for more
efficient and secure transmission of voice and data signals than analogue systems used in 1G

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networks. GSM networks divide the frequency spectrum into time slots using time-division
multiple access (TDMA), allowing multiple users to share the same frequency channel. One
of GSM's distinguishing features is the use of SIM (subscriber identity module) cards, which
contain information about the user's identity and subscription to a specific mobile network.
This allows users to switch between devices and networks without changing their phone
number or account information. GSM networks also added new features like call waiting,
call forwarding, and conference calling, as well as text messaging, or SMS (short message
service). While newer mobile communication technologies such as 3G, 4G, and 5G have
largely replaced 2G networks in many parts of the world, GSM technology is still widely used
and an important part of the mobile communication landscape in many regions.
• GPRS - GPRS is a best-effort packet-switching protocol for wireless and cellular network
communication services. Because all packets are given the same priority and packet delivery
is not guaranteed, it is considered best effort. GPRS was standardised by the 3rd Generation
Partnership Project (3GPP) in early 1998, but commercial cellular networks did not widely
adopt the technology until 2000. It was the first successful technology to be used in 2G mobile
phone systems. GPRS also enables network operators to implement an Internet Protocol (IP)-
based core architecture for integrated voice and data applications, which will be used and
expanded for 3G services in the future. GPRS has replaced wired connections because it has
simplified access to packet data networks such as the internet. GPRS uses the packet radio
principle to transport user data packets in a structured manner between GSM mobile stations
and external packet data networks. These packets can be routed directly to packet switched
networks from GPRS mobile stations. GPRS Advantages:
 Mobility: Mobility is the ability to maintain consistent voice and information exchanges
while moving.
 Cost Effective: Communication via GPRS is less expensive than communication via the
regular GSM network.
 Immediacy: Allows customers to connect when they need to, regardless of location or
length of login session.
 Localization: Allows customers to obtain data relevant to their current location.
 Simple Billing: GPRS packet transmission provides simpler billing than circuit switched
administrations.
• EDGE – This is a 2G mobile network technology that offers faster data transfer rates than
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications). It is a digital cellular network technology
that uses packet-switched data transmission to provide faster data speeds for tasks such as
internet browsing, email sending and receiving, and file downloading. This networks are now
considered obsolete and have been largely replaced by faster 3G and 4G networks; however,
they may still be used in areas where newer network technologies are unavailable or as a
backup when newer networks are temporarily unavailable. Aside from this specific technology,
"edge" in the context of mobile devices can also refer to the device's physical edge, such as
the edge-to-edge display design of some modern smartphones or the curved edge displays of
some Samsung devices.
• CDMA - CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) is a wireless communication technology that
is used in mobile networks to provide voice and data services to mobile devices. Unlike GSM
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and LTE, which use time division multiplexing (TDM) or frequency division multiplexing
(FDM) to transmit signals, CDMA uses a spread spectrum technique to allow multiple users
to share the same frequency band at the same time. Each user in CDMA is given a unique code
that is used to modulate the signal. The codes are designed to be orthogonal to each other,
which means they do not interfere with each other. Multiple users can transmit and receive
signals on the same frequency band without interfering with one another. Several advantages
distinguish CDMA from other mobile network technologies. It improves call quality and
capacity for users, as well as providing enhanced security features. CDMA, on the other
hand, is less widely used than GSM and LTE, particularly outside of North America, and it
is not compatible with GSM or LTE networks, which means CDMA devices cannot be used
on those networks and vice versa. CDMA was once widely used in North America, but most
mobile network operators now use LTE as their primary network technology. Some legacy
CDMA networks may still be in use in some areas, but as LTE and other newer technologies
become more widely available, these networks are likely to be phased out.
Third generation - Third Generation (3G) mobile communication technology offers faster data
transfer rates than previous 2G mobile networks. It was created in the late 1990s and early 2000s to
provide faster data speeds for tasks like mobile internet browsing, video calling, and audio and video
streaming.
In 2001, the first 3G network was introduced. Beginning with the turn of the millennium,
mobile telephony's third generation (3G) provided a significant improvement over earlier generations.
To provide voice and data services to mobile devices, 3G networks combine circuit-switched
and packet-switched data transmission. They offer data transfer rates of several megabits per second
(Mbps), which is significantly faster than the data transfer rates available on 2G networks. 3G
networks also support features like video calling and mobile TV that were previously unavailable
on mobile networks. WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access), which is used by many
mobile network operators worldwide, is the most widely used 3G technology. Other third-generation
technologies include CDMA2000, TD-SCDMA, and HSPA (High-Speed Packet Access). While 3G
networks improved data transfer rates significantly over earlier 2G networks, they have now been
largely replaced by 4G and 5G networks, which provide even faster data transfer rates and support
more advanced features such as virtual and augmented reality. However, 3G networks may continue
to be used in some areas, particularly those where newer network technologies are not yet available.
WCDMA - While 3G networks improved data transfer rates significantly over earlier 2G
networks, they have now been largely replaced by 4G and 5G networks, which provide even faster data
transfer rates and support more advanced features such as virtual and augmented reality. However, 3G
networks may continue to be used in some areas, particularly those where newer network technologies
are not yet available. WCDMA is an abbreviation for Wideband Code Division Multiple Access, a 3G
mobile communication technology that employs CDMA to provide high-speed data transfer rates and
voice services to mobile devices. WCDMA is a wideband spread spectrum technology that enables
multiple users to share the same frequency band at the same time. Each WCDMA user is assigned
a unique code. Each user in WCDMA is assigned a unique code that is used to modulate the signal.
The codes are designed so that they do not interfere with one another, allowing multiple users to send
and receive signals on the same frequency band without interfering. WCDMA data transfer rates can
reach several megabits per second (Mbps), which is much faster than the data transfer rates available
on previous 2G mobile networks. It also improves call quality and increases user capacity. WCDMA
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is the most widely used 3G mobile network technology throughout the world. WCDMA has largely
been supplanted by 4G and 5G mobile network technologies, which offer even faster data transfer
rates and support more advanced features like virtual and augmented reality. WCDMA may, however,
continue to be used in some areas where newer network technologies are not yet available. These are
a few of this generation's characteristics:
• 144 kbps to 2 Mbps data rates.
• Rapid web browsing.
• Running web-based programmes such as multimedia e-mails, video conferencing, etc.
• Transferring music and video files is quick and simple.
• 3-D gaming.
The following are some drawbacks of 3G technology:
• Costly mobile devices.
• High infrastructure expenditures, such as for cell towers and licences.
• Setting up infrastructure requires qualified workers.
The 3.5G intermediate generation cleared the groundwork for the next generation of mobile
communication by combining disparate mobile telephony and data technologies.
Fourth Generation - Fourth Generation (4G) is a mobile communication technology that is faster
than 3G networks in terms of data transfer rates. It was created in the late 2000s and early 2010s to
provide faster data speeds for tasks like mobile internet browsing, video calling, and audio and video
streaming. 4G networks employ packet-switched data transmission to achieve data transfer rates of
several tens of megabits per second (Mbps) or higher. In 2009, the first 4G network went live. Its main
features are -
• Speeds between 100 Mbps and 1 Gbps.
• Mobile internet access.
• High definition mobile TV.
• Cloud computing.
• IP telephony.
They also improve call quality and capacity for users, as well as support for features like mobile
TV, video conferencing, and mobile gaming. LTE (Long-Term Evolution) is the most widely used 4G
technology, and it is used by many mobile network operators around the world. WiMAX (Worldwide
Interoperability for Microwave Access) and HSPA+ are two other 4G technologies (Evolved High-
Speed Packet Access). In many parts of the world, 4G networks have largely replaced 3G networks
as the primary mobile network technology. However, 3G networks may continue to be used in some
areas, particularly those where newer network technologies are not yet available. In addition to 4G,
fifth-generation (5G) mobile networks have been developed, which support more advanced features
such as low latency and massive machine-type communications. Many regions around the world are
currently deploying 5G networks.
Fifth Generation - Fifth Generation (5G) is the most recent generation of mobile communication
technology, with data transfer rates that are faster than 4G networks. 5G networks, which were

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developed in the late 2010s and early 2020s, are now being deployed in many parts of the world. 5G
networks use advanced technologies like millimetre-wave frequencies, massive MIMO (Multiple
Input Multiple Output), and network slicing to provide faster data transfer rates, lower latency,
and support for more advanced features like augmented reality and self-driving cars. 5G networks
are designed to provide data transfer rates of up to several Gbps, which is significantly faster than
previous mobile network technologies. The most common 5G technology is based on the 3GPP
(Third Generation Partnership Project) standard, which is used by many mobile network operators
worldwide. The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) 802.11ay standard and the
Wi-Fi 6E standard are two other 5G technologies. 5G networks are expected to enable a slew of new
applications and services, such as smart cities, remote surgery, and self-driving cars. However, 5G
network coverage is still being expanded in many areas, and not all devices support 5G. 5G networks
are expected to gradually replace 4G and previous mobile network technologies as the primary mobile
network technology in many regions around the world.

Mobile communication services

Mobile communication services are the various services that mobile network operators offer
to their customers. Users can use these services to communicate with one another via mobile devices
such as smartphones, tablets, and other mobile devices.
• SMS - SMS is an abbreviation for Short Message Service, which is a text messaging service
available on mobile devices. SMS allows users to send short text messages, typically limited to
160 characters, between mobile devices. SMS was introduced in the early 1990s and quickly
became a popular way for people to communicate via mobile devices. SMS is now widely
used for both personal and business communication, such as marketing and customer service.
Users simply compose a short text message and send it to the recipient's mobile phone number
to send an SMS message. SMS messages are typically delivered in a matter of seconds and
can be received even when the recipient's mobile device is not in use. SMS can be used to send
multimedia messages (MMS), which can include images, videos, and audio files, in addition to
standard text messages. MMS messages, on the other hand, are typically more expensive than
SMS messages and may not be supported by all mobile devices and mobile network operators.
Despite the increasing availability of other messaging services such as instant messaging and
social media messaging, SMS remains a popular and widely used communication method.
• MMS - MMS is an abbreviation for Multimedia Messaging Service, a messaging service
that allows users to send multimedia content such as photos, videos, and audio files between
mobile devices. MMS messages, like SMS messages, are sent and received via mobile
networks, but they also allow for the inclusion of multimedia content. MMS messages can
be sent between any two MMS-compatible mobile devices. To send an MMS message, users
must first compose a message using a messaging app or the phone's messaging function,
and then attach the multimedia content they wish to send. Using the mobile network, the
MMS message is then delivered to the recipient's mobile device. One advantage of MMS over
SMS is the ability to include multimedia content, which can make messages more engaging
and interactive. MMS messages, on the other hand, are typically more expensive than SMS
messages, and their availability varies depending on the mobile network operator and the
region. MMS remains a popular messaging service, despite being largely supplanted by other

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messaging services such as instant messaging and social media messaging, which provide
richer multimedia capabilities and more advanced features.
• GPS - GPS is an abbreviation for Global Positioning System, which is a network of satellites
orbiting the Earth that transmit location and time information to GPS receivers on the
ground. GPS technology is widely used in navigation and location-based services, as well
as mobile devices like smartphones and tablets. By receiving signals from GPS satellites,
GPS technology allows users to determine their exact location, speed, and direction of
travel. GPS receivers triangulate the user's location using signals from multiple satellites
and can provide accurate location information within a few metres. GPS technology is used
in a variety of other applications, including surveying, mapping, and scientific research, in
addition to navigation and location-based services. GPS technology is also being used in a
variety of consumer products, including fitness trackers and smartwatches. GPS technology
has become an essential part of modern life, providing users all over the world with accurate
and dependable location information.
• Smart Cards- A smart card is a physical electronic authorization device that regulates data
access and manipulation. It's basically plastic with an integrated circuit embedded in it. A
memory chip or a microprocessor is built into the smart card to store data and connect to the
system.

Mobile Operating System

The software that runs on mobile devices such as smartphones, tablets, and smartwatches is
known as a mobile OS. It manages hardware resources, serves as a user interface, and communicates
with other devices and networks. Among the most popular mobile operating systems are:
• Android: Developed by Google, Android is the world's most popular mobile operating system.
It is an open-source platform, which means that developers can change the code and create
their own versions of the operating system.
• iOS: is the second most popular mobile operating system, developed by Apple. It is only
available on Apple products like iPhones and iPads.
• Windows Phone: A mobile operating system developed by Microsoft that is no longer in
active development.
• BlackBerry OS: This operating system was created by BlackBerry and is primarily used on
BlackBerry smartphones.
• Tizen: Tizen is an open-source operating system developed by the Linux Foundation that is
used on Samsung smart watches and other devices.
• KaiOS: KaiOS is a mobile operating system developed by KaiOS Technologies that is
optimised for feature phones with limited hardware capabilities.
Each of these mobile operating systems has its own distinct set of features and characteristics, and
developers and users may have different preferences and requirements when it comes to selecting a
platform.
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Latest Technologies
The term "latest technologies" refers to newly developed or emerging technologies that
are currently advancing or becoming widely available in a variety of fields including information
technology, healthcare, transportation, manufacturing, and energy. These technologies have the
potential to significantly improve efficiency, performance, and capabilities, as well as open up new
avenues for innovation and growth.
Data Analysis
The process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modelling data with the goal of
discovering useful information, making decisions, and drawing conclusions from it is known as data
analysis. It incorporates a variety of techniques and methods, such as statistical analysis, data mining,
machine learning, and visualisation. The following steps are typically included in the data analysis
process:
• Data Collection: The first step in data analysis is gathering information from various sources
such as surveys, sensors, and databases.
• Data Cleaning: Collected data is frequently jumbled, inconsistent, and incomplete. Data
cleaning is the process of removing errors, inconsistencies, and duplicates from data.
• Data Transformation: The data is transformed into an analysis-ready format by converting
data types, scaling variables, and creating new variables.
• Data Analysis: In this step, various statistical and machine learning techniques are applied to
the data to discover patterns, relationships, and insights.
• Data visualisation is the process of creating graphs, charts, and other visual representations to
communicate the results of data analysis in a clear and concise manner.
• Interpretation and Reporting: The final step in data analysis is to interpret the findings and
report them to stakeholders in a meaningful and actionable manner.
Data analysis is used to make informed decisions, solve problems, and improve performance in a
variety of fields including business, healthcare, social sciences, and engineering.

Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is a model for delivering computing services over the internet, such as
servers, storage, databases, networking, software, and analytics. It enables users to have on-demand
access to and use computing resources without having to invest in and manage their own infrastructure.
Cloud service providers such as Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud
Platform typically provide cloud computing. These service providers provide a variety of cloud
computing services, including:
• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): IaaS provides users with virtualized computing resources,
such as virtual machines, storage, and networks, which they can rent and use to run their own
applications and services.
• PaaS (Platform as a Service): PaaS is a platform that allows developers to build, test, and
deploy applications without having to manage the underlying infrastructure.

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• Software as a Service (SaaS): SaaS hosts and delivers software applications over the internet,
allowing users to access and use them via a web browser or mobile app.
The following are some of the advantages of cloud computing:
• Scalability: Because cloud computing services can be scaled up or down based on demand,
users can easily adjust their computing resources as needed.
• Cost Savings: Because cloud computing eliminates the need for users to invest in and manage
their own infrastructure, significant cost savings can be realised.
• Accessibility: Cloud computing services are accessible from any location with an internet
connection, making it easier for users to collaborate and work remotely.
• Reliability: Typically, cloud service providers provide high levels of uptime and reliability, as
well as backup and disaster recovery services.
But, there are some potential drawbacks to cloud computing, such as security and privacy concerns,
vendor lock-in, and reliance on internet connectivity. As a result, before adopting cloud computing,
users should carefully consider the risks and benefits.

Internet of Things & Edge Computing

The Internet of Things (IoT) and Edge Computing are two interconnected technologies that are
changing how devices, data, and applications are connected and processed. The Internet of Things is a
network of physical devices, vehicles, home appliances, and other items that have sensors, software,
and connectivity to exchange data and interact with one another over the internet. The goal of IoT
is to make everyday objects smarter and more connected, thereby opening up new possibilities for
automation, efficiency, and innovation in a variety of industries. Edge Computing, on the other hand,
refers to the practise of processing data and running applications close to the devices and sensors that
generate the data. This approach enables faster and more efficient data processing while also reducing
the amount of data that must be sent to the cloud or central server for processing.
IoT and Edge Computing work together to enable real-time data processing and analysis,
allowing for faster decision-making and automation in industries such as manufacturing, healthcare,
transportation, and smart cities. Some of the advantages of IoT and Edge Computing are as follows:
• Increased efficiency and productivity: IoT and Edge Computing enable real-time data
monitoring and analysis, allowing for faster decision-making and operation optimization.
• Cost savings: Edge Computing can reduce data transmission costs and improve network
efficiency by reducing the amount of data that needs to be transmitted to the cloud or central
server.
• Improved reliability: IoT and Edge Computing can improve system reliability and reduce
latency by processing data at the network's edge, ensuring that applications and services are
always available.
However, there are some drawbacks to IoT and Edge Computing, such as security and privacy
concerns, interoperability issues, and the requirement for specialised skills and expertise. As a result,
when implementing IoT and Edge Computing solutions, organisations must carefully consider these
factors.
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Block Chain
Blockchain is a distributed ledger technology that enables secure and transparent transaction
record-keeping without the need for a central authority or intermediary. It is best known as the
underlying technology behind cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin, but it has many other applications as
well. Blockchain works by creating a digital ledger of transactions that is maintained across a network
of computers. A network of participants (known as nodes) verifies and adds each transaction to the
ledger, and once added to the ledger, it cannot be modified or deleted. Because all participants have
access to the same information and can verify the authenticity of transactions, this creates a high level
of security and transparency. Some of the key characteristics of Blockchain include:
• Decentralization: Blockchain is a decentralised technology, which means that it is controlled
by no central authority or intermediary. Instead, a network of participants verifies and adds
transactions to the ledger.
• Transparency: Because all participants have access to the same information and can verify the
authenticity of transactions, Blockchain provides a high level of transparency.
• Immutability: Once added to the Blockchain, a transaction cannot be changed or deleted. This
increases security and prevents fraud and other types of tampering.
• Security: Cryptographic algorithms are used in blockchain to ensure that transactions are
secure and cannot be altered or duplicated.
Blockchain technology has numerous potential applications, including:
• Cryptocurrencies: Blockchain is best known for its application in cryptocurrencies such
as Bitcoin, which use blockchain to create a secure and decentralised system for digital
transactions.
• Supply Chain Management: Blockchain can be used to create a transparent and secure supply
chain management system, allowing for greater supply chain transparency and efficiency.
• Healthcare: Blockchain technology can be used to build a secure and transparent system for
storing and sharing healthcare data, resulting in better patient outcomes and more efficient
healthcare delivery.
• Identity Management: Blockchain technology can be used to build a secure and decentralised
system for managing digital identities, giving users greater privacy and security.
However, there are some drawbacks to Blockchain, such as scalability, interoperability, and the
requirement for specialised skills and expertise. As a result, when implementing Blockchain solutions,
organisations must carefully consider these factors.

Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning;

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) are two interconnected technologies
that are reshaping our lives and workplaces.
AI refers to machines' ability to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence, such
as visual perception, speech recognition, decision-making, and natural language processing. AI is
further classified as narrow or weak AI, which is designed to perform a specific task, and general

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or strong AI, which can perform any intellectual task that a human can. ML, on the other hand, is a
subset of AI in which algorithms are trained to recognise patterns in data and make predictions or
decisions based on that data. This entails feeding massive amounts of data into an algorithm and
letting it learn and improve over time. Among the many advantages of AI and ML are:
• Automation: AI and machine learning (ML) can automate a wide range of tasks, from mundane
and repetitive to complex and decision-driven, freeing up human resources for more strategic
work.
• Efficiency: AI and machine learning (ML) can process large amounts of data quickly and
accurately, allowing for faster and more efficient decision-making and analysis.
• Personalization: AI and machine learning can be used to provide users with personalised
experiences and recommendations based on their preferences and behaviour.
• Predictive Analytics: AI and machine learning may be applied to make predictions and identify
trends, allowing businesses to anticipate future outcomes and take proactive action.
AI and machine learning have numerous applications, including:
• Healthcare: AI and ML can be used to improve patient outcomes by analysing patient data to
identify trends and predict disease progression.
• Finance: Artificial intelligence and machine learning can be used to detect fraud, analyse
market trends, and make investment decisions.
• Manufacturing: AI and ML can be used to optimise production processes, reduce waste, and
improve quality control.
• Marketing: AI and ML can be used to personalise marketing campaigns, analyse customer
behaviour, and optimise pricing and promotions.
There are also issues with AI and ML, such as ethical concerns, data privacy concerns, and the need
for specialised skills and expertise. As a result, it is critical for organisations to carefully consider
these factors when implementing AI and ML.

Augmented Reality& Virtual Reality

AR and VR are two related technologies that allow users to interact with digital environments
in novel and immersive ways. AR is the application of digital content to the real world, typically
through the use of a mobile device or smart glasses. This enables users to see and interact with digital
objects in real-world settings, introducing a new layer of information and interaction. In contrast,
virtual reality (VR) refers to the creation of a completely virtual environment with which users can
interact using a headset or other specialised equipment. Users can then immerse themselves in a
virtual world and interact with it as if it were real. Among the many advantages of AR and VR are:
• Immersive Experience: AR and VR provide users with a highly immersive and engaging
experience, allowing them to interact with digital content in novel and exciting ways.
• Training and Education: AR and VR can be used to create realistic training and educational
experiences that allow users to practise and learn in a safe and controlled environment.
• Entertainment: AR and VR have the potential to create new forms of entertainment, such as
immersive gaming experiences and virtual concerts.

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• Product Visualization: AR and VR can be used to allow customers to visualise and interact
with products in novel ways, boosting sales and improving customer satisfaction.
AR and VR have numerous applications, including:
• Healthcare: AR and VR can be used in healthcare to create new forms of therapy and
rehabilitation, as well as to allow medical professionals to visualise and manipulate patient
data in novel ways.
• Architecture and construction: Using AR and VR, architects and builders can create realistic
visualisations of buildings and construction sites, allowing them to better plan and execute
projects.
• Retail: AR and VR can be used to create interactive product experiences in retail settings,
boosting sales and increasing customer engagement.
• Education: Augmented reality and virtual reality can be used to create immersive and engaging
educational experiences, allowing students to learn in novel and exciting ways.
However, there are some drawbacks to AR and VR, such as the need for specialised equipment
and the risk of motion sickness and other health issues. As a result, when implementing AR and VR
solutions, organisations must carefully consider these factors.

Robotic Process Automation (RPA)

RPA is a technology that uses software robots, or "bots," to automate repetitive and rule-
based tasks like data entry, form filling, and report generation. RPA bots can mimic human actions
by interacting with various applications and systems to perform tasks in an accurate, efficient, and
reliable manner. RPA technology can also be combined with other cutting-edge technologies such as
machine learning and artificial intelligence to achieve even greater automation and efficiency gains.
Among the many advantages of RPA are:
• RPA can automate repetitive and time-consuming tasks, allowing humans to focus on more
strategic and value-added tasks.
• RPA bots can perform tasks with high accuracy and consistency, which reduces errors and
improves overall quality.
• Scalability: RPA can be quickly and easily scaled up or down, allowing organisations to adjust
their automation efforts to meet changing business needs.
• Cost savings: By automating tasks that would otherwise require manual labour, RPA can help
organisations save money while increasing efficiency and productivity.
RPA has numerous applications in various industries, including:
• Finance and Accounting: RPA can be used in finance and accounting to automate tasks such
as invoice processing, account reconciliations, and financial reporting.
• Human Resources: RPA may be applied in human resources to automate tasks like employee
onboarding, payroll processing, and benefits administration.
• Customer Service: RPA can be used in customer service to automate tasks such as responding
to customer inquiries, processing orders, and handling returns.
• Healthcare: RPA can be used in healthcare to automate tasks like patient data entry, claims
processing, and appointment scheduling.
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However, there are some drawbacks to RPA, such as the requirement for specialised skills and
expertise to implement and manage RPA solutions, as well as the need to ensure that RPA bots adhere
to data privacy and security regulations. As a result, when implementing RPA solutions, organisations
must carefully consider these factors.

5G Spectrum
The radio frequencies used to transmit 5G wireless signals between devices and base stations
are referred to as the 5G spectrum. The 5G spectrum is divided into various frequency bands, each
of which has unique characteristics and is suitable for a variety of applications. 5G has three primary
frequency bands:
• Low-band: This band operates at frequencies less than one gigahertz (GHz) and is ideal for
providing broad coverage and indoor penetration. It is appropriate for mobile broadband and
IoT applications.
• Mid-band: This band operates at frequencies ranging from 1 GHz to 6 GHz and is ideal for
providing a good balance of coverage and capacity. It is appropriate for applications such as
video streaming and online gaming.
• High-band: This band operates at frequencies greater than 24 GHz and is ideal for providing
extremely high capacity and low latency. It is appropriate for applications such as virtual and
augmented reality, as well as self-driving cars.
Governments and international bodies, such as the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU) and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), regulate the allocation of 5G spectrum.
Governments distribute spectrum to mobile network operators via auctions or other methods, and
operators use the spectrum to build 5G networks. Because it affects the performance and capabilities
of 5G networks, the availability of 5G spectrum is an important factor in the rollout and adoption of 5G
technology. Spectrum allocation is also a complicated and contentious issue, as different stakeholders
have different interests and priorities. As a result, regulators must carefully consider 5G spectrum
allocation and use to ensure that it is used in the most effective and efficient manner possible.

References
1. Computer Fundamentals, Preeti Sinha & Pradeep K Sinha, BPB Publications
2. https://www.computer-pdf.com/network/
3. https://www.sctevtservices.nic.in/docs/website/pdf/140339.pdf
4. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/mobile-technologies-definition-types-uses-advantages/?ref=gcse
5. https://www.javatpoint.com/fundamentals-of-computer-networking
6. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/file-transfer-protocol-ftp/?ref=ml_lbp
7. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/internet_technologies/internet_services.htm
8. https://intellipaat.com/blog/cloud-computing-tutorial/
9. https://www.javatpoint.com/rpa
10. https://www.simplilearn.com/learn-rpa-basics-skillup
11. https://telecomtalk.info/basics-spectrum-know-understand-spectrum-auction-india/537214/
12. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/basics-augmented-reality/

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Module II
Introduction to Internet
Concept of Internet
The internet is a vast network of connected computers and other gadgets that uses a set protocol
to communicate with one another. Users can communicate with others, do business, and access and
exchange information online. Several facets of contemporary life, including communication, education,
entertainment, and commerce, have been changed by the internet. It has turned into a necessary tool
for many individuals in their everyday lives because it allows them to communicate with people
from all over the world regardless of time or distance. The emergence of new technologies like social
media, e-commerce, and cloud computing, which have revolutionized how people communicate with
one another and conduct business, has also been assisted by the internet.

Basics of internet connectivity

The capacity of a computer or device to connect to the internet is referred to as an internet
connection. There are numerous ways to access the internet that you have already studied in previous
module. When using the internet, you should take precautions to protect your privacy and personal
information because internet connectivity is not always secure.
Applications of Internet
The internet has transformed many facets of contemporary life and has emerged as a crucial
instrument for commerce, entertainment, and communication. Following are some of the most widely
used online applications:
• Communication: Regardless of where they are, people can connect with one another in real-
time online. This covers social networking, email, instant messaging, and video conferencing.
• Information exchange or sharing: Everyone with an internet connection can access the internet,
which is a massive repository of knowledge. This includes databases, webpages, and online
encyclopaedias.
• Online shopping: Internet shopping has completely changed how we buy because it now
allows us to order products and services from anywhere in the world and have them delivered
right to our front door.
• Entertainment: With streaming services like Netflix, Hulu, and YouTube offering access to
movies, TV series, and music, the internet has emerged as a major source of entertainment.
• Education: The internet has completely changed education by enabling anyone, wherever in
the world, to learn new skills and knowledge.
• Banking and finance: Online investment platforms and banking services have made it simpler
for people to manage their finances thanks to the internet.

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• 24/7 Healthcare: Telemedicine services, which let patients consult with doctors remotely, are
making more use of the internet in the industry.
• These are only a handful of the numerous uses for the internet, which is continually developing
and altering how we work and live.

Tools and Troubleshooting

You might run into a few typical problems when utilising the internet that need troubleshooting, like:
• Slow internet speeds: There are numerous potential causes for this, including a bad connection
or an excessive number of devices sharing the same network. Reduce the number of devices
connected to the network and restart your router to start troubleshooting.
• Problems with connectivity: Try resetting your router, verifying your connection settings, and
contacting your internet service provider if you are unable to connect to the internet.
• Security concerns: Use strong passwords, stay away from dubious sites and downloads, and
use antivirus software to safeguard your private data and gadgets.
• Website errors: If you experience issues while viewing websites, try clearing your browser's
cache, turning off any installed browser extensions, or contacting the website's support team.
• Internet tools are essential for connecting to the internet and accessing various online services.
These tools can be categorized into different groups based on their functionality, including web
browsers, email clients, file transfer protocol (FTP) clients, instant messaging (IM) software,
virtual private network (VPN) clients, and remote desktop software. Troubleshooting these
tools can be a challenge, but there are a few common steps you can take to solve most problems:
• Verify your internet connection: Ensure that your device is properly connected to the internet
and that your router/modem is functioning correctly. Restarting your router/modem and
inspecting the cables can often resolve any connectivity issues.
• Clear your browser cache: If you are experiencing issues with your web browser, clearing
your browser cache can often resolve the problem. This will delete any stored data that may
be causing the issue.
• Disable browser extensions: Some browser extensions can cause conflicts and impede your
browser's performance. Try disabling any extensions you are not using to see if this improves
your experience.
• Check for software updates: Make sure your software is up-to-date, as newer versions often
contain bug fixes and performance enhancements.
• Run a virus scan: If you are experiencing issues with your computer or device, it is possible
that malware or viruses are causing the problem. Running a virus scan can help identify and
remove any potential threats.
• Restart your device: Sometimes simply restarting your computer or device can resolve any
issues.
• Contact customer support: If you have tried all of the above steps and are still experiencing
issues, reach out to the customer support team for the software or service you are using. They
may be able to help you resolve the issue or provide further guidance.
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Intranet and Extranet

An intranet is a private network that is part of an organization and is used to securely distribute
data and computing resources among staff members. Working in groups and holding teleconferences
are two other uses for intranets. Intranets promote internal communication in businesses. They make
it simple for employees to access crucial data, links, tools, forms, and databases of corporate records.
To maintain intranet security, a database with all the usernames of workers with network access
credentials is frequently employed.
Intranets usage
Depending on their demands, businesses use intranets in a variety of ways. They consist of the
following:
• Central archive: Intranets become the primary location for storing crucial information and
corporate data.
• Collaboration: These internal networks give staff a method to share information and facilitate
teamwork.
• Personalization: Based on their position within the organisation, employees are given
customised content via intranets.
• Communication: They improve internal corporate communications by making personnel
directories, company news, and organisational charts easily accessible.
• Access to information is simple: Access to information regarding corporate benefits, policies,
and changes is made simple via intranets.
• Social factors: Employees can create an account on social media sites, upload content and
status updates, and peruse newsfeeds.
• Project administration: Users are helped in project management by resources such as to-do
lists, employee directories, progress updates, and others.
• Automation: Intranets help to automate repetitive procedures, which streamlines daily
operations.

Working of intranets
A secure and reliable intranet requires a web server that manages requests for data hosted on
the server, delivering the requested files to the appropriate user. To ensure the creation, publication,
and management of intranet content, a content management system should also be set up. An intranet
may consist of many interlinked local area networks (LANs) and leased lines connecting to wide
area network resources, using TCP/IP, HTTP, and other internet protocols. Additionally, a gateway
computer is necessary to access the outside internet and external resources.
To access their company intranet, employees must have a special network password and be
connected to the company LAN. Remote employees can access the intranet through a virtual private
network (VPN) or another secure connection, allowing them to access the same information and
functions as if they were connected to the LAN. Firewall software is essential to the security of an
organization's intranet, acting as a barrier between the outside internet and the private intranet. It tracks

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all incoming and outgoing data packets to confirm they do not contain unauthorized or suspicious
requests, as well as ensure malware and other malicious attacks do not penetrate the intranet.
When a segment of an intranet is made accessible to customers, partners, suppliers, or others
outside the company, that segment becomes part of an extranet. A firewall is especially important to
secure intranet networks that include extranet extensions. The intranet generally looks like a private
version of the internet, with tunnelling allowing companies to send private messages through the public
network using special encryption and decryption, as well as other security safeguards, to connect one
part of their intranet to another. Hosted software applications are also available to facilitate the use of
an intranet.
Advantages of an intranet
The following are some potential advantages of using an intranet:
• Increased internal collaboration, information sharing, and communication;
• Easier recordkeeping; more efficient request tracking;
• Place for new concepts to be tested before being implemented on a company website;
• Enhanced company culture that puts employees first and promotes engagement; positive
return on investment due to reduced implementation and running costs.
Disadvantages of an intranet
The following issues can arise when implementing an intranet:
• Poor user involvement rates can lead to a lack of the communications, documents, and material
that the intranet needs to function properly.
• The high cost of labour results in poor intranet user assistance.
• As a result, when faults in software or other difficulties occur, they are not immediately fixed.
• To make sure the network is functioning effectively and that the material is current and
pertinent, management is required, including routine inspections and maintenance checks.
• Network management and responsibility are made more difficult by improper ownership or
ownership that is divided among parties.
• Problems arise from a lack of mobile devices and remote assistance, which restricts distant
workers' access to intranet information.

Extranet
An extranet is a powerful tool that businesses can use to securely provide trusted third
parties, such as suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, and other businesses, with access to their
internal information and operations. This external-facing website or platform is an extension of the
organization's intranet, allowing authorized users to access the data stored within. Extranets can be used
for a variety of purposes, such as exchanging large volumes of data using electronic data interchange,
sharing product catalogues exclusively with wholesalers, collaborating on joint development projects,
developing and using training programs with other companies, providing services to a group of other
companies, and sharing news of common interest exclusively with partner companies.

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Difference between an intranet and extranet

An intranet is a company's private network that hosts an internal website with various
resources, such as a knowledge base, communications channel, and/or collaboration platform, for
employees and other select internal users, such as contractors. Intranets can help to improve efficiency
and productivity by combining the features of blogs, document and content management systems,
databases, and wikis. Depending on the platform, they may also provide interactive features, such as
commenting, chat, polls, and more, to facilitate greater employee engagement.
The primary difference between an intranet and extranet is that the intranet is a private domain.
It can play a role in shaping company culture and internal communications, while also serving as a
centralized repository for static resources, such as forms, policies, and other employee tools. On the
other hand, an extranet has a wider audience and a narrower objective, serving primarily as a platform
to communicate information with important internal and external stakeholders who require access to
internal information. Additionally, business intelligence applications can enable the placement of data
visualization tools on the extranet to make essential data easily accessible to external stakeholders.
Both intranets and extranets require security and privacy. Intranets can be accessed by users
directly on the enterprise network, while extranets, due to their intended use for third parties, typically
require a virtual private network connection or can be accessed via the internet with additional
authentication measures.
Advantages and disadvantages of using an extranet
Extranets have several benefits for companies, employees, as well as outside partners.
• Improved communication and engagement: Extranets offer a forum for conveying significant
news that is relevant to all stakeholders, making announcements, or communicating essential
updates. More participation and engagement from staff members and outside partners may
result from this strategy.
• Increased effectiveness: Start-ups and enterprises of all sizes frequently collaborate with
numerous partners and outside providers to develop products and finish projects. These
workflows can be managed with an extranet.
• Improved communication and knowledge exchange: Companies primarily relied on extranets
and intranets to improve communication before the introduction of well-known team
collaboration software like Asana, Trello, and Jira. This method provided a secure environment
to work with private project or company data while ensuring seamless document sharing and
real-time changes.
Extranets also come with some drawbacks:
• Capital Outlay: An extranet's setup and upkeep can be time and resource-consuming. The cost
of on-site hardware, software, and the expenditures related to hiring information technology
professionals to develop and manage it are all included in the pricing. An extranet may not be
the ideal choice for businesses that lack the funding necessary to put it up and maintain it as
a result. Extranets that are managed or hosted in the cloud, like Microsoft SharePoint, might
lessen some of these up-front costs.
• Data Protection or security: It's necessary to take precautions when using an extranet.
Unauthorized users may gain access to sensitive data if security precautions are inadequate.

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Losing competitive advantage and proprietary or sensitive information could result from this.
Extranets are therefore best maintained by inside experts who can reduce the danger of data
leakage.

Internet Services
Internet services are the various applications and services that are available through the
internet, which has become an essential part of modern life. These services have made life easier and
more convenient for many people. Some examples of internet services include:
• Email: Email is a service that allows people to send and receive electronic messages over the
internet. It is one of the most widely used internet services and is used by millions of people
every day.
• Search Engines: Search engines are internet services that allow people to search for information
on the internet. Popular search engines include Google, Bing, and Yahoo.
• Social Media: Social media platforms are internet services that allow people to connect with
each other and share information, ideas, and interests. Popular social media platforms include
Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.
• Online Shopping: Online shopping is an internet service that allows people to purchase goods
and services over the internet. Popular online shopping platforms include Amazon, eBay, and
Walmart.
• Video Streaming: Video streaming is an internet service that allows people to watch video
content over the internet. Popular video streaming platforms include Netflix, Hulu, and
YouTube.
• Online Gaming: Online gaming is an internet service that allows people to play games with
each other over the internet. Popular online gaming platforms include Steam, Xbox Live, and
PlayStation Network.
• Cloud Storage: Cloud storage is an internet service that allows people to store and access their
data over the internet. Popular cloud storage platforms include Google Drive, Dropbox, and
Microsoft OneDrive.
Internet services have revolutionized the way we live, making life easier and more convenient
for many people. From sending emails to streaming videos, shopping online, playing games, and
storing data in the cloud, the internet has opened up a world of possibilities.
Communication Services
Communication services allow people to connect with one another via a variety of channels.
There are now many various kinds of communication services available because to the development
of modern communication technologies. Communication services typically come in the following
forms:
• Voice communication services: Services that enable voice contact between persons are known
as voice communication services. Traditional landlines, cell phones, and voice over internet
protocol (VoIP) services like Skype are a few examples.

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• Messaging services: Services that allow users to send messages to one another are known
as messaging services. Email, instant messaging services like WhatsApp and Facebook
Messenger, and SMS messaging are some examples.
• Video communication services: Services that enable video communication are those that let
users connect with one another. Examples include video calling services like FaceTime and
Skype as well as video conferencing services like Zoom and Google Meet.
• Social media: Social media platforms offer communication services that let users message,
leave comments on, and share posts with one another.
• Collaboration tools: Tools for collaboration are services that let users collaborate on tasks and
have real-time communication. Examples include collaborative document editing tools like
Google Docs and project management software like Asana and Trello.
• Telecommunication services: These are programs that make it possible to communicate across
great distances using a variety of devices, including landlines, cell phones, and internet-based
services.
Communication services have altered the way we interact with one another, allowing us to
collaborate more effectively, remain in contact with friends and family, and conduct business more
effectively. Business operations, social interactions, and personal relationships all depend on effective
communication. As technology has developed, communication services have become more crucial
than ever, giving individuals more ways than ever to interact and converse.

Information Retrieval Services

Services that help individuals find information on a certain topic or subject are known as
information retrieval services. Finding credible and relevant information can be challenging given
the abundance of information available online. Users can quickly and effectively find the information
they need with the use of information retrieval services. Information retrieval services include, for
instance:
• Search engines: The most popular sort of information retrieval service is a search engine, such
as Google, Bing, or Yahoo. To index and search the enormous amount of content available on
the web, they employ sophisticated algorithms. As users submit terms relating to their search,
the search engine delivers a list of websites that are pertinent to their inquiry.
• Digital libraries: Access to a variety of digital materials, such as books, articles, and multimedia
information, is made possible via digital libraries. For users to access pertinent material or
important documents, digital libraries include search options. Project Gutenberg and the
Internet Archive are two examples.
• Content aggregators: News aggregators compile news items from many sources and group
them according to topics. News stories, blog posts, social media posts, and other types of
content are collected and curated by content aggregators. They offer users a central area to
locate pertinent information. Flipboard and Google News are two examples.
• Social media: With hashtags and hot topics, social media networks can offer information
retrieval services.

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• Online forums: Users can post queries on online forums and get responses from a community
of professionals or enthusiasts. Quora and Reddit are two examples.
• Online databases: Internet databases are arranged and searchable informational collections.
Databases can be accessible via particular platforms or using specialized search engines.
Academic databases like JSTOR and medical databases like PubMed are two examples.
• Knowledge management systems: Systems for managing and distributing knowledge among
teams are known as knowledge management systems. They give team members search and
retrieval capabilities so they can quickly find the information they need.
People may now find information on any subject they are interested in more easily thanks to
information retrieval services. These services have also helped businesses and organisations make
educated decisions and stay current with the most recent trends and advancements in their sectors by
supplying rapid and effective access to pertinent information. In the current digital era, where there
is an excess of information available on the web, effective information retrieval services are crucial.
These services assist customers in quickly and effectively finding and accessing the information
they require, empowering them to keep current on the newest trends and advances and make wise
judgements.

Web Services
Web services allow for communication between various software programs and apps and are
services that may be accessed online. These services make it simpler for businesses and organisations
to integrate their systems and automate their operations by enabling various apps to communicate data
and information. To guarantee consistent and dependable communication across applications, web
services often employ a number of standardised protocols and formats, including XML (Extensible
Mark-up Language), SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol), and REST (Representational State
Transfer). These formats and protocols give various software programs a common vocabulary to
communicate with one another. Web services include, for instance:
• Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) - APIs offer a uniform method for various apps
to connect with one another. Data interchange, transactions, and other tasks can be carried out
through APIs.
• Webhooks: Webhooks enable one program to automatically send a message or notification to
another application when a particular event takes place.
• SOAP: A technique called SOAP is used to exchange structured data across various applications
via the internet. XML, is the message format used by SOAP.
• REST: Data is transferred between several apps using HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
in the REST style of software architecture. Web and mobile applications are frequently built
using RESTful web services.
• XML-RPC (XML Remote Procedure Call): A mechanism called XML-RPC is used to transfer
data across online applications. Applications are able to call functions on distant servers thanks
to XML-RPC, which employs XML as its communication format.
One of the main advantages of web services is that they are platform neutral, allowing for
seamless communication between programs written in various programming languages or on various
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operating systems. Organizations can more easily connect several software programs and develop an
uniform infrastructure as a result.
The way various software systems and apps connect with one another has been changed by
web services. They have made it simpler for companies and organisations to automate workflows
and integrate their systems, which can lead to more productivity, lower costs, and better customer
service. A wide range of applications, including e-commerce websites, mobile apps, social networking
platforms, and business software systems, utilise web services. They are an essential part of many
contemporary software architectures, and as more and more programs migrate to the cloud and the
internet replaces other forms of internal software communication, their popularity only continues to
rise.

World Wide Web

The World Wide Web (often known as the Web or WWW) is a collection of connected
hypertext pages that may be accessed online. It was developed in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee and is
currently the most popular way to access and share information on the internet. There are billions of
linked web pages, photos, videos, and other sorts of content on the Web. The three main technologies
upon which the Web is based are URLs (Uniform Resource Locators), which are used to identify and
locate web resources, HTTP, which is used to transfer data between web servers and web browsers,
and HTML (Hypertext Mark-up Language), which is used to create web pages.
Hypertext, which enables web pages to contain links to other web pages, photos, videos,
and other types of material, is one of the main characteristics of the Internet. Users can easily move
between various web sites and find the information they require as a result. The decentralised nature
of the Web is another significant aspect of it. In contrast to traditional media outlets like newspapers
and television, anyone may produce material on the Web and share it with a worldwide audience. Due
to this, access to information has become more democratic and people and groups with little access
to communication tools now have a voice. The Web is a vast network of information, consisting of
millions of web pages that can be accessed using a web browser such as Google Chrome, Firefox, or
Safari. These pages may contain text, images, videos, and other media, and can be linked together to
create a complex web of knowledge.
The way we communicate, acquire information, and conduct business has all changed as a
result of the Web. It provides unparalleled access to knowledge, connecting people from all around
the world and allowing them to share information in a matter of seconds. With the exponential growth
and advances in technology over recent years, the internet has become even more expansive and
useful, providing us with innumerable search engines, websites, e-commerce opportunities, social
media networks, video sharing platforms - you name it! To top it off, most of these services are
available free of charge or at a minimal cost; it really has revolutionized our lives. Additionally, it
has spawned brand-new sectors of the economy and technologies, like search engines, social media,
and e-commerce. Here are some of the key reasons why the WWW is so important:
• Global Access to Information: The WWW has opened up a world of knowledge, allowing
people from all corners of the globe to access information on a wide variety of topics. This
has democratized information access and provided people with the ability to learn about and
research anything they are interested in.

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• Communication and Collaboration: The WWW has enabled people to communicate and
collaborate with others on a global scale. This has revolutionized business practices, education,
and social interaction.
• E-commerce: The WWW has been a major driving force behind the growth of e-commerce,
making it possible for businesses to sell products and services online to customers all over the
world.
• Innovation: The WWW has been a catalyst for innovation, providing a platform for the
development of new technologies, software, and applications.
• Entertainment: The WWW has also become a major source of entertainment, with millions
of people accessing music, videos, games, and other forms of online entertainment every
day. This has provided an unprecedented level of entertainment and convenience for people
around the world.
The Web has revolutionized the way people access and share information, transforming
industries such as publishing, journalism, and entertainment. It has also opened up new opportunities
for e-commerce, social networking, and online communication. Nowadays, billions of people around
the world use the Web on a daily basis for a variety of activities, from research and education to
entertainment and shopping.

Email
Email, sometimes known as electronic mail, is a digital messaging platform used for online
message exchange. This topic has been covered in the previous module.

Browsers
Users can access and surf the World Wide Web using web browsing software, also known as
web browsers. Internet users can access text, photos, videos, and other sorts of content by using web
browsers to parse and display web pages. Web browsers are computer programs or applications that
let users access and view content on the internet. Web browsing software is another name for web
browsers.
These software programs let users to view multimedia information, engage with web-based
applications, and explore and navigate around web pages. Web surfing software offers a practical way
to browse the internet by making requests to web servers, getting responses, and presenting content
on the user's device in an approachable format. Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge,
Safari, and Opera are a few examples of popular web browsers. These web browsers are updated
frequently to deliver better performance, more security, and a better user experience. Let's have a look
into each popular web browsers:
• Google Chrome: The most widely used web browser in the world was created by Google.
Speed, consistency, and a large extension library are just a few of Google Chrome's outstanding
qualities. Pre-rendering and a V8 JavaScript engine, among other features, help web pages load
rapidly in Chrome, which is built to be swift and effective. Also, it boasts a clear, minimalistic
design and an intuitive user interface. Users can extend the functionality of Chrome with the
help of its library of extensions. Extensions can improve security and privacy, introduce new
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features, and change current ones. Ad blockers, password managers, and productivity tools
are a few popular extensions. Chrome is available for Windows, Mac, Linux, Android, and
iOS.
It is a popular option for consumers who depend on Google products because it interacts with
Gmail, Google Drive, and Google Documents. However, there are other web browsers accessible for
those that value privacy and security, and some users have expressed concerns about Chrome's data
collecting and privacy practises.
• Mozilla Firefox: The Mozilla Foundation created the open-source web browser known as
Firefox. It is renowned for its add-on support, privacy features, and customization choices.
Firefox is renowned for its robust privacy and security features, such as the ability to block
third-party cookies and trackers, as well as its extensive customizability through a range of
add-ons and themes. It also boasts a clean and user-friendly interface, with features like tabbed
browsing, a built-in spell checker, and a download manager.
Moreover, Firefox is an open-source browser, meaning that its source code is freely available
to the public, and it supports a range of web standards and technologies. It is available for Windows,
Mac, Linux, Android, and iOS devices, and it integrates with a range of third-party services and tools,
such as Pocket, a service for saving articles and web pages for later reading, and various password
managers and VPNs. With Firefox, you can rest assured that your online experience is secure and
private.
• Microsoft Edge: Microsoft developed the Edge web browser. It utilises the same technology
as Google Chrome and includes a number of features like integrated security, PDF support,
and Microsoft service integration. Microsoft Edge is a powerful and secure web browser
that offers a minimalist design with a clean and user-friendly interface. It features tabbed
browsing, a built-in spell checker, and support for extensions, allowing users to customize
their browsing experience. Additionally, it provides a range of security and privacy features,
such as tracking prevention and Microsoft Defender SmartScreen, which helps protect against
phishing and malware attacks.
Microsoft Edge also integrates with other Microsoft services, such as Office 365 and OneDrive,
making it an ideal choice for users who rely on these services. It is available for Windows, Mac,
Android, and iOS devices, and it has been optimized for touch-screen devices like tablets and 2-in-1
laptops. Furthermore, it includes a range of productivity features, such as the ability to take notes and
annotate web pages, as well as integration with Cortana, Microsoft's virtual assistant.
• Safari: Apple created the Safari web browser. It is noted for its quick performance and
integration with other Apple services and is the default web browser on all Apple devices.
• Opera: Opera Software created the Opera web browser. A variety of features are available,
including an integrated VPN, an ad blocker, and data-saving mode.
• Brave: Brave is a web browser with a privacy-focused design that by default blocks trackers
and advertisements. It is renowned for its performance, security, and quickness. On Windows,
Mac, Linux, Android, and iOS, Brave is accessible.
These web browsers are now a need for getting on and around the World Wide Web. They
enable Internet browsing, information searching, shopping, and social networking for users. To
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improve the user experience, several web browsers also provide extra functions like bookmarking,
tabbed browsing, and password management.

Search Engine
Search engines are powerful tools that enable users to quickly and easily find the information
they need on the internet. When a user enters a search query, the search engine will use its algorithm
to determine which pages are the most relevant and useful to the user's query, and then display the
results on the search engine's results page, with the most relevant and popular pages appearing at the
top. In addition to text-based search results, many search engines also offer image and video search
features, as well as news and shopping search options. Some search engines also provide additional
features such as voice search, autocomplete suggestions, and personalized results based on a user's
search history and preferences. With the help of search engines, users can quickly and easily find the
information they need on the internet. These are a few widely used search engines:
• Google: With a market share of more than 90% worldwide, Google is the most widely used
search engine. A variety of capabilities are available, including voice search, search filters,
and autocomplete suggestions.
• Bing: Microsoft created the search engine Bing. It provides a variety of capabilities, including
integration, video search, and image search.
• Yahoo!: Yahoo! is a once-popular search engine that has since seen its market share decline in
favour of rivals. It offers a variety of functions, including news, finance, and image searches.
• DuckDuckGo: DuckDuckGo is a search engine that prioritises privacy and doesn't monitor
user data or personalise search results. A variety of features are available, including search
filters, bangs, and rapid answers.
An indispensable resource for discovering information on the Web are search engines.
They enable rapid and simple information searches on any subject, from news and entertainment to
scholarly study and scientific investigations. To improve the user experience, several search engines
also provide extra features like news alerts, tailored search results, and local search results.

Working of search engines:

Search engines use complex mathematical formulas to generate search results and display
them on the SERP (Search Engine Results Page). Each search engine's algorithm is unique, so a
top ranking on one engine does not guarantee a prominent ranking on another. Furthermore, these
algorithms are closely guarded secrets and are constantly undergoing modification and revision,
making it difficult to optimize a site with any degree of certainty. Gimmicks touted by less reputable
SEO firms may work for a short period, but search engines will eventually catch on and label the site
as spam, resulting in a drastic drop in rankings. Search engines can only "see" the text on web pages,
and use the underlying HTML structure to determine relevance. Large photos and dynamic Flash
animation mean nothing to search engines, so it is difficult to build a Flash site that is as friendly to
search engines as one developed with well-coded HTML and CSS. If the terms you want to be found
by do not appear in the text of your website, it will be very difficult for your website to yield high
placement in the SERPs.
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Fig 2.1 : Working of Search Engine

The working principle of a search engine involves three main processes: crawling, indexing, and
ranking.
• Crawling: Search engines use automated software programs called web crawlers or spiders
to explore the internet and discover new web pages. These web crawlers traverse the web,
following links from one page to another, collecting information about each page they visit,
including the page's content, images, links, and other data.
• Indexing: Once a page is discovered, the search engine will add it to its index. This index
is like a massive library of web pages that the search engine has collected and analyzed.
The indexing process involves analyzing the content on each page, including the page's text,
images, and other multimedia elements, and organizing it into a database that can be searched.
• Ranking: When a user enters a search query, the search engine will retrieve all the relevant
pages from its index and then rank them in order of relevance and usefulness. To do this,
search engines use complex algorithms to determine the relevance and quality of each page,
taking into account factors such as the page's content, popularity, authority, and freshness. The
search engine will then display the results on its search results page, with the most relevant
and useful pages appearing at the top of the list.
Search engines are constantly refining their algorithms to provide the most relevant and useful
results to users. They also use personalization and location data to provide customized search results
based on a user's search history, location, and preferences. By leveraging these powerful techniques,
search engines are able to provide users with the most accurate and helpful results for their queries.

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URL
A URL is a string of characters used to identify the location of a resource on the Internet.
It typically consists of three main parts: a protocol, a domain name, and a path and file name. The
protocol specifies the method used to access the resource, such as HTTP for web pages, HTTPS
(HTTP Secure) for secure connections, FTP for file transfers, and SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol) for sending email. The domain name identifies the website or server where the resource is
located, and the path and file name specify the location of the resource on the server. Additionally, a
URL may include a port number, which specifies the network port to be used for the connection, and
query parameters, which are used to pass information to the server.
A URL, or Universal Resource Locator, is a web address that indicates where on the World
Wide Web a particular resource can be found. The protocol, domain name, path, and arguments are
some of the components that make up a URL.
Here's an illustration of a URL: https://www.example.com/index.html?name=abc&age=25
The technique by which data is transferred from the user's browser to the web server is known
as a protocol. The protocol used in this illustration is https.
Domain name: The domain name serves as the website's address. "www.example.com" is the domain
name used in this illustration.
The resource's precise location on the web server is indicated by its path. The path in this illustration
is "/index.html."
The parameters are extra pieces of data that are submitted to the web server. The parameters in this
instance are "name=abc&age=25."
A user's web browser sends a request to the URL-designated web server when they type it
into the address bar. The user's browser then receives the requested resource from the web server and
displays it on the user's screen. Accessing web pages, downloading files, submitting forms, and using
APIs are just a few of the many uses for URLs. They are utilised daily by billions of users and have
developed into a crucial component of the World Wide Web.
Two categories of URL exist:
• Absolute URL: The domain name and directory or page path are both included in this kind of
URL. An absolute URL provides precise location details. It starts with a protocol like "http://"
and goes on, with all the specifics. The following format is generally used to represent an
absolute URL. protocol://domain/path
• Relative URL: A relative URL is one that only comprises the path and not the domain name.
Relative refers to something that is "in relation to," hence a relative URL describes a place in
terms of the present location. The term "relative path" refers to a link to a file that is present
inside the same domain.
An absolute URL is a complete address that includes the protocol, domain name, and path
of the resource, providing an exact location of the resource on the web. For example, https://www.
example.com/images/picture.jpg is an absolute URL that points to an image on the website www.
example.com. In contrast, a relative URL specifies the location of a resource relative to the current
page, only including the path of the resource without the protocol or domain name. For instance, if
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the current page is https://www.example.com/index.html, a relative URL of images/picture.jpg would

point to an image in the images directory on the same server.
Relative URLs are advantageous for creating links within a website, as they enable the
website to be moved to a different domain or server without disrupting the links. Additionally, they
are typically shorter and more legible than absolute URLs. However, they cannot be used to link to
external resources or resources on a different server.
In the previous chapter, you have already learned about the concepts of Domain Name and IP
Address.

Surfing the web

The term "surfing the web" describes the process of looking or navigating or pursuing through
and moving through various websites on the internet. It typically entails accessing and exploring
various web pages using a web browser like Google Chrome, Firefox, or Safari. Users of the internet
can do a variety of things when browsing, like look up specific information, watch movies, read
articles, shop online, connect with people, and much more. Surfing the web gives users access to
a variety of knowledge and resources from across the globe because it is a wide network of linked
pages and websites.
But, it's critical to be aware of any risks that could arise from web browsing, such as visiting
harmful websites, falling for phishing scams, or downloading malware. It is advised to use reliable
antivirus software, refrain from clicking on dubious links or downloading files from untrusted sources,
and exercise caution while disclosing personal information online in order to be safe.
To stay safe while surfing the web, users should use reputable antivirus software, keep their
operating system and software up to date, avoid clicking on suspicious links or downloading files
from unknown sources, use strong passwords and two-factor authentication, and exercise caution
when sharing personal information online.

Basics of Electronic Mail Concept

Using the internet or other computer networks, users can exchange digital messages by utilising
electronic mail, also known as email. Email is a practical and frequently used communication tool
because it enables users to send and receive messages, files, and other digital content from anywhere
in the globe. Following are some fundamental ideas related to email:
• Email address: A recipient of an email message can be identified by their email address, which
is a distinctive identifier. The username and domain name are the two components, which are
separated by the symbol "@" (for instance, [email protected]).
• Email client: A computer programme used to access and manage email messages is known as
an email client. Apple Mail, Microsoft, and Google are some common email programs.
• Composing and sending an email: The user must open their email client, create a new message,
enter the recipient's email address, and then write the message in order to compose and send
an email. Before sending the email message, the user has the option of attaching files or
additional material.

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• Receiving and reading emails: A recipient can read emails by opening them in their email
program. In addition, they have the option of replying, forwardeding, or deleting the email.
• Email servers: Email servers, which are computers that store and transport email messages,
are sed to send and receive emails. Incoming email servers, which receive incoming email
messages, and outgoing email servers, which send emails, are the two basic categories of
email servers.

Technology behind Email

The technology behind email is a complex combination of protocols, servers, and software
applications that work together to enable users to send and receive messages. At the core of this
technology are SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), POP (Post Office Protocol), and IMAP
(Internet Message Access Protocol). These protocols define the rules and standards for how email
messages are formatted, transmitted, and received by email servers.
Email technology is made up of protocols, servers, and software applications that work
together to allow users to send and receive email messages. Here are some key components of email
technology:
• SMTP: The primary protocol for sending email messages over the internet is SMTP. It specifies
the rules and standards that email servers must follow when formatting, transmitting, and
receiving messages.
• POP (Post Office Protocol) and IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) are email retrieval
protocols. POP and IMAP protocols enable users to access their email messages from a variety
of devices and software applications.
• Email servers: Email servers, which are computers that store and transmit email messages,
are where email messages are sent and received. Email servers are classified into two types:
incoming email servers, which receive incoming email messages, and outgoing email servers,
which send outgoing email messages.
• Email clients are software applications that are used to compose, send, and receive email
messages. Gmail, Outlook, and Apple Mail are all popular email clients.
• Email headers: The metadata attached to an email message that contains information about the
sender, recipient, subject, date, and other details is known as an email header.
• Spam filters are software applications that detect and prevent unsolicited email messages,
commonly referred to as spam, from reaching users' inboxes.
Email technology has evolved over time to improve its security, dependability, and
functionality. Users can now access their email messages from anywhere in the world using a web
browser or mobile app, thanks to the rise of cloud-based email services. Despite the rise of alternative
communication tools such as messaging apps and social media platforms, email remains a popular
and necessary tool for both personal and professional communication.

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Working of Email
The following diagram in Figure 2.2: gives pictorial representation of the steps involved while
sending/receiving an e-mail:

Fig. 2.2 : Email working

1. When the sender sends an email using the mail programme, it is redirected to the simple mail
transfer protocol, which determines whether the receiver's email address belongs to a different
domain name or the same domain name as the sender (Gmail, Outlook, etc.). The email is then
saved on the server for later transfer via the POP or IMAP protocols.
2. If the receiver has a different domain name address, the SMTP protocol communicates with
the DNS (domain name server) of that address. The sender's SMTP then communicates with
the receiver's SMTP, which then executes the communication, and the email is delivered to the
receiver's SMTP in this manner.
3. If, due to network traffic issues, both the sender's and receiver's SMTPs are unable to
communicate with each other, the email to be transferred is placed in a queue of the receiver's
SMTP and then delivered to the receiver once the issue is resolved. If, for some reason, the
message remains in a queue for an extended period of time, it is returned to the sender as
undelivered.
To protect users from unsolicited emails, spam filters are used to detect and block spam messages
from reaching users' inboxes. As technology has advanced, so has the technology behind email.
Cloud-based email services now allow users to access their email messages from anywhere in the
world using a web browser or mobile app. Despite the emergence of alternative communication tools,
email remains a widely used and essential tool for both personal and professional communication.

Different Email Providers

Users can get email services from a variety of email providers. Among the most popular email
providers are:

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• Gmail is a free email service offered by Google. It has an easy-to-use interface, spam filtering,
and integration with Google services such as Google Drive and Google Calendar.
• Outlook is a free email service offered by Microsoft. It includes calendar integration, spam
filtering, and simple syncing with other Microsoft services such as OneDrive and Skype.
• Yahoo Mail: Yahoo Mail is a free email service offered by the company Yahoo. It has a
customizable interface, 1 TB of storage space, and integration with other Yahoo services such
as Yahoo Finance and Yahoo News.
• ProtonMail: ProtonMail is a secure email service with end-to-end encryption and an easy-to-
use interface. It is popular with users who value privacy and security.
• Zoho Mail is an email service offered by Zoho Corporation. It has customizable interfaces,
spam filtering, and integration with other Zoho services such as Zoho CRM and Zoho Docs.
• iCloud Mail: iCloud Mail is Apple's free email service. It includes calendar integration, spam
filtering, and simple syncing with other Apple services such as iCloud Drive and iCloud
Photos.
• AOL Mail is a free email service offered by AOL. It includes features such as unlimited storage,
spam filtering, and integration with AOL services such as AOL News and AOL Finance.
These are just a few of the numerous email providers available to users. Each email service
provider has its own set of features and benefits, and users can select the one that best meets their
needs and preferences.

Getting an email account

You can get an email account by following these general steps:
• Select an email service provider: Choose an email service provider that meets your
requirements and preferences. Gmail, Yahoo Mail, Outlook, and ProtonMail are some popular
email providers. To assist you in making your decision, you can conduct some research on the
features and benefits of each provider.
• Go to the service provider's website: Go to the website of the email service provider you've
chosen.
• Register for an account: On the provider's website, look for a "sign up" or "create account"
button. To create your account, click on it and follow the instructions. Typically, you will be
asked for personal information such as your name, date of birth, and preferred email address.
You must also create a password for your account.
• Verify your account: After you create an account, your email provider may request that you
verify your email address. Typically, this is accomplished by sending a verification link to the
email address you provided. To confirm your account, click the link.
• Set up your account: After you've verified your account, you can change your email account
settings, such as your display name, signature, and inbox layout. You can also start sending
and receiving emails after adding contacts.

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It is critical to select a strong password and keep it secure. For added security, you may want
to enable two-factor authentication. Furthermore, be cautious of the emails you receive and avoid
clicking on suspicious links or downloading attachments from unknown senders.

Sending and receiving emails

Sending and receiving emails is a simple process. The following are the general steps for
sending and receiving emails:
To send an email, follow these steps:
• Access your email account.
• To create a new email, click the "Compose" or "New Email" button.
• In the "To" field, enter the recipient's email address.
• Make a subject line for your email.
• Fill in the blanks with your message.
• Attach any files or documents you want to include with your email if desired.
• To send your email, click the "Send" button.
Steps to receive an email are as follows:
• Log in to your email account.
• To view your incoming emails, navigate to the inbox folder.
• To open and read the message, click on the subject line of the email.
• To open and read the message, click on the subject line of the email.
• Respond to the email or forward it to another recipient if desired.
• It's important to note that emails can sometimes end up in your spam or junk folder, so check
those folders on a regular basis. Furthermore, be wary of opening emails from unknown
senders or clicking on links within emails. Malicious emails may include viruses or other
security risks.
Mail Operations
Mail operations are an essential part of the process of handling and distributing mail. This
includes collecting, sorting, transporting, and delivering letters, packages, and other mail items.
Postal services, courier companies, and other logistics providers are all responsible for managing
mail operations. Individuals, businesses, and governments all rely heavily on mail operations.
The most important aspects of mail operations include collection, sorting, transportation,
delivery, tracking, and returns. Collection involves collecting mail from mailboxes, post offices, and
other collection points. Mail is then sorted according to its destination, size, and weight, typically
with the help of automated sorting machines. Mail is then transported between sorting centres and
distribution centres using trucks, planes, and other modes of transportation. Delivery is handled by
postal workers, courier companies, or other delivery agents, who ensure that mail items are delivered
to their final destination. Tracking services allow customers to monitor the progress of their shipments

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in real time. Finally, mail operations providers are responsible for returning undeliverable mail items
to the sender or to a central processing facility.
For businesses and individuals who rely on timely and dependable mail delivery services,
efficient mail operations are essential. To ensure that mail operations are as efficient as possible,
providers should strive to optimise their mail operations. This can be done by streamlining processes,
investing in the latest technology, and providing comprehensive tracking services.
Mail Operations via Internet
The use of email as a means of communication and document delivery is referred to as mail
operations via the internet. Here are some examples of how mail operations are carried out over the
internet:
• Email: Email is the most common method of sending mail over the internet. It enables
individuals and organisations to instantly send and receive messages and documents from
anywhere in the world.
• File sharing: Many email services allow you to send files as attachments. This enables the
transfer of documents and other files between parties to be simple and secure.
• Electronic signature: Electronic signatures are becoming more popular, allowing legally
binding signatures to be made without the need for physical documents.
• Cloud storage: Services like Google Drive and Dropbox enable individuals and organisations
to store and share files over the internet. This is a simple method for sharing and collaborating
on documents and other files.
• Email marketing: Email marketing is a powerful tool for businesses to reach out to new and
existing customers. It entails sending marketing emails to email addresses to promote products
or services.
Internet-based mail operations have transformed the way we communicate and share information.
They provide convenience, speed, and efficiency, making it easier to conduct business and stay
connected than ever before. Email operations are extremely important in today's society. Here are
some of the reasons:
• Communication: Email is a quick, efficient, and cost-effective way to communicate with
people who live in the same city or on the other side of the world.
• Document Delivery: Without the use of physical mail or fax machines, email allows for the
quick and easy delivery of documents such as contracts, invoices, and proposals.
• Productivity: Productivity can be increased by allowing people to work from anywhere and
communicate with colleagues in real time via email.
• Marketing: Email marketing is an efficient and cost-effective way for businesses to reach out
to new and existing customers and promote their products or services.
• Organization: Individuals and organisations can use email to keep track of important messages
and documents in a centralised location, making it easier to stay organised and efficient.
• Accessibility: Because email is available to almost anyone with an internet connection, it has
become an indispensable tool for individuals, businesses, and organisations all over the world.

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Email operations, in general, are critical for communication, document delivery, productivity,
marketing, organisation, and accessibility. They have transformed the way we communicate and
conduct business, making it easier and more efficient to stay in touch with others and achieve our
objectives.

Email folders
Email folders are organisational tools for categorising and managing your emails. Email folders
are digital containers that allow users to organise their emails based on specific criteria within an
email client or webmail interface. Users can make folders to organise their incoming emails, and
emails can be moved or copied from the inbox or sent mail folder to a specific folder for easier
access and reference. A user, for example, can make folders for work, personal, travel, or specific
projects. Users can manage their email more efficiently, reduce clutter in their inbox, and easily find
specific messages by using folders. Most email providers allow you to create folders in order to better
organise your inbox and find specific messages. Here are some examples of common email folders:
• Inbox: This is the default folder for storing incoming emails. It's the place to look for new
messages.
• Sent: This folder holds copies of emails you've sent. This is useful if you need to refer back to
a previous email or confirm that you sent a specific message.
• Drafts: Emails that you have started but have not yet sent are saved in this folder. You can save
a draught of an email and return to it later to complete and send it.
• Spam/Junk: Emails in this folder have been classified as spam or junk by your email provider's
filters. It's a good idea to go through this folder on a regular basis to ensure that no legitimate
emails have been incorrectly flagged.
• Trash/Deleted: Emails that you have deleted are stored in this folder. Deleted emails are
usually moved to this folder and are permanently deleted after a set period of time.
• Archive: Use this folder to keep old or inactive emails that you want to keep but don't need to
access on a regular basis.
• Custom folders: Users can make their own folders to organise emails based on specific criteria,
such as project, sender, or subject. To further organise your emails, you can also create custom
folders. Create a folder for work-related emails, personal emails, or emails related to a specific
project, for example. Simply look for the option to create a new folder in your email provider's
interface and follow the instructions to do so.

Applications of Emails
Emails have numerous uses in both personal and professional settings. Here are some examples
of common email applications:
• Communication: Email is an efficient way to communicate with friends, family, and colleagues.
Emails can be sent from anywhere in the world at any time, making them a convenient mode
of communication.

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• Marketing: Email marketing is a popular way for businesses to communicate with customers
and promote their products or services. Companies can send newsletters, promotions, and
other marketing materials to their subscribers via email.
• Sharing information: Email is frequently used to share information with others. This could
range from sharing a document with a co-worker to forwarding a news article to a friend.
• Job applications: Many companies accept and communicate with job candidates via email.
Email can be used by job seekers to submit resumes and cover letters as well as follow up
with employers.
• Customer service: Emails are an important tool for customer service because they allow
customers to ask questions, report problems, and receive support. To provide a positive
customer experience, customer service emails should be timely, friendly, and helpful. To
provide a positive customer experience, customer service emails should be timely, friendly,
and helpful.
• Collaboration: Email can be used to collaborate with others on a project. Email can be used by
team members to share ideas, provide feedback, and coordinate their efforts.
• Reminders: Emails can be used to send reminders for upcoming events or deadlines. Automated
email reminders can be set up to help people remember important dates or appointments. You
could, for example, send an email to remind someone of a meeting or to remind yourself to
finish a task.
• Documentation: Emails can be used to record conversations and agreements, which can be
useful in legal or business settings. Email documentation should be kept organised and easily
accessible for future reference.
These are just a few of the many uses for email. Email's versatility makes it a useful tool in both
personal and professional settings.

Web mail
Webmail, also known as web-based email, is a type of email service that allows users to
access their email accounts through a web browser rather than email client software installed on their
computer or mobile device. Webmail is an email service that allows users to access their emails via a
web browser. Instead of using email client software such as Outlook or Apple Mail, users can access
their emails by logging into their webmail account from any device with an internet connection.
Webmail services that are commonly used include Gmail, Yahoo Mail, and Outlook.com.
Webmail operates by storing email messages on a server that is accessible via the internet.
When a user logs into their webmail account, they can view, send, and receive email messages in
the same way that they would in a traditional email client. To make email management easier for
users, webmail services typically offer a variety of features such as email filters, spam protection,
and contact management. Webmail services are frequently free. Users can send and receive emails,
manage their inboxes, and organise their messages with the help of folders and labels. Many webmail
services integrate with other services like calendars and file storage.
Webmail has the advantage of allowing users to access their emails from any device that
has an internet connection, making it a convenient option for people who travel frequently or use
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multiple devices. Another benefit is that users are not required to install any software on their device
in order to use the service. This can save storage space and eliminate the need for software updates
and maintenance.
However, because webmail requires an internet connection, users may be unable to access
their emails if they are in an area without internet access. Furthermore, webmail services may have
storage space or file attachment size limitations. Finally, webmail services are frequently owned by
companies that collect user data for the purpose of advertising, which some users may find intrusive.

Client mail
A client mail is an email software application that is installed on a computer or mobile device
and used to access email services. Client mail is a type of software that allows users to access their
email accounts from their computer or mobile device. It is also known as an email client or a desktop
email client. Email clients, as opposed to webmail, which is accessed via a web browser, are installed
on a device and accessed via a standalone application. Microsoft Outlook, Apple Mail, Mozilla
Thunderbird, and many other client mail applications are examples.
To enable the client to connect to their email account, a user typically needs to provide their
email account credentials, such as their username and password, as well as other settings such as
incoming and outgoing mail server addresses, when they set up an email client. Once connected, the
email client downloads emails from the server and stores them on the user's device, allowing users to
access their emails even when they are not connected to the internet.
Client mail clients have a number of advantages over webmail services. One benefit is that
they can be used offline, allowing users to access their emails and compose new messages even when
they are not connected to the internet. Client mail applications also provide more advanced email
management and organisation features such as filtering, rules, and advanced search capabilities. Client
mail applications can also integrate with other software applications, such as calendars and contacts,
making it easier to manage multiple aspects of one's digital life. Users can, for example, customise the
layout and appearance of the email client, set up automated email responses, and configure advanced
filters to better organise emails. When compared to webmail services, email clients may have more
robust security and privacy features, such as encryption and two-factor authentication.
Client mail applications, on the other hand, have some drawbacks. They necessitate installation
and configuration on each device, which can take time and may necessitate technical knowledge.
Client mail applications may also necessitate more storage space on a device, as well as regular
updates or maintenance to ensure proper operation. Finally, because they require a dedicated device
to access emails, client mail applications may be less convenient to use than webmail services.

Email security
Email security is the safeguarding of email communications against unauthorised access,
interception, and misuse. Email security is critical to preventing sensitive or confidential information
from being compromised or stolen while being transmitted via email. Email security is critical because
it is a popular target for cybercriminals looking to steal personal information or spread malware. The
following are some best practises for email security:

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• Use strong passwords: For your email account, choose a strong and unique password, and
avoid using the same password for multiple accounts. Password policies, such as requiring
users to change their passwords on a regular basis, can aid in the prevention of unauthorised
email account access.
• Enable two-factor authentication: To add an extra layer of security to your email account,
enable two-factor authentication. Users must provide two forms of identification before they
can access their email account using two-factor authentication. Even if an attacker has obtained
the user's password, this can help prevent unauthorised access to email accounts.
• Be wary of phishing emails: Phishing emails appear to be legitimate but are actually attempts
to steal your personal information. Be wary of emails that request personal information or that
you click on links.
• Encrypt your emails: Email encryption protects the contents of your emails from unauthorised
access. Email encryption is the process of scrambling the contents of an email message so that
only the intended recipient can read it. Even if an email is intercepted or hacked, encryption can
prevent unauthorised access to its contents. Look for email services that include encryption, or
use a separate encryption tool.
• Maintain software updates: To protect against security flaws, make sure your email client,
operating system, and antivirus software are all up to date.
• Avoid opening suspicious attachments: Avoid opening email attachments from unknown
senders or suspicious attachments.
• Be wary of public Wi-Fi networks: Be wary of using public Wi-Fi networks to access your
email account because these networks may not be secure.
• Anti-virus and anti-malware software: Viruses and malware can be transmitted via email
attachments and links. Anti-virus and anti-malware software can help keep these threats out
of a user's email system and from infecting their device.
• Employee education: Educating employees on email security best practises, such as identifying
phishing scams and using email encryption, can help prevent human error and improve overall
email security.
• Make use of a reputable email service: Choose a reputable email service with a good track
record of security and privacy.
You can help protect your email account from cyber threats and keep your personal data or
information safe, secure and protected by following these best practises.

Outlook - Email client

Microsoft Outlook is an email client application. It is a popular email client that many
individuals and organisations use to manage emails, contacts, calendars, and tasks. Here are some of
Outlook's features:
• Email management - Outlook enables users to manage multiple email accounts from a single
location. Users can send and receive emails, organise messages into folders, and configure
incoming message management rules.

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• Calendar management - Outlook also includes a calendar feature that allows users to schedule
appointments, meetings, and events. Users can add reminders to their calendar, view it in
various formats, and share it with others.
• Contact management - Outlook users can manage their contacts by creating and storing contact
information such as email addresses, phone numbers, and physical addresses.
• Task management - Outlook also has a task management feature that allows users to create
and track tasks, set reminders, and assign tasks to others.
• Integration with other Microsoft applications - Outlook can integrate with other Microsoft
applications such as Microsoft Teams, OneDrive, and SharePoint, allowing users to easily
access and share files as well as collaborate with others.
• Security features - To help protect users from email-based threats, Outlook includes security
features such as spam filtering, virus scanning, and encryption.
Outlook is a versatile email client with a variety of features for managing email, calendar, contacts,
and tasks. Because of its integration with other Microsoft applications and security features, it is a
popular choice for both personal and business use.

Online Conferences: Web / Mobile Services

The majority of our regular business activities are now done online in the present era of
extraordinary technological advancements. This also applies to online conferences. Every expert is
aware of how crucial conferences are to advancement since they allow for the discussion of different
points of view, the sharing of ideas, and the fixing of issues. Nowadays, conferences can be held
online, saving time and money and allowing for greater corporate management. A conference that
takes place online is known as an online gathering. Using video/audio conferencing tools to cut down
on the cost and time needed to communicate effectively has become standard practise among small
businesses, major corporations, and independent individuals. In the past, meetings were only held in
person because there was no internet. Additionally, it removes barriers between team members and
promotes engagement that is seamless. From this perspective, online conferencing is one of the most
effective tools made available by contemporary technology.
A virtual conference is an interactive online event that gathers a group of individuals
with similar interests or abilities to share knowledge. They are quite participatory, much like live
conferences that take place totally online instead of in a physical location.
Participants can host or join online meetings using web conferencing software. It is also known
as video conferencing or online meeting software. It is an interactive website where participants log
in and read articles, participate in debates with other delegates and presenters, have live chat, and
can ask questions and connect with people from around the world. It follows a similar format to a
physical gathering, with the exception that the workshops are longer and the conversations are both
more extensive and focused. The most cited types include webcasts, webinars and peer-level web
meetings. A webcast is a live internet broadcast which does not enable any interaction with the public.
A webinar is an online event that offers limited communication options between a presenter and
their viewers: chat, votes, Q&As. A peer-level web meeting is a virtual event where participants can
communicate through audio and video with each other and with the host.

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Traditional conferences mean that the participants have travel and reside in a specific location.
This is time consuming, and expensive. Since an online conference is on the Web, participants can
use standard browser software to access the conference from anywhere in the world, and can do so at
any time. Even if they choose, participants can check in before, after, or even during business hours.
To access the various conferences, they are given a password. Everyone with Internet access is able
to take part.
There are two types of online conferencing: synchronous and asynchronous. Several titles have
been given to synchronous online meetings, including: webinars— which is a one-way presentations
with little opportunity for audience participation—virtual meetings, virtual conferences, web
conferences, e-conferences, online conferences, etc. Using asynchronous conferencing, students can
access course materials at any time, giving them time to complete assignments or questions before
posting them to the discussion board. While synchronous conferencing allows for direct contact
between students and instructors via audio, video, and chat facilities, the problem still exists owing to
the time constraints.

Advantages of web conferencing is:

The possibilities for web conferencing in online classes is quite amazing. The use of web
conferencing in online learning has a variety of advantages:
• Considerable cost and time savings.
• Several social media platforms can be used to simultaneously make the event open to all
participants.
• Delegates or students can review the contents whenever it is convenient for them. The online
event can be revisited at any time.
• You don't need anything like paper, a notebook, or a pen because everything is available
online.
• Integrated evaluation schemes are present in many systems.
• When compared to a physical event, events are simpler to plan.
• There is a high degree of participation.
• Speaks to a larger audience.
• It enables real-time knowledge exchange and rapid access to the educator so that queries can
be answered quickly.
• It is an economical technology.
• It is a reasonably priced, cost-effective technology.
Disadvantages of web conferencing is:
• A lack of system understanding and training.
• If the used equipment has flaws, audio issues can be very problematic.
• Any technological difficulties could harm the event's reputation and the reputation of the
person or group hosting it.
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• Less personable - People can talk to one other more at physical gatherings.
• Due to personal preference or a lack of technological knowledge, some people choose live
events over online interactions.
• Some speakers could lack the necessary expertise to manage an online event.

Tele conferencing
By the use of audio, video, and chat technologies through the internet, teleconferencing
technology enables real-time communication and collaboration between individuals. Without having
to be in the same physical location, it enables users to organise virtual meetings, seminars, training
sessions, presentations, and interviews, among other things. In recent years, teleconferencing has
grown in popularity, especially since remote work has become more prevalent and businesses are
under pressure to cut travel expenses. Teleconferencing solutions come in a variety of forms and
include Zoom, Skype, Microsoft Teams, Google Meet, and Webex, among others. The following are
some advantages of teleconferencing:
• More flexibility and convenience: With teleconferencing, anyone with access to the internet
and a compatible device may join meetings and events from anywhere in the globe.
• Reduced travel costs: Teleconferencing reduces the need for individuals to travel in order to
attend meetings or events, which can save businesses a lot of money.
• Improved collaboration and productivity: Collaboration and productivity can be increased by
teleconferencing, which enables for real-time communication and cooperation.
• Improved work-life balance: By enabling people to join meetings and events without having
to leave their homes or offices, teleconferencing can help people achieve a better work-life
balance.
These are a few typical scenarios for teleconferencing:
• Business meetings: To connect participants who are in various locations, teleconferencing is
frequently utilised. By removing the need for travel, it saves time and money.
• For students and staff who are unable to attend in person, teleconferencing can be utilised to
conduct online classes and training sessions.
• Teleconferencing is frequently used for job interviews, especially when the interviewer and
the candidate are on opposite sides of the country.
• Teleconferencing enables remote workers to collaborate in real time while remaining in touch
with their co-workers.
• Teleconferencing can be utilised for medical consultations, especially when a patient is unable
to travel to a facility for treatment.
• Support for customers: Companies utilise teleconferencing to assist customers and handle
problems remotely.
• Teleconferencing is a tool used in distance learning courses that let students attend classes
from a distance.
• Team collaboration: Regardless of their geographical location, teams can work together in
real-time on projects by using teleconferencing.

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• Family get-togethers: Teleconferencing can be used to connect with relatives and friends who
reside abroad and are unable to meet in person.
• Webinars: Webinars are online seminars or presentations that are frequently conducted by
teleconferencing.

Popular Web conferencing tools

For online classes, webinars, and other virtual gatherings, individuals employ a number of
well-liked web conferencing programs. Some of the most popular web conferencing applications are:
• Zoom: Users can host and join online meetings, webinars, and virtual events using the cloud-
based video conferencing platform Zoom. It is now a well-liked tool for online learning and
distant work.
• Microsoft Teams: Microsoft Teams is a platform for communication and teamwork that offers
video conferencing features. Businesses and educational organisations use it extensively for
online learning and distant employment.
• Google Workspace's range of productivity tools includes a video conferencing application
called Google Meet. It is frequently used for online schooling and remote work.
• Cisco Webex: Users can host online meetings, webinars, and virtual events using Cisco
Webex, a web conferencing and video conferencing platform. Both corporations and academic
institutions favour it.
• GoToMeeting is a web conferencing tool that enables users to host and join webinars and
online meetings. It is frequently used for online schooling and remote work.
• BlueJeans: A cloud-based video conferencing software called BlueJeans enables users to host
and join online meetings, webinars, and other virtual events. Both corporations and academic
institutions favour it.
• Skype: Skype is a video conferencing programme for use in communication. For both personal
and professional communication, it is frequently used.
• Jitsi: Users can host and participate in video conferences using this free and open-source
software.

e-Learning
The popularity of e-learning is growing in modern society. A learning system based on
institutionalised instruction but utilising internet tools is referred to as "e-learning" or "electronic
learning." The primary element of E-learning is the use of computers and the Internet, even if
instruction can take place in or outside of classrooms. An online learning platform, also known
as an e-learning platform, is a comprehensive collection of interactive online services that offers
information, tools, and resources to instructors, students, parents, and other education stakeholders.
It can also be described as a comprehensive system that enables safe, web-based training
and e-learning solutions and makes use of a user interface that is clear and easy. There are several
e-learning businesses today that provide learning platforms. A learning management system (LMS) is
one type of E-Learning platform.

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Features of e-Learning
An online learning platform is a space or portal composed of educational resources and/or
live instruction on a specific subject, or on multiple different topics. Online learning is education
taking place over the Internet or with the use of technology to enable people to learn anytime and
anywhere.
• E-learning is dynamic: The best sources, rapid solutions, and online specialists are now at the
fingertips of learners because to globalisation.
• Innovative Teaching: On-ground courses can also benefit from approaches that are primarily
centred on the needs of the students, increased variety in the learning activities, and creativity
that can emphasise different learning styles.
• This learning technique can operate in real time that is available for 24* 7days
• Reduced Costs - one of the most significant benefits.
• Flexibility - Students are free to manage their interests/hobbies and school because they are
not restricted to a fixed timetable.
• Improves Performance and Productivity - makes it possible for students to finish their
instruction more quickly and easily, which improves performance and production. Learners/
Participants in the programme can do so at their convenience.
• Increased Interaction- Promotes more dialogue and engagement amongst students and
between students and teachers. Less passive listening and more active learning create a
learning environment that is more centred on the student. It also promotes teamwork and a
stronger sense of connectedness.
A learning platform is a cohesive group of interactive online services that offer information,
tools, and resources to teachers, students, parents, and other people involved in education in order to
assist and improve the management and delivery of education.
The advantages for each category are as follows:
Benefits to Teachers
• Produce and distribute educational materials that may be printed, utilised with an interactive
whiteboard, or viewed online.
• Make instructional materials available online, lesson by lesson plan by lesson plan, so that
colleagues can access them both at work and at home;
• Provide access to a variety of learning resources that they can tailor to the precise needs of
their students;
• Make available lesson plans from colleagues to help with supply cover.
• Evaluate, monitor, and track the development of both individuals and groups.
• Collect student work submissions in one convenient location.
• Manage their schedules, diaries, emails, and chats within personal desktop spaces.
Benefits to Learners
• Use outside of class time, from places like the library and their homes, learning resources
produced by their professors and others.

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• Keep assignments, homework, and revision materials online for use outside of class hours.
• Use a more individualised curriculum and work at their own pace while having access to a
larger range of learning methods.
• Build an online portfolio that includes text, digital photographs, and performance videos.
• Develop their online resource management and ICT skills.
• Send assignments and homework for marking and evaluation.
• Email other students and teachers, and take part in online forums and live discussions.
Benefits to Parents
• When kids have access to the learning platform from home, get more involved in their
education.
• Encourage youngsters to learn outside of the classroom.
• Check the child's personal home page to keep up with their assignments and schoolwork.
• See reports, attendance information, and evaluation results.
• Effectively communicate with school officials, teachers, and others who are involved in their
child's education.
• Use internet communication tools to interact with broader school-related topics.
• Work more closely with the school.
Benefits for Administration and Management
• Give up-to-date attendance and achievement data.
• Monitor the development of each student individually and collectively.
• Compile summative and formative evaluations.
• Minimize the administrative burden on teachers.
• Facilitate communication within school and beyond, on a one-to-one, one-to-many, or many-
to-many basis.
• Improved communication with local guardians or parents.

Types of e-Learning
Learning also experimented with different paces of instruction as technology advanced.
We live in a world where the classroom is at our fingertips, as opposed to the traditional classroom
setting. Currently, there are many different sorts of online learning. Several e-learning formats are
covered in this section.
1 Synchronous learning: While the teacher and the student are physically apart, training
and instruction take place in real time (at the same time). This is currently one of the most
popular and rapidly expanding kind of e-learning. Examples include watching live television
broadcasts, listening to live radio broadcasts, participating in audio-video conferences, and
taking online classes. This makes it possible to continuously monitor and adjust learning
processes while keeping a log of them.

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2 Asynchronous learning: Before the class begins, the instructor prepares the course materials.
The choice of the course materials that the learner wants to study is entirely up to him or her.
In other words, participants can participate according to their schedules because they are
not all online at once. Examples include self-paced courses taken online or on a CD-ROM,
video recorded lessons, audio/video web presentations or seminars, recorded audio tapes,
mentoring through Q & A, reading emails, etc. Many students choose asynchronous learning
over synchronous learning because they can enrol in online courses at their convenience and
complete their coursework without interrupting their daily schedules.
Asynchronous learning should be used in conjunction with synchronous learning in effective
e-learning courses. This enables both teachers and students to take use of the many delivery methods,
regardless of their schedules or chosen learning styles. With this method, students may still learn at
their own pace while having access to rapid help whenever they need it.

Drawbacks of e-Learning:
While e-learning has had many benefits, one cannot deny that there are some drawbacks.
• Isolation – While though online learning offers convenience, flexibility, and the freedom to
attend a classroom at any time throughout the student's own schedule, some students may feel
extremely alone. This is due to the fact that online learning is frequently a solo performance,
which may give the learner the impression that they are working alone. For example, in online
learning, an instructor teaches class from somewhere in front of a camera, while students
attend from their homes. Using various tools like video conferencing, social media, discussion
forums, etc., students can now interact more actively with teachers or other students as
technology develops and e-learning benefits from the developments being made.
• Absence of face-to-face communication: One of e-biggest learning's disadvantages is the
absence of direct communication between students and teachers. Without physical contact,
students could find it challenging to clarify particular concepts or ask questions.
• Reduced social interaction: For students used to classroom-based instruction, learning online
might be a lonely experience. Lack of social engagement might cause motivation to suffer and
feelings of loneliness.
• Technical difficulties: Because e-learning relies on technology, difficulties with software or
internet connectivity may interfere with learning.
• Minimal feedback: Without consistent feedback from instructors, students might not be aware
of their progress or where they need to make improvements. Their learning and development
may be hampered by this lack of feedback.
• Restricted practical experience: Certain disciplines can need for practical experience or hands-
on training that may not be available in an e-learning setting.
• E-learning demands learners to be self-motivated and disciplined in order to complete
assignments and conduct independent study. It could be difficult for learners who have trouble
managing their time to stay on top of the course obligations.
• Health Issues - The usage of a computer and other related devices is necessary for e-learning.
The student may have eye strain, poor posture, and other physical issues as a result of this.

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E-Learning Technologies
E-learning employs a variety of methods, some of which were created especially for it while
others, like video games, simply complimented the learning process. E-learning also makes heavy use
of digital technology. E-learning effectively utilises content management systems and databases.
These two collaborate to keep the course materials, exam results, and student information.
Some technologies complement other software in a positive way and allow for the development of
new features. For example, software that adds a whiteboard to a video conferencing tool enables users
to make changes to other people's work for review. Another example is screen-sharing, which enables
someone to present while still taking feedback and input over the microphone. There are numerous
technologies that aid in the efficient operation of the E-Learning. Email, chat, online forums, the
web, video conferencing, and others are a few of them. The following are some of the most popular
e-learning technologies:
• Software platforms known as learning management systems (LMS) are used to manage,
implement, and monitor online learning initiatives. An LMS can be used to design and manage
courses, carry out tests, and monitor student development.
• Virtual Classrooms: These are online spaces where students and teachers can interact in real-
time through video conferencing, chat, and other collaborative tools.
• Mobile Learning: This refers to the use of mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets, to
access educational content and resources anytime and anywhere.
• Gamification: This involves the use of game design principles to make learning more engaging
and interactive. Gamification can include elements such as points, badges, leaderboards, and
challenges.
• Interactive Videos: These are videos that allow learners to interact with the content by
answering questions or making choices that affect the outcome of the video.
• Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR): These technologies can create immersive
learning experiences by overlaying digital content onto the real world or simulating virtual
environments.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): These technologies can be used to
personalize learning experiences by analyzing student data and providing targeted feedback
and recommendations.

E-Learning platforms
A learning portal serves as a doorway to all the programmes, materials, and equipment
that make learning and teaching easier. It is a website that stores all files, podcasts, audios, videos,
presentations, and other teaching and learning tools. It can also include applications that facilitate
communication like discussion forums, messaging services, email, calendars, and so on. Some of the
most common e-Learning platforms are following:
• Udemy - Udemy is a platform where instructors can create online courses on their favorite
topics. They can upload videos, PowerPoint presentations, PDFs, audio, ZIP files, and live
classes to build courses using Udemy 's course creation tools. Trainers can also engage and
interact with various users through online discussion forums.

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• LearnWorlds - An online all-in-one course platform offering the ability to build your online
academy while creating unique, interactive and social learning experiences. It requires no
technical skills to use, and can be edited with built-in authoring capabilities, videos, and
ebooks to add interactivity to the lessons.
• Coursera - Online training platform dedicated to the worldwide offering of high quality online
training courses. Collaborating with world-class colleges and companies, it offers students
the opportunity to receive certifications from prestigious institutions when they join their
paid courses. Offers individual classes, specialized courses and training programs providing
on-demand video tutorials, homework activities, peer-reviewed assignments, and discussion
forums.
• Moodle - Moodle, the Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment, is a free and
open-source LMS distributed under the GNU General Public License. It is used in schools,
universities, workplaces, and other sectors for blended learning, distance education, flipped
classrooms, and other e-learning projects. With customizable management features, Moodle
allows users to create private websites for educators and trainers to achieve learning goals
with online courses. It is capable of measuring the success of training programs, administering
virtual classrooms, and generating certificates through analytics. Additionally, its direct
learning paths enable users to design and manage courses to meet diverse demands.
• Open edX - Open edX is a powerful resource that empowers learners to access course
content, including videos and textbooks, while tracking their progress throughout the course.
It features a discussion forum and a wiki to which learners and members of the course team
can contribute, while the latter can also use a dashboard for teaching.
• MOOCs - Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are free online courses that can be
enrolled in by anyone. They offer an inexpensive and versatile way of attaining new skills,
improving one's career, and providing quality educational experiences on a large scale.
• Teachable - Teachable is an online teaching platform that serves trainers on a daily basis.
It provides an easy and straightforward solution for uploading learning content, creating an
online school, and communicating with students effectively.
• Canvas - Canvas is an innovative platform that enables schools to design a digital learning
environment that meets the unique challenges of their institution. It simplifies teaching,
elevates learning, and removes the burden of supporting and growing traditional learning
technologies, making the implementation, adoption, customer support, and success of the
learning and teaching process much easier.
• The Government of India has also launched SWAYAM (Study Webs of Active-Learning
for Young Aspiring Minds), a program aimed at achieving the three cardinal principles of
Education Policy: access, equity, and quality, based on MOOC. The goal of this initiative
is to provide the best tools for teaching and learning to everyone, even those in the most
disadvantaged communities. It bridges the digital divide for students who have been left
behind by the technological revolution and have been unable to access the online knowledge
stream. The platform offers free access for all and hosts courses from Class 9 to postgraduate
level. It enables teachers and faculty of centrally sponsored institutes such as IITs, IIMs, and
IISERs to enrich the learning environment through the use of audio-video and multimedia, as
well as state-of-the-art pedagogy and technology. Nine national coordinators are appointed to
monitor the course content, each assigned a specific area for monitoring.

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 The Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) has appointed several National
Coordinators to oversee various educational sectors in India.
 The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) is the National Coordinator
for self-paced and international courses, while the National Programme on Technology
Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) is the National Coordinator for engineering sector courses.
 The University Grants Commission (UGC) is the National Coordinator for non-technical
post-graduate education, and the Consortium for Educational Communication (CEC) is
the National Coordinator for undergraduate education.
 The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) and the National
Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) are both National Coordinators for school education,
while the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) is the National Coordinator
for out-of-school students.
 Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore (IIMB) is the National Coordinator for
management studies, and the National Institute of Technical Teachers Training and
Research (NITTTR) is the National Coordinator for Teacher training programs.

Learning Management System

A computer system created expressly for administering numerous online courses, providing
course materials, and enabling collaboration between students and teachers is known by the general
term LMS. LMS also allows to manage every aspect of a course, from student registration to storing
test results, tracking students’ performance, as well as digitally accepting assignments and keeping
in touch with students. The LMS is in reality the backbone for most e-learning activities. A LMS
is a powerful software application that enables the efficient management, delivery, and tracking of
online courses, training programs, and educational content. It provides a comprehensive platform
for managing and delivering online learning content, allowing instructors to create engaging and
effective learning experiences for learners.

Fig. 2.3 : LMS Working Structure

The basic workings of an LMS involve several key components: content creation and
management, user management, course delivery, communication and collaboration, assessment
and evaluation, and analytics and reporting. Content creation and management involves creating or

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uploading course material, multimedia resources, assessments, and assignments, and organizing them
into modules or lessons. User management enables instructors to manage user accounts, create user
groups, and assign access rights and permissions. Course delivery allows instructors to deliver the
course to learners in various ways, such as self-paced learning, instructor-led sessions, or blended
learning. Communication and collaboration tools such as discussion forums, messaging, and chat
facilitate interaction between learners and instructors, while collaboration tools such as wikis, blogs,
and group projects enhance engagement and learning outcomes. Assessment and evaluation tools
such as quizzes, exams, and surveys measure learner progress and achievement, while analytics and
reporting generate reports and analytics on learner performance, course completion rates, and other
metrics to evaluate the effectiveness of courses, identify areas for improvement, and inform future
course development.
LMSs differ in the features they provide, but most systems will probably include some or all of the
features that follow:
• GUI - Most LMSs include interface configuration options enabling the user to give the learning
platform a specific feel. Although the GUI is there to make the interface more attractive, it is
also intended to be efficient.
• Customization - Apart from the GUI, an LMS often offers several different customization
options to customize the system to the needs of the user. They can modify the language
choices, notification settings and other essential features to suit the way users want different
LMS to function. This is awesome, since several different types of users can use one LMS,
each with specific preferences.
• Virtual Classroom - LMS can incorporate virtual classroom sessions with whiteboard systems,
and also help users schedule sessions. It may offer the ability to send invitations or reminders
for classroom sessions and integrate online calendars with a system.
• Social Networking - An LMS can be integrated with social media so that users can share their
content or news items via Twitter or Facebook etc.

References
1. https://www.computer-pdf.com/network/943-tutorial-introduction-to-networking-how-the-
internet-works.html
2. https://www.javatpoint.com/fundamentals-of-computer-networking
3. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-internet/?ref=gcse
4. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/the-internet-and-the-web/?ref=gcse
5. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/introduction-to-internet/?ref=ml_lbp

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Module III
e-Governance and e-Commerce
e-Governance
The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for government services, the
exchange of statistics, communication processes, and the integration of many independent systems
and services is known as Electronic Governance, or E-governance. Government services are
made accessible to citizens through the use of e-governance in a proper, organised, and transparent
manner. The three main categories of persons who may be subject to discrimination under principles
of governance are those in government, the general public, and corporate organisations. The most
effective way to change and improve the coherence, productivity, efficiency, transparency, and liability
of informational and international interchanges inside government, between government agencies at
various levels, and between citizens and businesses is through e-governance. Through information
access and use, it also grants citizens authority. In general, e-governance improves governance by
utilising ICT at all levels of the public sector and the government.

Objectives of e-Governance
Let’s point some of the major objectives or goals of e-governance:-
• Making all Government information available to all citizens in the public interest is one of the
fundamental goals of e-governance.
• To establish a working relationship between the people and the Government, to ask for their
assistance and input, and to make the Government aware of the issues that public are facing.
• To boost and promote public participation in the political process.
• By keeping governments, citizens, and businesses up to date with the modern world,
e-Government enhances the nation's information and communication technology and
electronic media, strengthening the economy of the nation.
• Establishing accountability & transparency in the governance process is one of its key goals.
• To lower governmental expenditures on supplies and services.
The idea of e-governance has demonstrated that it is a potent tool for providing public service
in the modern world. By looking at how e-governance operates, some of its features are:-
• E-governance has considerably reduced both the public's reliance on bureaucracy and the
distance between the public and government in all areas of government service.
• The delivery of services via the Internet is its central aspect.
• Citizens who are living outside of their country for work or other reasons can receive all basic
services through e-governance.
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• With the advent of e-governance, a variety of information, including import-export, company

registration, investment circumstances, etc., is now accessible online. Time is saved,
procrastination declines, and economic dynamism rises as a result.
• Everybody can learn more and take control of their own lives by using e-governance tools.
Knowledge is power in today's globalised world, and e-government tools give us that power
by supplying important information with the least amount of expense, effort, and time.
• It strengthens citizens' ability to express themselves. Anyone can communicate their opinions
to the government about any policy, action, or decision made by the government by using
e-governance.
The benefits of e-governance can be viewed under two heads. These are internal benefits and external
benefits. We can just point out these benefits
1. Internal
• Preventing duplication
• Lowering the transactional expense.
• Streamlining the administrative processes.
• Increased cooperation, efficiency, and communication.
• Increased transparency.
• Sharing of information between organisations.
• Information management security.
2. External
• Quicker delivery of services.
• Increased participation and effectiveness.
• Enhanced adaptability in using services.
• Delivery of services with innovation.
• More participation by citizens.
• Increasing involvement of citizens.

Pillars of e-governance
The People, Process, Technology, and Resource (PPTR) paradigm would serve as the
fundamental foundation for all e-Government programmes, as shown in the following Figure:3.1. It
illustrates the components that must each be thoroughly and comprehensively addressed in order to
produce the project's intended outcomes.

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Four Pillars of e-governance

Fig 3.1: Pillars of egovernance

• People - People both inside and outside of the government will play a bigger role in making
sure that e-government projects succeed when they are implemented across the nation. It
will take a tremendous amount of expertise, talents, and human dedication to complete the
transition, which will involve substantial financial, human, and other resource commitments.
• Process - E-government involves more than merely automating manual records and ineffective
old systems. Instead, it entails revamping government operations and establishing fresh
relationships between the government and its people as well as enterprises. In order to retain
the consistency and sustainability of the process, a new set of process parameters and the
associated workflow should be developed.
• Technology - Technology challenges include the absence of an overarching architecture and a
road map for e-Government, a lack of standards, poor IT infrastructure, particularly ineffective
communication networks, and, most importantly, the use of a hardware approach rather than
a service approach in the planning and execution of e-Gov projects. If these issues are not
properly and quickly resolved, e-Gov implementation will take an ad hoc approach. A few
projects are launched in isolation, raising serious concerns about their viability and scalability.
• Resources - New technologies necessitate different implementation models. Adopting
traditional procurement practises will not advance us much towards e-government. The
traditional method places full project ownership, financial responsibility, and risk-bearing on
the shoulders of the public sector.

Types of interactions in e-Governance:

E-governance can be viewed as a socially inclusive policy for the growth of accountability
and transparency among both members of society and government. According to this policy, services
are provided to the public while data is gathered through institutional and communicational growth.
It offers high-quality services in a variety of methods. These methods are also known as e-governance
kinds and is depicted in Figure 3.2.

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Fig.3.2: e-goverance diagram

Let’s go deep into these four models of e-governance:
1. Government to citizens (G2C) - The government services that are available to all citizens fall
under this definition of e-governance. In this paradigm, the public/ citizens visit the links of
respective services that they want to use. The relationship between the government and its
citizens is strengthened by this paradigm. Government-to-citizen relations are preserved by
G2C. It enables citizens to quickly and easily access government information and services
through a variety of channels, from anywhere. An interface is created between the government
and the public in this case, allowing the citizens to gain from the effective provision of a
range of public services. On the one hand, this enhances the accessibility and availability
of public services, and on the other, it enhances the quality of all those services. Clients of
the G2C model can instantly and conveniently access government information and services
at any time and from any location by using a variety of channels. Additionally, the capacity
of G2C initiatives to overcome potential time and geographic barriers may connect citizens
who might not otherwise come into contact with one another and may facilitate and increase
citizen participation in government. This model offers the following types of services:- Online
bill payment for services like electricity, water, telephone, etc. application registration online,
and copies of land records. online complaint registration, and availability of any type of
information online.
2. Government to government (G2G) - The services that are shared by the governments are
referred to in this paradigm. Numerous government departments, agencies, and organizations
need to communicate a lot of information. Information and communications technology
is being used in this situation to improve communication both inside and between various
government agencies as well as to restructure the administrative procedures involved in their
operation. Such interactions can be horizontal, such as between various government agencies
and various functional areas within an organization, or vertical, such as between national,

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provincial, and municipal government agencies and various levels within an organization. The
main goal of this interaction is to improve output, performance, and efficiency. Certain services
or information areas: sharing of data between police forces in different states. E-governance
is also used for government document exchange, which encompasses the creation, approval,
distribution, and storage of all official documents. E-governance is also used for the majority
of financial and budgetary tasks.
3. Government to businessmen (G2B) - This model strengthens the relationship between the
government and the private sector. To communicate with the government, and business
people/ businessmen use it. E-Government tools are used in this type of interaction to assist
the commercial enterprises that offer goods and services in smoothly interacting with the
government. Governments and corporations can both benefit greatly from G2B. G2B includes
a range of services that are exchanged between the corporate and government sectors, including
the dissemination of policies, memos, rules, and regulations. This model offers a variety of
services, including the rejection and approval of patent applications, the satisfaction of all
debts and fines, sharing of all data, regulations, and information. This can be used to express
complaints or any other form of dissatisfaction.
4. Government to employees (G2E) - Transparency between the government and its employees is
enhanced by this model. Here, both employees and the government can monitor how the other
is operating and carrying out its duties. The purpose of this relationship is to assist employees
and provide some online services including online leave applications, leave balance checks,
and salary payment records, among other things. Government must regularly connect with its
employees because it is a key employer in this situation. The company and the employee are
interacting with one another in this process. The use of ICT tools facilitates quick and effective
communication between parties while also raising employee satisfaction levels. Information
that this model can share with the public: This model handles the submission of all types
of data (attendance records, personnel records, etc.) from various government offices. This
strategy allows employees to express a wide range of concerns and displeasure. This allows
for the sharing of a variety of policies, guidelines, and information for employees.
E-governance has a significant role to play in enhancing and supporting all tasks carried out
by government departments and agencies since it simplifies the task on the one hand while improving
the quality of work on the other.

e-Government Maturity Model

Different stages of development in the electronic delivery of governance are categorized using
maturity models. The "Gartner e-Governance Maturity Model" is the maturity model that is most
frequently accepted. The "four" phases of the maturity model are information, interaction, transaction,
and transformation. The supply of online services and the use of ICTs in government activities serve
one or more components of e-Governance in each of the four phases. The model is diagrammatically
depicted in Figure 3.3:

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Fig 3.3 : Phases of e-governance model

• Information: It entails having an online presence and distributing relevant information to the
general public (G2C and G2B). The benefit to the public is that government data is available
to the general public; procedures are defined and, as a result, become more open, improving
democracy and services. For instance, the website of the ministry of the environment only
provides a brief overview of the ministry, information about officers, their contact information,
address for correspondence, reports they released, various orders, etc. There is just a one-way
flow of information and there are no interactive features.
• Interaction: In the second phase, several applications are used to enhance communication
between the public and the government (G2C and G2B). During this phase, individuals and
other interested parties can contact the government through email, can utilize search engines
to find information, ask inquiries via email, and download a variety of forms and papers,
chat databases, customer service platforms, feedback forms, or online form submissions. It
guarantees the accountability of government agencies and the transparency of communication.
Additionally, it lessens the physical connection between stakeholders and governance, saving
another labor hour. These capabilities allow you to save time. In fact, all (basic) application
processing can be done online, around the clock.
• Transaction: Although technological complexity is increasing, customers' value is increasing
as well (both G2C and G2B). Complete transactions can be accomplished without visiting
an office. By facilitating electronic transactions and streamlining administrative procedures,
the government's e-governance efforts at this point improve the quality of life for citizens.
Governments, businesses, and departments can take advantage of services by paying online
for things like license renewal, online bidding and depositing bid amounts, paying taxes
online, and paying for other government services. The level of interaction is higher than in the
second stage, and there are more activities contributing to the information flow, mostly one-
way interactions between the government and the public.
• Transformation: All information systems are integrated, and there is a single (virtual) counter
where the public can obtain G2C and G2B services. The ultimate objective is to have a single
point of contact for all services. Cost savings, efficiency, and customer happiness are now
at their strongest points. At this level, the government service is transformed by obtaining
information, organizing it, analyzing it, and putting it into practice. In order to improve the

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stakeholder relationship with the government, there is a two-way information exchange, and
the service provider must have strong capacities to address stakeholder issues, needs, and
problem-solving. Online voting, income tax filing, property tax filing, license extensions and
renewals, and visa and passport applications are a few examples of online services. Even though
paperless transactions with legal certification are used, complexity is caused by problems with
security and personalization. The key benefits of this phase are the seamless information flow
from the service provider and the cooperative decision-making between the union, state, local,
citizens, and private interest groups. By forcing government officials to adhere to time-bound
decision-making, it eliminates the organizational barrier and lowers their red-tapism behavior.
For instance, e-courts and virtual summits.

SMART Governance
• Simple — entails using ICTs to avoid complex processes and simplify government rules and
regulations in order to provide a user-friendly governance.
• Moral — referring to the introduction of a new system with technological interventions into
the administrative and political system to increase the effectiveness of various government
entities.
• Accountable — to ensure the accountability of public sector officials, establish efficient
information management systems and other performance monitoring tools.
• Responsive — to make the system more responsive, accelerate procedures by simplifying
them.
• Transparent — by making information available on websites or other public portals, the
government may operate more transparently and the public can see how it is being run.

Advantages:-
• Enhances the effectiveness and delivery of government services.
• Improved communication between the government and the private sector.
• The empowerment of citizens through information access.
• Improved management of the government.
• Administration corruption has decreased.
• Increased administration transparency and improved government legitimacy.
• More ease for both customers and enterprises.
• Rise in revenue while reducing costs.
• Organizational structure is lowered.
• Improves planning and coordination between the various levels of government by reducing
paperwork and red tape in the administrative process.
• Improved communication between the government and civil society.
• Process reorganisation in the administration.
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The biggest drawback of e-governance is the lack of equity in public internet access, the lack
of reliable information online, and disguised government objectives that could influence and sway
public opinion.

e-Governance Infrastructures:
• State Wide Area Network (SWAN): Under this programme, States/Union Territories (UTs)
are given technical and financial support for the establishment of SWANs, which will link all
State/UT headquarters (SHQ ) up to the Block level via District/sub-Divisional Headquarters
( DHQ) in a vertical hierarchical structure with a minimum bandwidth capacity of 2 Mbps per
link. Depending on usage, every State and UT can increase the bandwidth between SHQ and
DHQ by up to 34 Mbps and between DHQ and BHQ by up to 8 Mbps. It has been decided to
use the National Knowledge Network (NKN) to integrate all SWANs .
• State Data Center (SDC): State Data Center will offer a wide range of functions, with some
of the most important ones include Central Repository of the State, Secure Data Storage,
Online Service Delivery, Citizen Information/Services Portal, State Intranet Portal, Disaster
Recovery, Remote Management, and Service Integration, among others. Additionally, SDCs
would improve operation and management controls and reduce overall costs associated with
data management, IT resource management, deployment, and other expenses.
• Common Service Centre (CSC): The CSCs are significant because they will offer web-enabled
e-government services in remote areas, including application forms, certificates, and utility
payments for energy, phone, and water bills. The Scheme makes it possible for enterprises and
non-profit organisations to actively participate in its implementation and work together with
the government to progress rural India. As a result, the CSC Scheme is implemented in a more
favourable environment. The Village Level Entrepreneur (VLE), the Service Center Agency
(SCA), which will be in charge of a division of 500–1000 CSCs, and a State Designated
Agency (SDA) designated by the State Government, who will be in charge of overseeing
implementation throughout the State, make up the three tiers of the Public Private Partnership
(PPP) model of the CSC scheme.
• State Service Delivery Gateway (SSDG): One of the main structural foundations of the NeGP,
which would implement electronic service delivery in all 35 States and UTs, is the SSDG. By
implementing the SSDG, the State Portal, and the Electronic Form Application, this project
seeks to improve the services offered to citizens through CSCs. The development of the
applications and technology necessary for the deployment of State Portals (SP) and SSDG
across the States/UTs is anticipated to take advantage of the shared infrastructure (SWAN,
SDC, and CSC) right away. As a result, citizens will be able to obtain forms and submit their
applications online via a single gateway. Citizens would greatly benefit from this vital move
to facilitate electronic service delivery, especially as it will give them access to a single portal
for receiving services.
• National e-Governance Services Delivery Gateway (NSDG): NSDG is one of India's
Mission Mode Projects (MMP). The project started by the Ministry of Communications &
IT's Department of Information Technology (DIT). The construction of the NSDG and NSD
(National Services Directory) has been assigned to CDAC Mumbai. NSDG is a messaging
middleware for e-Government services that is based on standards. This is the second Mission

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Mode Project to enter operational phase beginning on August 14, 2008, and is categorised
under Integrated MMP of the Department of Information Technology, Government of India.
Aside from the several ground-breaking innovations that NSDG has implemented on its own
and the majestic goal it has set, NSDG is likely the first initiative to have received positive
feedback three months before going live. NSDG won The World is Open Award 2008 in the
e-Governance category at the ceremony for the award, which was put on by Red Hat and Skoch
Consultancy Services. The issue has already been resolved, and the launch date is August
14, 2008. The Indian government's National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) seeks to coordinate
information amongst various ministries in the Center, States, and Local Government. This
work is extremely difficult due to the fact that government systems are characterised by islands
of legacy systems that use heterogeneous platforms and technologies, are dispersed across
various geographical areas, and are automated to varying levels. By serving as a standards-
based communications switch and enabling seamless data interchange between departments,
NSDG can make the above duty easier. As the government's nerve centre, the NSDG would
manage a vast volume of transactions and aid in time-stamped tracking of all government
transactions.

Challenges to e-Governance
Government platforms are being made available to enable direct communication between
citizens and the government through a project called electronic governance. It encourages the use
of government programmes, as well as integrity, transparency, adaptability, security, and good
governance. E-governance, however, has various challenges. The challenges faced can be viewed
from different angles which include technical, social and economical.
Technical Challenges:
• Security - The lack of security in online transactions is a serious problem. E-government
platforms are used for banking, insurance, and utility bill payments. Loopholes that may arise
in the system while performing various tasks provide a poor experience to the individual.
• Privacy - Another issue that has brought concerns is the misuse of personal data.
• Interoperability - Coordination among different ministries, a lack of interaction and restrictions
on data sharing.
Economic Challenges:
• Cost - e-government operations implementation and service maintenance are quite expensive.
• Reusability - Any model created by the government must be reusable. A national strategy for
e-governance should include tools or systems that government organisations can use.
• Maintenance - To keep up with the expectations of the populace/ citizens, the government
needs to constantly update these platforms and add new software.
• Portability - Offering technology that is independent of costly and heavy stationary equipment.
Social Challenges:
• Accessibility: Many people in rural areas cannot access such a portal due to language barriers,
insufficient infrastructure, etc.

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• Illiteracy -The low literacy rate in India is a major barrier to the adoption of e-Government
programmes. Since illiterate people cannot use e-Government software, the programmes'
success is limited.
• Language - India is a nation where people of all cultures and religions coexist. Since
e-Government apps are mostly written in English, the diversity of people's language
background presents a significant difficulty for executing e-Government programmes.
• Awareness - Spreading knowledge and promoting e-services should be seen as a duty by
educated citizens, concerned organisations, and government agencies.
• Trust - Increasing cybercrimes such as spoofing, data tampering, data leaking, transactional
frauds, etc., are posing problems for e-governance. Such activities create trust issues for
citizens and limit the use of such platforms.
• Inequality - The unequal distribution of technology restricts users and prevents them from
taking use of the benefits offered by e-governance programmes. One of the key factors
contributing to the digital gap is economic inequality.
• Security - The government needs to have a high level of security to secure the information of
its residents.
• Infrastructure: Improved infrastructure can boost connectivity to isolated places and aid in
growth as a whole.

Security approaches to e-Governance

Security is a crucial aspect of e-Governance as it involves the handling of sensitive information
and critical infrastructure that if compromised can have severe consequences. Here are some of the
security approaches to e-Governance:
1. Authentication and Access Control: Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of
a user, while access control is the process of determining what resources a user can access.
Proper authentication and access control mechanisms should be in place to ensure that only
authorized users can access government systems and data. This can be done through the use of
strong passwords, multi-factor authentication, and role-based access control.
2. Encryption: Encryption is the process of converting information into a secret code to prevent
unauthorized access. Sensitive information and communication should be encrypted to prevent
eavesdropping, tampering, and interception. This can be done through the use of Secure Sockets
Layer (SSL), Transport Layer Security (TLS), and Virtual Private Networks (VPNs).
3. Security Auditing and Monitoring: Regular security audits and monitoring can help identify
and prevent security breaches. This can be done through the use of intrusion detection systems,
firewalls, and log analysis tools. Auditing and monitoring can also help detect and respond to
security incidents in a timely manner.
4. Disaster Recovery and Business Continuity Planning: Disaster recovery and business continuity
planning involve the preparation for the recovery of critical systems and data in case of a
disaster. This can be done through the use of backup and recovery systems, redundant data
centers, and emergency response plans.

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5. Cybersecurity Training and Awareness: The weakest link in any security system is the human
factor. Training and awareness programs can help employees and users understand the
importance of security and how to protect sensitive information. This can be done through the
use of security awareness campaigns, phishing simulations, and regular security training.
e-Governance security should be viewed as a continuous process that requires regular review and
updates to ensure that new threats and vulnerabilities are addressed.

National level e-Governance initiative

The Department of Administrative Reforms & Public Grievances (DARPG), Ministry of
Electronics & Information Technology (ME&IT), and Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances &
Pensions developed the National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) in 2006. The National e-Governance Plan
(NeGP) adopts a comprehensive approach to e-Governance activities across the nation, integrating
them into a unified vision. Around this concept, a sizable national infrastructure expanding all the
way to the most remote villages is developing, and extensive record digitalization is happening to
make the internet accessible and dependable. Further, the government has proposed to implement
"e-Kranti: National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) 2.0" under the Digital India programme with a
vision to transform e-Governance for transforming Governance, keeping in mind the need to utilise
emerging technologies like Cloud and Mobile Platform and focus on the integration of services. The
main objectives of the National e-Governance Plan are the following:
• Enhancements to the delivery of services to citizens.
• Information delivery is made simple.
• Boost communication and collaboration between states or between the centre and states.
• Promoting transparency and responsibility in governmental affairs.

Digital India initiative

The Indian government started the Digital India programme to develop online infrastructure
and internet connectivity in order to make government services available to citizens electronically. It
also intends to give the nation digital technology empowerment. On July 1st, 2015, Prime Minister
Narendra Modi officially began the campaign. The three areas that the Digital India Mission is
primarily concerned with are as follows:
• Making digital infrastructure accessible to all citizens as a source of utility
• Governance and services on-demand.
• Meeting the expectations of each citizen's digital empowerment.
• Focuses on reorganising numerous current plans that can be put into practise in a coordinated
way.
With the objective of encouraging inclusive growth in the fields of electronic services, goods,
manufacturing, and employment prospects, Digital India was established. With the help of its nine
growth pillars, Digital India hopes to provide them the much-needed boost. These topics each involve
a complicated programme that spans several Ministries and Departments. Following are the nine
foundational elements of Digital India:
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• Broadband Highways – This includes the National Information Infrastructure (NII), Broadband
for All - Urban, and Broadband for All - Rural.
• Universal Access to Mobile Connectivity - This initiative focuses on network penetration and
filling the gaps in connectivity in the country.
• Public Internet Access Programme - The two supporting elements of the Public Internet
Access Program are the CSCs and Post Offices as multi-service centres. .
• e-Governance: Reforming Government through Technology - It is essential for transformation
to improve the delivery of government services across all government domains, hence all
Ministries/Departments must undertake government process re-engineering utilising IT to
streamline and make the government processes more efficient.
• e-Kranti – Electronic Delivery of Services - To make public services more easily accessible
and to enhance their delivery. In order to welcome in the era of e-Government, many State
Governments and Central Ministries have launched a number of e-governance initiatives.
In India, e-Governance has rapidly advanced from projects that merely computerised
government departments to those that embody the finer nuances of governance, like citizen
centric approach, service orientation, and transparency.
• Information for All - This pillar seeks to guarantee the transparency and accessibility of
trustworthy data produced by the line ministries for usage, reuse, and redistribution for the
Indian people.
• Electronics Manufacturing - This pillar concentrates on encouraging domestic electronics
production.
• IT for Jobs - This pillar concentrates on giving young people the training they need to obtain
job possibilities in the IT/ITES sector.
• Early Harvest Programmes - This pillar consists of a variety of short-term initiatives that
have an immediate impact on the Indian digital ecosystem, such as an IT platform for mass
messaging, crowd sourcing of eGreetings, biometric attendance in public buildings, and WI-
FI in all higher education institutions.

Challenges of Digital India scheme

• On regular basis, when compared to industrialised nations, internet and Wi-Fi hotspot speeds
are poor.
• Small and medium-sized businesses have a difficult time embracing new technology.
• Limited capability of entry-level smartphones for smooth internet access.
• Digital technology is lacking in skilled labourers.
• In order to check and keep track of the growing threat of cybercrime, one million cybersecurity
experts are needed.

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Initiatives under Digital India Program

Digital India is a flagship program of the Government of India launched in 2015, with a vision
to transform the country into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy. The program
aims to leverage technology to improve governance, empower citizens, and promote inclusive growth
and development. Here are some of the key initiatives under the Digital India program:
1. Digital Infrastructure: The program aims to establish a robust digital infrastructure, including
high-speed broadband connectivity, secure data centers, and cloud services, to enable universal
access to digital services.
2. Digital Services: The program seeks to transform public services by making them available
online, simplifying procedures, and enhancing transparency and efficiency. Key services
include e-governance, e-health, e-education, e-commerce, and digital financial services.
3. Digital Literacy: The program aims to promote digital literacy and awareness among citizens,
particularly in rural and remote areas, to bridge the digital divide and enable digital inclusion.
4. Cybersecurity: The program seeks to strengthen cybersecurity measures and promote safe and
secure use of digital technologies. Initiatives include setting up a National Cyber Coordination
Centre, establishing a Cyber Swachhta Kendra, and developing cyber forensics and cybercrime
investigation capabilities.
5. Innovation and Entrepreneurship: The program aims to foster innovation and entrepreneurship
in the digital sector by promoting startup incubators, funding research and development, and
supporting digital skill development.
6. Mobile Connectivity: The program seeks to improve mobile connectivity in remote and rural
areas by setting up mobile towers, promoting mobile manufacturing, and expanding mobile
services.
The Digital India program has made significant progress in improving digital infrastructure,
expanding digital services, promoting digital literacy, and strengthening cybersecurity. The program
has also helped create opportunities for innovation, entrepreneurship, and inclusive growth in the
digital sector. Lets look more deeper about the programs under three categories.
Under Infrastructure
• Aadhaar System - One of the foundations of "Digital India," where each citizen receives an
individual identity or Aadhaar number, is the Aadhaar identification platform. The largest
biometric-based identification system in the world, Aadhaar, is a strategic policy tool for
promoting social and financial inclusion, public sector service reforms, effective budget
management, ease, and government that is centred on the needs of its citizens. It can be
used as the foundation or principal identity for a number of government aid systems and
programmes, promoting openness and good governance because it is distinctive and durable
enough to prevent duplicate or fake identities.
• Bharat Broadband Network - Bharat Broadband Network Limited was created by the Indian
government as a special purpose corporation under the Companies Act with a Rs. 1000
crore authorised capital. India has been ordered to build the National Optical Fiber Network
(NOFN). A total of approximately 2,50,000 Gram Panchayats dispersed throughout 6,600
Blocks and 641 Districts will be serviced by the incremental fibre installation.
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• Centre of Excellence For Internet of Things - In order to initiate the IoT ecosystem and give
India the opportunity to take the lead in the convergent sector of hardware and software by
using India's IT assets, the Centre of Excellence for IoT was announced as part of the Digital
India Initiative. The main objective of the centre is to create innovative applications and topic
knowledge. The centre will also support the growth of start-up communities, industry-ready
individuals, and an IOT entrepreneurial ecosystem.
• Cert-In - CERT-In was founded with the goal of securing Indian cyberspace. Along with
incident response and preventive services, the business offers security quality management
services. According to Section 70B of the Information Technology (Amendment) Act of 2008,
it has been designated as the national agency responsible for carrying out the following duties
in the area of cyber security:
Cybersecurity incidents are foreseen, warned of, and treated as an emergency based on
information that has been gathered, examined, and distributed about them.Provide guidelines,
cautions, vulnerability alerts, and white papers pertaining to information security procedures,
practises, and the detection, mitigation, and reporting of cyber incidents.
• Common Service Centres - One of the mission-mode projects for the Digital India Program
is the CSC scheme. CSCs serve as access points for individuals in remote and rural areas of
the nation to receive B2C services as well as essential public utility services, social assistance
programmes, healthcare, financial, educational, and agricultural services. The government can
realise its objective of establishing a socially, financially, and technologically inclusive society
due to this pan-Indian network, which takes into account the nation's regional, geographic,
linguistic, and cultural diversity.
• Cyber Swachhta Kendra - The Cyber Swachhta Kendra (Botnet Cleaning and Malware
Analysis Centre), part of the Government of India's Digital India initiative, aims to create a
secure cyber space by identifying botnet infections in India and alerting, enabling cleaning,
and securing end users' systems to ward off further infections. It was created to fulfil the
objectives of the nation's "National Cyber Security Policy," which seeks to develop a safe
cyber ecosystem. Internet service providers and product/antivirus manufacturers are closely
allied with this center's operations.
• Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY) - A flagship initiative of the Power
Ministry (MoP), the Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY) aims to provide
uninterrupted power to rural areas of India. Energy is essential for the development and progress
of the nation, therefore the DDUGJY might have a significant impact on rural households.
• DigiLocker- A digital wallet with the goal of empowering people is called DigiLocker. It is a
secure, cloud-based platform for creating, transmitting, and confirming important certifications
and documents that endure forever. A new paradigm for true paperless governance has been
formed by promoting the usage of digital records. Currently, DigiLocker provides access to
over 347 crore legitimate digital documents produced by more than 100 issuers, including
the State and Central Education Boards, the Income Tax Department, the Transportation
Department, and the Income Tax Department.
Under Services
• Accessible India Campaign and Mobile App - Sugamya Bharat Abhiyaan, also known as the
Accessible India Program, is a national flagship initiative with the goal of achieving universal
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accessibility, which enables people with disabilities to live independently and actively
participate in all aspects of society. The initiative strives to improve the built environment,
transportation system, and information and communication ecosystem's accessibility. The
mobile software uses crowdsourcing to gather comprehensive information about inaccessible
areas all around the nation. You can download the mobile app from the appropriate App Stores
for iOS, Android, and Windows.
• AgriMarket Mobile App- The mobile app was developed with the intention of keeping farmers
informed about agricultural prices and deterring them from holding distress sales. Farmers can
access data on crop pricing in markets 50 kilometres away from their smartphone using the
AgriMarket Mobile App. With the aid of mobile GPS, this software can automatically track
farmers' locations and collect market prices for commodities within a 50-kilometer range.
• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao - In order for girls to become independent citizens, the programme
works to ensure that they are born, raised, and educated without discrimination. The initiative
links community-level action with national, state, regional, and district-level interventions
in 100 districts, bringing together a variety of stakeholders for increased impact. On the
initiative's YouTube channel, you can find a number of videos related to the campaign.
• Bharat Interface for Money (BHIM) - Financial transactions are made simple, quick, and
easy with the use of the Bharat Interface for Money (BHIM) app, which utilises the Unified
Payments Interface (UPI). It enables immediate payments and money collection between
banks using a mobile phone or a payment address. At the moment, Android users can get the
Bharat Interface for Money app from the Google Playstore.
• Digital AIIMS - The first phase of the Digital AIIMS initiative began in January 2015 with
the creation of a functional link between AIIMS, the Unique Identification Authority of India
(UIDAI), and the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology. (MeiTY). Each patient
who visited AIIMS has their own personal health identification number created using the
Aadhar platform. The Unique Health Identification Number enabled AIIMS to provide a
Digital Identity to any patient who visited the hospital.
• e-Panchayat - A rural e-Government programme called e-Panchayat offers a complete
software solution with the goal of automating Gram Panchayat responsibilities. It is a
platform for panchayat officials to engage with the outside world with the aim of empowering
local communities to present and share their social, cultural, and economic practises, tales,
challenges and issues.
• E-Biz- Under the direction and control of the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion
(DIPP), Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, Infosys Technologies
Limited (Infosys) is putting eBiz into practise. By facilitating rapid and simple access to
government-to-business (G2B) services via an online platform, eBiz aims to enhance the
business environment in the nation. This will lessen needless delays in the numerous regulatory
procedures essential to establish and run a corporation.
Under Empowerment
• Aadhaar Enabled Payment Systems (AEPS) - Aadhaar authentication is used in AEPS, a
concept developed by banks, to enable online interoperable financial inclusion transactions
at the point of sale. Through a Business Correspondent utilising Aadhaar as identification,
it is a payment service that enables a bank client to access his or her Aadhaar-enabled bank
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account and carry out fundamental banking activities like balance inquiries, cash deposits,
cash withdrawals, and remittances.
• DIGIDHAN Bazaar - As part of the scheme, customers and businesses will be able to conduct
real-time digital transactions through the DIGIDHAN Bazaar. By hosting DigiDhan Melas
all throughout the nation, it hopes to help people download, install, and use different digital
payment systems for carrying out digital transactions.
• MyGov platform - It is an innovative endeavour in participatory governance that includes the
entire population. With the ultimate goal of assisting in India's social and economic growth,
MyGov's concept is to bring the government closer to the people through the use of an online
platform that facilitates a positive exchange of ideas and opinions between individuals and
experts.
• National Mission on Education - For the benefit of all students in higher education institutions
at any time and from any location, the National Mission on Education through Information
and Communication Technology (NMEICT) was created as a centrally financed programme.
The Ministry of Human Resource Development is undertaking a groundbreaking endeavour
to satisfy all of the educational and learning needs of students, teachers, and lifelong learners.
• PAY GOV India - A National Payment Service platform has been proposed for an unified
e-Government infrastructure that will give citizens an end-to-end transactional experience that
includes using the internet to access various services and paying for them online via a payment
gateway interface. The Center, States, and Departments can use the common infrastructure
created by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology in partnership with NSDL
Database Management Ltd (NDML) to offer a variety of services through their national and
state portals, including the capability to make online payments using net banking, credit cards,
and debit cards.

e-Commerce
e-commerce (EC), also known as electronic
commerce or internet commerce, is the term used
to describe the exchange of money and data in order
to carry out transactions involving the purchase
and sale of products and services through the
internet or any other computer network. Although
the term "E-commerce" is frequently used to refer
to the online sale of physical goods, it can also be
used to represent any type of business deal made
possible by the internet. Consumers can exchange
products and services over the internet without
being constrained by time or location.
A modern business approach that demands the needs of organizations, retailers/merchants
and customers to cut costs while also enhancing the quality of products and accelerating the delivery
of services. It also pertains to the use of computer networks for information retrieval and search in
support of corporate and individual decision-making. It is related to the online exchange of goods

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and services, including information, products, and services. E-commerce describes the electronic
interchange of business data in the following ways: −
• Electronic Data Exchange (EDI)
• Electronic Mail (e-mail)
• Electronic Bulletin Boards
• Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT)
• Other Network-based technologies
e-commerce enables local vendors to expand their reach across the global market sector
without needing to make additional investments by bridging the gap between them and worldwide
consumers. The consumers are given a wide range of purchasing possibilities. It makes it possible to
do business continuously. Here is a simplified diagram that shows the basic flow of e-commerce:

Fig 3.4: E-Commerce work flow- an example

This diagram in Figure 3.4 shows a customer browsing an online store, selecting items to
purchase, checking out, and providing payment information through a payment gateway. The payment
gateway then processes the payment and confirms the transaction to the customer and the online store.
This is a simplified representation of the e-commerce process, and there may be additional steps or
variations depending on the specific online store and payment gateway being used.
Objectives of E-Commerce
The goals of e-commerce may vary depending on the type of business, but they typically
include reducing expenses, boosting revenues, and enhancing customer satisfaction. Below are a few
of the major e-commerce goals:-
• Expanding the Customer Base - It has become imperative for businesses in the modern era
to grow their base of customers. This can be done by keeping the standard of the goods and
services while also providing some more value-added services. As a result, this serves as the
main goal of e-commerce businesses because it supports the rapid expansion of sales and
overall profit.

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• Enhanced Customer service - Customers can always get online assistance with the products
as ecommerce businesses operate around the clock. It is simpler for the consumer to choose
the best product out of all the possibilities because all the information about the products and
services is provided. Because services are now easily accessible online as well, businesses
are now able to offer better customer service. Another goal of e-commerce is better customer
service, and promoting this goal aids businesses in gaining a larger part of the market.
• Growing Business-Relationships - Because it is the fundamental and key thing, e-commerce
may be used to develop businesses. E-commerce has improved commercial relationships
between companies and customers since it allows for direct communication. Therefore, this
e-commerce goal also results in a larger serviceable market for the business.
The following are the three primary categories of e-commerce benefits:
Advantages to Organizations
• With the use of e-commerce, businesses may easily increase their market share in both domestic
and foreign markets. A company can simply find additional clients, the best suppliers, and
skilled business partners all around the world.
• By digitising information, e-commerce enables firms to lower the cost of producing, processing,
distributing, retrieving, and managing paper-based information.
• E-commerce boosts a company's reputation as a brand.
• E-commerce enables businesses to offer superior consumer services.
• E-commerce aids in streamlining business procedures and accelerating their speed and
effectiveness.
• Paperwork is lessened through e-commerce.
• The productivity of businesses is increased via e-commerce.
• It supports supply management of the "pull" variety. Using "pull" supply management, a
business procedure begins when a client request is received and just-in-time manufacturing
is used.
Advantages to Consumers
• It gives support around-the-clock.
• Consumers can make inquiries about a service or product and place orders from any location
at any time.
• The E-commerce application offers users more alternatives and faster product delivery.
• Users have more possibilities to compare and choose the more affordable and superior options
with the help of the e-commerce application.
• Before making a final purchase, a customer can post review remarks about a product, examine
what others are buying, or read the review comments of other customers.
• There are opportunities for virtual auctions with e-commerce.
• It offers information that is easily accessible.
• Instead of waiting for days or weeks, a consumer can view the pertinent precise information
in a matter of seconds.
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• As a result of increased rivalry brought on by e-commerce, businesses offer significant

discounts to customers.
Advantages to Society
• As customers don't need to go far to buy a product, there is reduced vehicle traffic and air
pollution as a result.
• E-commerce aids in product cost reduction, making things more affordable for those with
fewer means.
• Rural areas can now access services and goods that would otherwise be unavailable to them
thanks to e-commerce.
• E-commerce enables the government to provide public services like healthcare, education,
and social services at a lower cost and in a better way.
There are two main areas in which e-commerce drawbacks can be roughly categorised.

Technical Disadvantages
• Lack of system security, dependability, or standards may result from a poorly executed
e-commerce strategy.
• The software development sector is still developing and undergoing fast change.
• Network bandwidth could be a problem in many nations.
• The vendor may want particular web servers or other software, distinguishing the e-commerce
environment from network servers.
• It can occasionally be challenging to integrate an e-commerce programme or website with
pre-existing programmes or databases.
• Compatibility problems between software and hardware may arise because some e-commerce
applications may not work with a particular operating system or other components.
Non-Technical Disadvantages
• Initial cost – Building an e-commerce application internally may be highly expensive. Due
to errors and inexperience, there may be delays in the release of an e-Commerce application.
• Lack of user confidence due to the website being an unidentified, faceless seller
• It is challenging to persuade traditional customers to convert from physical to online/virtual
retailers because of this mistrust.
• It is challenging to guarantee the security or privacy of internet transactions.
• The inability to touch or feel items when purchasing online is a disadvantage.
• E-commerce applications are still developing and changing quickly.
• Many potential clients, such as those who reside in remote areas, still find it difficult and
expensive to use the internet.

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Features and Scope of e-Commerce

e-commerce has rapidly grown in popularity and has become a vital part of the modern
economy. Here are some of the key features and scope of e-commerce:
1. Global Reach: E-commerce has a global reach, allowing businesses to sell their products and
services to customers all over the world. This makes it easier for businesses to expand their
customer base and tap into new markets.
2. Convenience: E-commerce provides convenience to customers by allowing them to shop from
anywhere, anytime. Customers can browse products, compare prices, and make purchases
from the comfort of their own homes.
3. Personalization: E-commerce allows businesses to personalize their products and services
to meet the unique needs and preferences of their customers. This helps businesses to build
stronger relationships with their customers and increase customer loyalty.
4. Data Analytics: E-commerce provides businesses with valuable data analytics tools to track
customer behaviour, monitor sales, and optimize marketing strategies. This helps businesses
to make informed decisions and improve their overall performance.
5. Cost-effective: E-commerce can be more cost-effective than traditional brick-and-mortar
retail, as it eliminates the need for physical storefronts and reduces overhead costs.
The scope of e-commerce is vast, and it includes a wide range of activities, including:
1. Online Retail: E-commerce includes online retail platforms, such as Amazon, eBay, and
Alibaba, where businesses can sell their products to customers worldwide.
2. Business-to-Business (B2B) e-commerce: B2B e-commerce refers to the buying and selling
of goods and services between businesses. This includes electronic data interchange (EDI)
and other business-to-business transactions.
3. Business-to-Consumer (B2C) e-commerce: B2C e-commerce refers to the buying and selling
of goods and services between businesses and consumers. This includes online marketplaces,
online retailers, and other e-commerce platforms.
4. Mobile Commerce (m-commerce): M-commerce refers to the buying and selling of goods and
services through mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets. This includes mobile apps,
mobile-friendly websites, and other mobile commerce platforms.
e-commerce offers numerous benefits to businesses and consumers alike, and its scope continues to
expand as technology advances and new opportunities emerge.
Traditional commerce vs E-commerce
Traditional business refers to traditional business practises like buying or selling goods and
services face-to-face without the use of the internet. It also includes information sharing and economic
transactions. Because it takes time and requires a tangible method of conducting business, people no
longer favour this. E-commerce is a more recent idea of business style that includes e-commerce,
which is the term used to describe commercial transactions or exchanges of information, buying or
selling goods or services electronically with the use of the internet. Nowadays, individuals favour this

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method because it requires less time and doesn't require conducting business physically; everything
can be done online using a laptop, smartphone, or both. Let’s go through the differences:

Sl No. Traditional e-Commerce

Heavy reliance on interpersonal Electronic communication channels make it

1 communication for information simple to share information, reducing reliance
exchange. on face-to-face conversation.

Asynchronous communication and transactions

Synchronous interaction/transactions
are both possible. The electronic system
take place. Each communication
2 automatically decides when to carry out
or transaction requires manual
transactions or relay communications to the
intervention.
necessary parties.

In traditional trade, it is challenging to An e-commerce may quickly build and maintain

3
create and sustain standards of conduct. a standard approach.

Business communications depend on There is no human involvement in electronic

4
the abilities of the individual. markets or e-commerce.

Lack of a standardised platform since

E-commerce websites give users access to a
5 conventional business mainly relies on
platform where all information is centralised.
interpersonal interactions.

There isn't a standardised platform

for knowledge transmission because E-commerce offers a global platform to
6
interpersonal communication is so facilitate business and commercial activity.
important.

Types of e-Commerce Models

e-Commerce is a business strategy that enables buyers and sellers to transact online. There are
six main business models for eCommerce that act between consumers and businesses.
1. Business to Consumer (B2C) - When a company offers a product or service to a single
customer. It is the most widely used e-commerce model for consumer and corporate interaction. The
fundamental idea behind this business strategy is to sell goods to customers online. It has been around
for a long time and is utilised by businesses who sell goods directly to customers. Under this form
of eCommerce business model, the majority of transactions take place online, hence sellers are not
required to establish a physical storefront. The company and its clients are not in a direct relationship.
In reality, there is a third party in the middle who facilitates communication between the two sides by
giving them a forum for interaction. A potential customer's interest in certain products and services
might be shown on their website. B2C is therefore the retail eCommerce sector. It enables a firm

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to broaden its consumer base, to offer a greater selection at lower rates, to give the organisation
global visibility, and to be reachable twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. The Figure given
demonstrates the working pictorially. One of the best-performing businesses that uses the B2C
eCommerce business model is Amazon. The B2C eCommerce Model differs from other models in
three key ways:
• The cost of goods and services can be quickly adjusted to reflect market demand;
• You can use consumer input to improve your goods and services;
• Customer information can be used to target certain marketing efforts.

2. Business to Business (B2B) - When a company sells a product or service to another company, this
is known as e-commerce. It includes the biggest type of online commerce. According to this concept,
the buyer and the seller are two distinct entities. It resembles a manufacturer releasing products to a
store or wholesaler. This category makes up about 80% of all online transactions.
Examples: A company offers software as a service for use by other companies, such as
Intel selling processors to Dell and Lenova. This kind of e-commerce enables price reductions by a
significant margin, speeds up and simplifies business-to-business contacts, and reduces errors. B2B
ecommerce has a lot of benefits, including:
• You won't need to worry about shipping fees or returns. Since you just have one client, you
don't have to worry about handling returns or completing orders on your own.
• Since most customers only purchase what they actually need when they actually need it, you
may charge a premium.
• Because you are not constrained by shelf space or inventory management difficulties, you can
provide more complicated goods and services than traditional stores.

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3. Consumer to Consumer (C2C) - When one customer sells another customer a good or service.
Instead, trade involving customers or unincorporated private parties. C2C ecommerce companies,
often known as online marketplaces, link customers to trade goods and services. These companies
typically make money by collecting transaction or listing fees. C2C companies profit from the growth
that is driven by enthusiastic customers and sellers, but they also confront significant challenges with
quality assurance and technological upkeep. Many websites offer free classified ads, auctions, and
forums where people may purchase and sell their items using various online payment methods like
PayPal, which makes it simple to send and receive money online. This type gives customers a new
way to buy and sell services and items by enabling direct customer interaction. The C2C model has
the following advantages:

• You are able to sell to clients directly without having to pay any fees or commissions.
• You only need a computer and some room to store shipping supplies; you don't require an
inventory or a warehouse.
• You can forgo paying for pricey marketing strategies that aim to convert fewer clients.
The most well-known websites that use this ecommerce business model include eBay, Etsy,
Walmart, Alibaba, and Craigslist. A great example of a site where daily transactions between people
happen is eBay's auction service. These third-party businesses will limit their attention to arranging
commercial transactions between private clients. Business won't participate in any aspect of the sale.
Its main objective is to provide smooth transactions for goods and services.

4. Consumer to Business (C2B) - When a customer offers their own goods or services to a company
or group. Under this paradigm, a customer goes to a website that lists various commercial entities
offering a specific service. The advantages of B2B and B2C ecommerce are combined in this model.
The customer enters an approximate price for the service they want to purchase. As an illustration,
consider comparing the interest rates of personal loans and auto loans offered online by several
institutions.
A company approaches the customer and offers its services after meeting the customer's needs
within the allotted budget. Companies and businesses have demands, which may take the shape
of products or services that should make it easier for them to run their operations. For instance, a
business would want a website to set up an online store. The business may furthermore require a logo,
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a business strategy, or similar freelance services. They will thus need to engage independent content
writers. This model offers a variety of advantages, including:
• You can connect with more people who are interested in your products at wholesale costs.
• For small and medium-sized businesses who lack the resources for advertising efforts, it offers
an option.
• It enables you to get more clients from various industries.
• Without increasing your advertising spend, you can boost your sales volume.
These services are provided by websites like Upwork and Fiverr. Because consumers are
becoming specialists in this field, the C2B eCommerce business model makes sure that businesses
can simply acquire goods or services from them.

5. Business to Government (B2G) - Direct marketing of a company's goods and services to a

government body is known as business to government (B2G). It's possible for this organisation to be
municipal, county, state, or federal. This applies to any type of business dealings between a company
and a public official. It alludes to the usage of the Internet for government-related tasks including
licence applications and public procurement.

Working with other business or corporate firms or customers is quite different from interacting
or communicating with governmental organisations. For instance, businesses may pay taxes, submit
reports, or provide goods and services to governmental organisations.

5. Government to Business (G2B) - Governments contact businesses through websites that follow
the B2G paradigm. Under the G2B paradigm, businesses are the target market, and the initiative
is from a government body. In the e-commerce paradigm, corporations actually take on the role of
customers, while governmental organisations serve as, metaphorically speaking, the customer care

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service. Governments that are successful in digitising their services, establishing the most favourable
business climate, and enhancing fair market value will attract more foreign direct investment in the
globalised world. These websites allow users to submit applications and participate in auctions.
6. Government - to - Citizen (G2C) - Governments approach citizens generally by using G2C
model websites. Such websites support the sale of any kind of commodities, including vehicles and
machinery. A similar website offers other services like the ability to register birth, marriage, or death
certificates.

G2C websites' primary goal is to shorten the typical turnaround time for responding to citizen
requests for various government services.

Benefits and limitations of e-Commerce

E-commerce refers to the buying and selling of goods and services over the internet. Here are
some benefits and limitations of e-commerce:
Benefits of e-Commerce:
1. Increased Reach and Accessibility: E-commerce enables businesses to reach a wider audience,
regardless of geographical location, allowing them to tap into new markets.
2. Cost Savings: E-commerce eliminates the need for physical storefronts and reduces costs
associated with rent, utilities, and other overhead expenses.
3. Convenient and Flexible: E-commerce allows customers to shop from anywhere, at any time,
making it a more convenient and flexible option.
4. Personalization: E-commerce allows businesses to collect data on customer preferences and
behavior, enabling them to personalize their offerings and provide a better customer experience.
5. Increased Efficiency: E-commerce enables businesses to automate certain processes, such as
inventory management and order fulfilment, leading to increased efficiency and productivity.
Limitations of e-Commerce:
1. Security Concerns: E-commerce transactions involve the transfer of sensitive information,
such as credit card details, which makes them vulnerable to cyberattacks and fraud.
2. Lack of Personal Interaction: E-commerce lacks the personal touch of face-to-face interaction,
which can make it difficult to build trust with customers.

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3. Technical Issues: E-commerce relies on technology and can be prone to technical issues such
as website downtime, slow loading times, and other glitches.
4. Dependence on Shipping: E-commerce involves the delivery of physical products, which
means businesses are dependent on shipping companies to ensure timely and accurate delivery.
5. Limited Sensory Experience: E-commerce limits the sensory experience of seeing, touching,
and trying products before purchase, which can make it difficult for customers to evaluate
products.
E-commerce offers many benefits but also comes with its limitations. Businesses should weigh
the pros and cons of e-commerce before deciding whether to incorporate it into their operations.
Security System in e-Commerce
Any online transaction must include security as a necessary component. If an e-business'
security is violated, customers will lose faith in it. The following are the prerequisites for secure
electronic payments and transactions.
• Confidentiality – Information or data should not be available to anyone who is not authorised.
It shouldn't be tapped while being transmitted.
• Integrity – Data shouldn't be changed while being transmitted across the network.
• Availability − Information should be readily available wherever and whenever needed within
the designated time frame.
• Authenticity − Prior to granting a user access to the necessary data, there should be a system
in place to verify their identity.
• Non-Repudiability − It serves as a safeguard against the refusal of an order or a payment. A
sender shouldn't be able to retract their message once they have sent it. In a similar vein, the
message's recipient shouldn't be able to dispute receipt.
• Encryption − Only a user who has been granted access should be able to encrypt and decrypt
data.
• Auditability − Data should be captured to allow for auditability so that integrity standards can
be met.
The following are significant security measures −
• A very effective and useful method for protecting data being transmitted over networks is
encryption. Only the designated recipient can decode the data using the same or a different
secret code once it has been encrypted by the sender using a secret code.
• The legitimacy of the information is guaranteed by a digital signature. An electronic signature
that has been encrypted and password-protected is known as a digital signature.
• Security certificates are a special type of digital identification that can be used to confirm a
user's or a website's identity.
Major e-Commerce websites and its usage
There are many major e-commerce websites that are used by people all over the world. Here
are some of the most popular e-commerce websites and their usage:

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1. Amazon: Amazon is one of the largest e-commerce websites in the world. It offers a wide
range of products, including electronics, books, clothing, and more. Amazon is popular for its
fast shipping, competitive prices, and user-friendly interface.
2. Alibaba: Alibaba is a Chinese e-commerce company that operates online marketplaces for
businesses and consumers. It offers a range of products, including electronics, clothing, and
more. Alibaba is popular for its wide range of products and competitive prices.
3. eBay: eBay is an American e-commerce company that operates an online auction and shopping
website. It offers a wide range of products, including electronics, collectibles, and more. eBay
is popular for its auction-style selling and unique items.
4. Walmart: Walmart is an American retail company that operates both physical stores and an
e-commerce website. It offers a wide range of products, including electronics, clothing, and
more. Walmart is popular for its low prices and free in-store pickup.
5. Flipkart: Flipkart Pvt Ltd. is an Indian electronic commerce company based in Bengaluru,
India. When Sachin and Binny Bansal founded their business in 2007, it first specialised
in book sales before branching out into other product categories like consumer electronics,
fashion, and lifestyle goods.
6. Etsy: Etsy is an e-commerce website that specializes in handmade, vintage, and unique items.
It offers a wide range of products, including jewelry, home decor, and more. Etsy is popular
for its one-of-a-kind products and support for small businesses.
7. Target: Target is an American retail company that operates both physical stores and an
e-commerce website. It offers a wide range of products, including electronics, clothing, and
more. Target is popular for its trendy products and free two-day shipping.
These e-commerce websites offer a range of products and services that cater to the needs of
different customers. They are popular for their convenience, competitive prices, and user-friendly
interfaces.

References
1. https://schoolofpoliticalscience.com/what-is-e-governance/
2. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/e_commerce/index.htm
3. https://www.techarge.in/e-commerce-tutorial/
4. https://www.hostinger.in/tutorials/what-is-ecommerce
5. https://www.vskills.in/certification/tutorial/e-government-and-need-of-e-governance/
6. https://www.toppr.com/guides/business-law-cs/elements-of-company-law-ii/e-governance/
7. https://simplycoding.in/e-commerce-and-e-governance-notes/
8. https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/25880/1/Unit-1.pdf

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Module IV
Mobile Computing and Digital Payment System
Mobile Computing
Mobile computing is the practise of using portable electronic devices, such as laptops, tablets,
and smartphones, to access online information and programmes while on the move. In order to give
users access to information and communication services from any location, wireless networks and
cellular networks are used. With the help of mobile computing, we can now work remotely, stay in touch
with the outside world, and access information on the go. Mobile banking, mobile commerce, mobile
health, mobile learning, and mobile gaming are a few examples of mobile computer applications.
Android, iOS, Windows, and other operating systems are used by mobile computing devices. Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, and cellular networks like 4G and 5G are just a few of the wireless technologies that these
gadgets rely on. The use of mobile computers has greatly benefited people, businesses, and society at
large. Technology has fundamentally changed how we interact with one another, obtain information,
and do business, improving the convenience and effectiveness of our daily lives.

Introduction and Concepts

Mobile computing is the use of portable computing devices, such laptops, tablets, and
smartphones, to access digital content and applications whenever and wherever you choose. People
can now stay connected and productive while on the road thanks to the revolutionary changes it has
brought about in how we interact, work, and access information. The development of mobile operating
systems and application development platforms, as well as improvements in wireless networking
technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular data networks, have all contributed to the growth of
mobile computing. Many platforms are now home to millions of mobile applications that give users
access to a wide range of services and features, ranging from social networking and entertainment to
productivity and business tools.
Additionally, the introduction of new industries like mobile app development, mobile
marketing, and mobile commerce as a result of mobile computing has given companies new ways
to engage with customers and provide value. Mobile computing is predicted to become more crucial
in determining the direction of technology and how we interact with the environment around us as
it continues to develop. Mobile computing is a term that refers to the usage of portable computing
devices to enable access to digital applications and content from any location at any time. In order to
link these gadgets to the internet or other networks, wireless networks are used. With the development
of smaller, more potent, and more versatile computer devices, the idea of mobile computing has
changed over time.
Today, a vast range of gadgets fall under the umbrella of mobile computing, including
smartphones, tablets, laptops, wearables, and other smart devices. It makes it possible for people
to keep in touch, get information, and complete a variety of jobs from just about everywhere. The
amount and diversity of mobile applications that enable users to carry out a wide range of functions,

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such as social networking, entertainment, productivity, and communication, have multiplied along
with the growth of mobile computing. Mobile computing is made possible by a number of different
technologies, some of which are wireless networking protocols like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular
data networks like 3G, 4G, and 5G. The mobile computing ecosystem is crucially influenced by
mobile operating systems like iOS and Android as well as mobile application development platforms
like React Native, Flutter, and Xamarin.
Mobile computing has revolutionised the way we work, live, and engage with the world
around us, opening up new opportunities for organisations, people, and society at large.

Mobile Communication
The ability to communicate using mobile or wireless technology, such as smartphones, tablets,
and other mobile devices, is referred to as mobile communication. Voice, text, and multimedia
messages are just a few of the ways that it enables individuals to interact with one another whenever
they want, from anywhere. Wireless networks are necessary for mobile communication since they
link these gadgets to the internet and other networks. Devices can connect with one another without
the usage of physical cords thanks to wireless networks that transport data over the airwaves using
radio waves or other wireless technologies.
Mobile communication has completely changed how we communicate and has integrated
itself into our daily lives. It has enabled new types of communication like video calls, social media
messaging, and mobile conferencing and made it simpler for people to stay in touch with friends,
family, and coworkers regardless of where they are. The use of remote working, mobile commerce,
and mobile marketing has significantly impacted business and given it new chances to engage with
customers and provide value. There will be new opportunities and challenges for organisations, people,
and society as a whole as mobile communication technologies continue to advance and change the
way we communicate, work, and engage with the world.
Mobile communication has various benefits, some of which include:
• Mobility: People can stay in touch and interact with each other wherever they are thanks to the
portability and ease of use of mobile communication devices.
• Convenience: Instant communication is possible with mobile communication devices without
a physical connection or close proximity to a particular area.
• Accessibility: Prior to mobile communication, it was impossible for people to obtain
communication services if they lived in remote or rural locations.
• Efficiency: By enabling quicker communication and access to information, mobile
communication has enhanced efficiency in numerous fields, including business, healthcare,
and education.
• Cost-effective: Mobile communication has become more accessible and cost-effective
throughout time, allowing a wider spectrum of individuals to interact without having to spend
a lot of money.
• Versatility: Mobile communication devices are adaptable and may be used for a variety of
tasks, including calling, texting, accessing the internet, recording videos and taking images.

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These are a few other drawbacks of mobile communication, including:

• Distraction: Mobile communication devices can be a source of diversion, especially when
attention must be paid to other tasks like studying or driving.
• Addiction: Some people may develop a dependence on their mobile gadgets, which could
have an adverse effect on their mental health and general wellbeing.
• Health issues: Long-term usage of mobile devices can cause physical health issues like
eyestrain, headaches, neck discomfort, and back pain.
• Privacy issues: Hacking and privacy violations on mobile communication devices might result
in identity theft or the loss of sensitive data.
• Dependence: Using mobile communication devices too frequently can make people dependent
on them, making it difficult for them to operate or communicate without them.
• Social isolation: Mobile communications have made it simpler to keep in touch, but they can
also cause social isolation and a lack of face-to-face interaction.

Mobile Hardware and Software

Mobile hardware describes the actual parts of a mobile device, including laptops, tablets, and
smartphones. The display screen, battery, processor, memory, storage, cameras, and sensors are some
of these parts. As mobile device hardware has developed over time, it has gotten smaller, more potent,
and more energy-efficient, allowing users to do a variety of things including browse the internet, play
games, view videos, and run different programmes.
On the other hand, mobile software describes the apps, operating systems, and software that
operate on mobile devices. System software and application software are the two subcategories of
mobile software. The operating system (such as iOS or Android) and other system-level software that
controls the hardware elements of the device, such as the display, audio, and input/output systems, are
considered to be the main types of software that operate on mobile devices.
Contrarily, application software refers to computer applications that are intended to carry
out particular functions, such as social networking, entertainment, productivity, and communication.
Many mobile platforms are home to millions of applications that give consumers access to numerous
services and features.
Users are able to carry out a variety of actions and functions on their mobile devices, including
making phone calls, sending messages, accessing the internet, taking pictures and videos, and using
a variety of applications, thanks to the collaboration between mobile hardware and software. The
effectiveness of the software, the effectiveness of the hardware components, and the user's contact
with the device are only a few of the variables that affect how well mobile hardware and software
function.

Mobile Device Operating Systems

The software platforms that power mobile devices including smartphones, tablets, smartwatches,
and other mobile devices are known as mobile device operating systems. These operating systems

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provide the user interface for interacting with the device and are in charge of managing the hardware
and software resources of the device.
Operating systems for mobile devices have developed over time, from the early days of simple
feature phones with proprietary operating systems to the present smartphones with potent, open-
source operating systems. Modern mobile operating systems are very complex, including a variety
of features like cutting-edge touch-based user interfaces, fast internet connectivity, potent cameras,
and a huge selection of apps. Today's market offers a variety of operating systems for mobile devices.
Here are a few of the more well-liked ones:
Android: - Google created the Android smartphone operating system. Many various smartphone and
tablet manufacturers, including Samsung, LG, and HTC, use it because it is built on the Linux kernel.
The world's most popular mobile operating system is this one. The Java programming language can be
used to construct apps on this open-source platform. Android is an incredibly versatile and powerful
mobile operating system that has become the dominant platform for mobile devices worldwide. With
over 3 million apps available for download on the Google Play Store, users can take advantage
of a wide range of APIs and tools provided by the Android SDK. Developed using Java or Kotlin
programming languages, Android apps can be tailored to take advantage of advanced touch-based
interfaces, high-speed internet connectivity, powerful cameras, and a range of sensors such as GPS,
accelerometer, and gyroscope.
Additionally, Android also supports a range of biometric authentication methods, including
fingerprint scanning, face recognition, and iris scanning. The latest version of Android, Android 12,
was released in 2021 and includes a range of new features, such as improved privacy controls, new
UI elements, and enhanced performance. With its open-source nature, robust app ecosystem, and
powerful hardware support, Android is a popular choice among both users and developers.
iOS: The iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch from Apple all run the iOS operating system. It is a proprietary
operating system created by Apple especially for their hardware. It is a closed-source platform that
enables programmers to construct apps using Swift or Objective-C. iOS is based on Darwin, a Unix-
like operating system, and makes use of a specific XNU kernel. The first iOS version was launched
in 2007. A web browser, a camera app, a messaging app, and many other built-in apps are available
on iOS. Also, it supports apps from third parties that may be downloaded through the App Store. The
seamless integration of iOS smartphones with other Apple products, including the Mac and Apple
Watch, is well-known. Additionally, they provide services like iCloud, which enables customers to
sync their data across many devices.
Windows Phone: Microsoft's mobile operating system is called Windows Phone. It enables the.NET
framework for app development. It is created to function with Microsoft's Windows 10 desktop and
tablet operating system.
BlackBerry - The operating system used by BlackBerry smartphones is called BlackBerry OS. It
is well-liked by business users and has a high level of security built in. Java-based applications are
supported.
Tizen: Samsung and Intel created the open-source operating system Tizen. It is made to function on a
range of gadgets, such as smartphones, smartwatches, and TVs.
Firefox OS: Mozilla created the open-source operating system known as Firefox OS. It is mostly
used in emerging markets and is made to function on low-end handsets.
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Sailfish OS: Jolla created the open-source operating system known as Sailfish OS. Power users like
it because of how extensively customizable it is.

Generations of Mobile Communication Technologies

Mobile technology has advanced considerably since the launch of the first commercial mobile
phone by Motorola in 1983. The evolution of mobile communication has been noted in changes
to mobile telephony, whether they be in terms of technology, protocols, services offered, or speed.
The evolution of mobile communication technology has produced multiple generations, each with
a distinct set of characteristics and capabilities. The primary mobile communication technology
generations are as follows:
• 1G (First Generation)
• 2G (Second Generation)
• 3G (Third Generation)
• 4G (Fourth Generation)
• 5G (Fifth Generation)
You have already gone through these generations in detail in Module 1.

e-Commerce & m-Commerce System Security

Security of e-commerce and mobile commerce systems is essential for safeguarding sensitive
data, online transactions, and customer information. To safeguard sensitive data, including customer
information, payment information, and transaction records, e-commerce and mobile commerce
system security are crucial. The following are some of the most important security measures used by
e-commerce and mobile commerce systems:
• Encryption using the Secure Socket Layer (SSL) protocol protects sensitive data from being
intercepted and altered while it is being transmitted. For sensitive transactions like online
payments, SSL encryption is frequently utilised. Information is encoded using encryption so
that only those with the proper permissions can read it. This can be done by encrypting data
as it passes between the customer's device and the e-commerce/m-commerce platform using
a variety of encryption mechanisms, such as Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer
Security (TLS).
• Two-Factor Authentication (2FA): 2FA adds an additional layer of protection by forcing users
to enter two pieces of identification, like a password and a code texted to their mobile device,
in order to access their account.
• Tokenization is the process of swapping sensitive data, like credit card numbers, out for non-
sensitive tokens. This lessens the chance of data theft by preventing the real data from being
stored in the system.
• Firewalls: Firewalls are network security systems that keep an eye on and manage incoming
and outgoing traffic to keep the system safe from unwanted access.

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• Frequent Security Audits: Regular security audits can assist in identifying system vulnerabilities
and addressing them prior to exploitation.
• Mobile Device Management (MDM): MDM solutions let businesses remotely control the
management of mobile devices, imposing security regulations including device encryption
and remote device wiping in the event of loss or theft.
• Fraud detection: To spot suspicious activity and stop fraud, cutting-edge technologies for
fraud detection can examine transactions and user behaviour.

Introduction to mobile applications

A mobile application, sometimes known as a mobile app, is a kind of application software
created specifically for use on mobile devices, like smartphones, tablets, and other smart gadgets.
Apps often provide users a variety of functionalities, from entertainment and social networking to
productivity and utility utilities, and can be downloaded via an app store or a marketplaces. The
software runs inside the operating system once it is launched and stays active until you close it. They
are tiny, standalone pieces of software that can serve as a browser, game, shopping app, calculator,
and more.
Programming languages like Java, Swift, Kotlin, or React Native are used to create mobile
apps that are tailored to the specific hardware and operating systems of mobile devices.They frequently
have user-friendly interfaces and straightforward controls, making them simple to operate with touch-
based inputs and on small screens. Mobile apps come in a variety of forms, including hybrid, native,
and web apps. While web applications are accessed through a web browser and operate on a remote
server, native apps are created exclusively for a particular mobile operating system (such as iOS or
Android). Hybrid apps combine aspects of native and online apps, giving developers access to native
functionality while using web technologies.
Mobile Platform
Mobile application platforms provide developers with a comprehensive environment for
creating, coding, testing, deploying, and managing mobile applications. These platforms are designed
to be user-friendly and intuitive, making them ideal for developers of all skill levels. With the increasing
prevalence of personal mobile devices, the concept of BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) has become
increasingly popular, allowing employees to use their own devices for both personal and professional
purposes. This requires developers to create mobile apps that are compatible with a variety of operating
systems, such as Android and iOS. Mobile apps are available through application delivery platforms,
such as the App Store and Google Play Store, and are designed to run on mobile devices such as
phones, tablets, and watches. When choosing a mobile operating system, it is important to consider
the user-friendliness of the interface, as well as the ability to transfer apps from one system to another.
Types of Mobile Applications
Native applications: Native apps are designed specifically for a mobile device's OS. Thus, you may
create native Android or native iOS mobile apps in addition to all the other platforms and devices.
Because they are only made for one platform, Blackberry apps and iOS apps cannot be used on
Windows phones or Android phones. These can be accessible by icons on the home screen and
are present on the device. Native applications are created specifically for a given platform or OS,

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requiring the creation of unique source code for each platform, such as iOS, Android, and Windows.
You won't be able to use Android apps, in other words.
App developers use a variety of programming languages to create apps for specific operating
systems. The following are the most commonly used programming languages- Swift, C++, Java,
Python, and React Native
Native apps have numerous advantages which includes improved performance velocity,
improved processing, a more fluid native user interface, compatibility with the characteristics of mobile
devices. The drawbacks of native apps are numerous. Developing native apps requires expertise in
specific programming languages, which can be difficult to master. Additionally, creating OS-exclusive
apps can be time-consuming, as separate codebases must be developed for each platform.
Examples of native apps include Google Maps, Lyft, Spotify, Pokemon Go, Telegram, Waze,
and WhatsApp. These apps are popular due to their ability to take full advantage of the features and
capabilities of the device they are installed on.
Hybrid applications - Hybrid mobile apps are a combination of native and web apps, taking full
advantage of a native app container to access hardware features such as the camera, contacts,
Bluetooth, and more. At the same time, they also function like web applications, retrieving web-
based content and displaying it through a mobile WebView. Unlike native apps, hybrid apps are not
limited to a specific operating system, making them highly compatible across platforms. Hybrid apps
are created using a variety of technologies, such as Appy Pie, AppMakr, CSS, Flutter, HTML5, Ionic,
JavaScript, Objective-C, PhoneGap/Apache Cordova, React Native, Swift, and Xamarin.
Hybrid apps offer a number of advantages, including a quicker development cycle, cross-
platform functionality, cost-effectiveness, and offline mode capabilities. However, hybrid apps also
have some drawbacks, such as slower processing speed and limited access to hardware features,
resulting in a less seamless user interface. Hybrid apps are used by some of the world's most popular
companies, including Facebook, Gmail, Instagram, LinkedIn, Twitter, Uber, and Yelp.
Web Apps - Web apps behave similarly to native apps, but they are accessed through a web browser
on a mobile device. They are not standalone applications that require downloading and installing code
into the device; rather, they are responsive websites that adjust their user interface to the device being
used. When you come across the option to "install" a web app, it usually just bookmarks the website
URL on the device. One type of web app is the progressive web app (PWA), which is essentially a
native app running inside a browser.
Web apps are typically cheaper and faster to build and release, eliminating storage space
problems and making them easy to update and maintain. Additionally, they are accessible via any
mobile browser. The main disadvantage of web apps is that they are browser-dependent and require
an internet connection to function. Additionally, they may have limited functionalities compared
to native apps. Popular mobile web apps include Amazon, Basecamp, Canva, eBay, Google Docs,
HubSpot, Microsoft Office, Netflix, Slack, Trello, and Walmart.
Progressive Web Apps (PWAs) are web applications that offer the same functionalities as native
apps, but with improved loading and processing speeds and better responsiveness. PWAs are also
adaptable, taking on the properties of native apps when launched on smartphones and tablets, and
functioning the same as responsive websites when used on desktop computers, providing a consistent
user experience. Technology used to create PWAs includes AngularJS, CSS, HTML5, JavaScript,
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Lighthouse, Magento PWA Studio, Polymer, PWA Library, React PWA Library, ScandiPWA, VueJS,
and WebAssembly.
The advantages of PWAs include no installation required, more efficient data processing and
loading, versatility, and automatic updates whenever a user opens them. However, there are some
potential drawbacks, such as problems with hardware integration, limited access to hardware features,
and UI variations depending on the web browser. Examples of PWAs include 2048, Adidas, Pinterest,
Starbucks, Tinder, and Trivago.

Different categories of mobile applications

There are several categories of mobile applications, including:
Cooking Applications - Cooking mobile applications are sophisticated software programs designed
to provide users with an array of recipes, cooking tips, and other culinary information. These apps
are typically available for download on mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets, and offer a
variety of features to make cooking easier and more enjoyable.
Some of the most common features of cooking apps include: recipe collections, step-by-step
instructions with photos or videos, shopping lists, meal planning, cooking tips and techniques, and
social sharing. Recipe collections provide users with access to a large selection of recipes that can
be filtered by cuisine, ingredient, dietary restrictions, and cooking time. Step-by-step instructions
make it easy to follow along with the cooking process, while shopping lists help users remember all
the ingredients they need. Meal planning features allow users to plan out their meals for the week
or month, and cooking tips and techniques provide helpful advice on how to chop vegetables or
cook a perfect steak. Finally, social sharing features enable users to share their recipes or cooking
experiences with others on social media platforms.
Popular cooking apps offer a variety of features to make cooking easier and more enjoyable.
Yummly provides users with a vast selection of recipes that can be filtered by diet, allergies, and
cuisine, as well as the ability to create shopping lists and meal plans. Allrecipes offers a large collection
of user-generated recipes, along with helpful cooking tips and techniques. Cookpad allows users to
share their own recipes and cooking experiences with a community of users. Tasty provides step-by-
step video instructions for many of its recipes, making it easy for users to follow along. BigOven
offers a meal planning feature that allows users to plan out their meals for the week or month, as well
as a collection of recipes and cooking tips. With these apps, anyone can become a master chef in no
time!
Educational Applications - Education applications, or education apps, are software programs
designed to provide users with educational content and resources. These are becoming increasingly
popular as technology continues to revolutionize the education sector. From language learning to
coding and programming, there is a wide range of applications available on mobile devices to help
students and educators alike.
These apps are typically available for download on mobile devices such as smartphones and
tablets, and offer a variety of features to enhance the learning experience. The use of educational
applications helps students learn concepts better. Children frequently find books to be boring, but
substituting them with colourful pages and lively animations can make studying thoroughly enjoyable.
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Children can learn while using applications for educational games. Students can modify their personal
learning speed and learn outside of the classroom. Additionally, many educational applications,
according to recent reviews, are helpful for teachers as well because they can help them organise
their teaching better, educate themselves, etc. Language Learning applications provide users with
the opportunity to learn a new language, either for travel or educational purposes. Test Preparation
applications help students prepare for standardized tests such as the SAT, GRE, and GMAT. Online
Courses offer access to various courses on different subjects, often through videos, quizzes, and
interactive content. Learning Management Systems allow educators to manage their courses and
communicate with their students, often providing features such as grading, attendance, and discussion
forums. Educational Games provide interactive and engaging games that teach various subjects,
including math, science, and language arts. Reference Tools provide access to various reference
materials such as dictionaries, thesauruses, and encyclopaedias. Study Aids offer various tools to help
students study, such as flashcards, study guides, and quizzes. Coding and Programming applications
provide coding tutorials and tools for users to learn coding skills. Virtual Reality Learning applications
offer immersive learning experiences through virtual reality technology, enabling students to explore
and learn in 3D environments. Finally, STEM Learning applications provide resources and tools for
learning science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) subjects, such as physics, chemistry,
and coding.
Common features of education apps include: learning content presented in a multimedia
format, personalized learning experiences tailored to the user's learning style and pace, gamification
elements such as points, badges, and leaderboards to motivate users, progress tracking and feedback,
collaboration and communication with other users or teachers, and augmented reality technology for
immersive and interactive learning experiences. With these features, education apps provide users
with an engaging and effective way to learn. Here are some examples of educational applications:
Duolingo, a language learning app that provides engaging, gamified lessons in various languages; Khan
Academy, a comprehensive online learning platform offering courses in math, science, humanities,
and more; Quizlet, a study aid app that provides flashcards, quizzes, and games for various subjects;
TED, an app that provides access to TED Talks, educational lectures on various topics from experts
in their fields; Coursera, an online learning platform that offers courses, certificates, and degrees from
top universities; Udemy, an online learning platform that offers courses in various subjects, taught by
experts in their fields. With these educational applications, students and teachers alike can access a
wealth of knowledge and resources to help them learn and grow.
Communication apps - Communication apps are mobile applications that enable users to stay
connected with each other through messaging, calling, and video conferencing. The most crucial
communication instrument, utilised daily by billions of people, is the mobile phone. Apps have been
able to act as a requirement to the lifestyle of millions of people for a range of purposes including
text-based communications, calls, video chats, and audio messaging by connecting people across
the world at a low cost and in a matter of seconds. For various reasons, there are several sorts of
communications apps. We can conduct video chats, video conferences, voice chats, share photographs,
videos, and locations with others using these applications. Numerous applications offer end-to-end
encryption and excellent security.
Popular communication apps include WhatsApp, Facebook Messenger, Skype, Zoom,
Telegram, Slack, Discord, Viber, Google Meet, and Signal. Each of these apps offers unique features

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that make it easier for users to communicate with one another. For example, WhatsApp allows users
to send text, voice, and video messages, as well as make voice and video calls. Facebook Messenger
enables users to connect with their Facebook friends through text, voice, and video messages. Skype
provides video calling, messaging, and screen sharing capabilities. Zoom enables users to participate
in virtual meetings and webinars, share screens, and collaborate with others. Telegram offers end-
to-end encryption for secure messaging, as well as group chats and file sharing capabilities. Slack is
a team communication app that provides messaging, file sharing, and collaboration tools for work
teams. Discord is a communication app designed for gaming communities that provides voice and
text chat capabilities. Viber allows users to make voice and video calls, send messages, and share files.
Finally, Google Meet is a video conferencing app that allows users to participate in virtual meetings,
webinars, and online classes, while Signal provides end-to-end encryption for secure messaging and
voice calls. With these communication apps, users can stay connected with their friends, family, and
colleagues no matter where they are.
Shopping Applications - Shopping applications are mobile apps that allow users to browse and
purchase products from their mobile devices. To better service their customers, several retailers
develop their own mobile applications. Making simple online payments and shopping for goods
online is comfortable for everyone. All people's purchasing behaviours have been influenced by cell
phones and shopping apps. The benefits of mobile shopping apps include the following:
• Both time and money will be saved.
• It's simple to compare pricing.
• Flexibility: You can purchase the goods anytime you want and choose from a variety of sizes,
patterns, and colours.
• For less money, you can purchase the same item that you saw in your neighbourhood shop.
• Your "Shopping basket" icon serves as a visual reminder of how much money you'll be
spending.
• Accepts a variety of payment methods.
Here are some examples of popular shopping applications:
• Amazon: One of the most widely-used online shopping applications, Amazon offers an
extensive selection of products, from electronics and books to clothing and more.
• Walmart: A shopping application that provides access to a wide variety of products at
competitive prices, from groceries to electronics to household goods.
• eBay: An online marketplace where users can buy and sell goods in various categories, such
as fashion, electronics, and home goods.
• Etsy: An e-commerce website that specializes in unique, handmade, and vintage items from
around the world.
• Zara: A fashion retailer that offers the latest trends in clothing, shoes, and accessories.
• Sephora: A beauty retailer that offers a wide range of cosmetics, skincare, and fragrance
products.

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• Best Buy: A shopping application that offers a comprehensive selection of electronics,

computers, and appliances.
• Macys: A department store that offers a wide variety of clothing, shoes, accessories, home
goods, and beauty products.
Travel Applications - Travel applications are mobile apps that help users plan and organize their trips,
book accommodations, find transportation, and discover new destinations. Here are some examples
of popular travel applications that make traveling easier and more enjoyable:
• Airbnb: This travel app allows users to book unique accommodations around the world, from
apartments to villas to treehouses.
• Booking.com: This travel app provides access to a wide range of accommodations, including
hotels, apartments, and vacation rentals.
• Expedia: This travel app offers unbeatable deals on flights, hotels, rental cars, and activities
for travelers.
• Kayak: This travel app allows users to search for flights, hotels, and rental cars, and compare
prices from various travel websites.
• TripAdvisor: This travel app provides reviews and recommendations for hotels, restaurants,
and attractions, as well as flight and hotel booking tools.
• Skyscanner: This travel app helps users find the cheapest flights, hotels, and car rentals for
their trips.
• Hopper: This travel app predicts future flight prices and alerts users when it's the best time to
book.
• Roadtrippers: This travel app helps users plan road trips by suggesting scenic routes, attractions,
and accommodations along the way. With these travel apps, you can easily plan and book your
next trip with ease and confidence!
LifeStyle Applications - Lifestyle applications are mobile apps that offer features and tools to help
users manage their daily lives and improve their overall wellbeing. Popular lifestyle applications
include MyFitnessPal, which allows users to track their calorie intake, exercise, and nutrition goals;
Headspace, a meditation app that provides guided meditations and mindfulness exercises to reduce
stress; Mint, a personal finance app that helps users track their spending, create budgets, and manage
their bills and investments; Nike Training Club, a fitness app that provides personalized workout
plans, exercise videos, and progress tracking tools; Fitbit, a health and fitness app that allows users
to track their physical activity, sleep patterns, and heart rate; Calm, a meditation and sleep app that
provides guided meditations, relaxation exercises, and sleep stories to reduce anxiety and improve
sleep; Forest, a productivity app that uses gamification to help users stay focused and limit phone
usage; Goodreads, a social networking app for book lovers that allows users to track their reading
progress, discover new books, and join book clubs; and Daylio, a mood tracker app that helps users
log their moods, activities, and habits to improve mental wellbeing. Vivino is also a popular lifestyle
app, allowing users to discover new wines, scan wine labels for ratings and reviews, and track their
wine preferences. With these lifestyle applications, users can easily manage their daily lives and
improve their overall wellbeing.
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Digital economy
The term "digital economy" refers to business operations carried out through digital platforms
like the internet, mobile smartphones, and other digital technology. Online payments, e-commerce,
digital marketing, online banking, and many more activities fall under this category. The broad use
of digital technology and the rising use of mobile devices have fostered a recent boom in the digital
economy. The World Bank estimates that the global digital economy was worth $11.5 trillion in
2016 and will expand at a 5.6% annual rate from 2017 to 2022. The way businesses conduct their
operations and engage with customers has been significantly impacted by the digital economy.
Small and medium-sized businesses (SMEs) now have access to new markets and opportunities,
giving them the ability to contact clients around the world and compete with bigger businesses.
Other business models, such the sharing economy and the gig economy, have also emerged as a
result of the digital economy. These business concepts, which are built on online marketplaces that
link customers and sellers, have upended established sectors including travel, lodging, and retail.
The digital economy does, however, also come with risks and difficulties, particularly in terms of
data security and privacy. Data is proliferating as a result of increased usage of digital technology,
generating questions regarding how this data is handled.
The digital economy is more sophisticated than merely using technologies to carry out
already-existing functions on computers, despite the fact that some businesses and individuals do so.
It goes beyond merely using a computer to complete tasks that were previously completed manually
or with analogue equipment. Instead, the digital economy emphasises the chance and requirement
for businesses and people to use technology to carry out those duties more effectively, quicker,
and frequently in a different way than before. Moreover, the phrase refers to the capacity to use
technologies to carry out operations and take part in activities that weren't previously feasible. The
associated concept of "digital transformation" includes such chances for current companies to do
things more, differently, and in new ways.

Methods of Payments on the Internet

Internet banking, also known as online banking, net banking, e-banking, or web banking,
allows customers of a bank or financial institution to perform transactions online through a website
interface. In simpler terms, online banking enables users to execute financial transactions over the
internet. This system provides customers with the ability to conduct both financial and non-financial
transactions from their net banking account. Users can transfer funds from their account to other
accounts of the same bank or different banks using a website or an online application.
The customer utilizes a resource and a medium to conduct financial transactions. This resource
is typically an electronic device such as a computer, laptop, or mobile phone, while the internet
serves as the medium that makes this technology possible. In order to gain access to internet banking,
customers must be account holders with a bank that offers this service. For conducting business on
the internet, there are many payment options available. The following are a few of the most popular
ways to pay online:
• Credit and Debit Cards: The most common means of payment for online transactions is credit
and debit cards. These enable users to quickly and securely pay for goods and services using
their card information.
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• Online payment systems: Users can conduct transactions using their online accounts on a
number of online payment systems, including PayPal, Stripe, and Square. These platforms
provide chargeback resolution, fraud protection, and secure payment processing.
• Bank Transfers: Another well-liked method of payment for online transactions is the bank
transfer. Direct bank account transfers from the user's account to the merchant's account are
a part of them.
• Mobile Payments: Smartphone payments are getting more and more common, especially for
minor transactions. Users are able to utilise their mobile devices to make payments through
mobile payment platforms like Apple Pay and Google Pay.
• Crypto currencies: Bitcoin and Ethereum are two examples of crypto currencies that are
increasingly used as a means of payment for online transactions. They provide reduced
transaction costs together with quick, safe, and anonymous transactions.
• E-wallets: Electronic wallets like Skrill and Neteller enable users to store their credit card
information and conduct transactions without repeatedly entering it.
In general, there are several payment options accessible for conducting business online. The user's
preferences, the nature of the transaction, and the required level of security all influence the payment
method selection.

e-Cash
Electronic cash, commonly known as e-Cash, is a digital payment system that enables users
to make online payments securely and anonymously without the use of a credit card or bank account.
It is a type of digital money that mimics the use of actual money. The way e-Cash operates is by
producing digital tokens that correspond to specific amounts of money. These tokens can be used to
make payments to businesses or other users who accept e-Cash payments. They are kept on a user's
device or in a digital wallet. The user is not required to divulge any personal information or payment
information because the transactions are often anonymous.
The anonymity of e-Cash is one of its main benefits. e-Cash transactions can be used to make
anonymous purchases because the user is not required to give any personal information. Those that
respect their privacy or are concerned about identity theft may find this to be especially helpful. The
security of e-Cash is another benefit. e-Cash transactions are more secure than conventional payment
methods since they are encrypted and can be secured by robust security mechanisms.
e-Cash, however, also has significant disadvantages. As a digital currency, it is susceptible to
hacking and cyber-attacks. Also, not many businesses accept e-Cash, so consumers can have trouble
locating locations to spend it.
In general, e-Cash is a cutting-edge payment mechanism that provides security and anonymity,
but it might not be appropriate for everyone. When choosing to use e-Cash for online transactions,
customers should carefully weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the payment option.

e-cheques
e-cheques, often known as electronic cheques, are a type of digital payment that let's people
or companies send money electronically from their bank accounts to the receivers' bank accounts.
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e-cheques function similarly to conventional paper cheques, however they are made and sent
electronically rather than physically being written and deposited.
The payer normally has to have access to online banking services or a platform that accepts
e-cheques in order to use an e-cheque. By entering the recipient's bank account information, the
payment amount, and any other required information, they will start the payment process. The
money will then arrive in the recipient's bank account, where it will be processed and verified by the
recipient's bank.
e-cheques, which do not require physical paper or manual processing, can be a more practical
and effective payment method than traditional cheques. However, depending on the payment service
used, it may still take a few days for an e-cheque to clear and may be subject to surcharges.

Credit cards on the Internet

Credit cards are frequently used for online transactions because they give customers a simple
and safe way to pay. A consumer often needs to submit their credit card information on the payment
page of the merchant's website in order to use a credit card for online purchases.
A website will normally employ encryption technology to safeguard the sensitive information
when a customer inputs their credit card information on the site. This makes it more difficult for
someone to view the credit card information while it is being transmitted over the internet. The
payment information is subsequently sent from the merchant's website to the payment gateway or
processor, which manages the transaction and approves the payment. Many credit card issuers now
provide extra security precautions for online transactions to further increase security. To help prevent
fraud and unauthorised access to credit card information, some credit cards, for instance, offer virtual
card numbers that can be used for a single transaction or employ two-factor verification.
Customers should exercise caution while using their credit cards online and should only buy
products from reliable sellers. Also, consumers should routinely check their credit card statements for
any unusual behaviour or unlawful purchases.

Electronic Payment Systems

Electronic Payment Systems (EPS) are a type of financial system that allows for the secure
and efficient transfer of funds between parties. By eliminating the need for physical cash or checks,
EPS enables faster and more convenient transactions. There are various types of electronic payment
systems available, each with its own unique features and benefits:
• Credit and Debit Cards: Credit and debit cards are one of the most popular forms of electronic
payment systems. They allow users to make payments for goods and services quickly and
securely by swiping their card or entering their card details online.
• Mobile Payments: Mobile payments allow users to make payments using their mobile devices.
This can be done through mobile wallets or mobile banking apps, which link to the users
bank account or credit card. Mobile payments are becoming increasingly popular due to their
convenience and ease of use.

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• Online Payments: Online payments allow users to make payments over the internet. This can
be done through various payment gateways, such as PayPal or Stripe, which securely process
transactions between the buyer and seller.
• Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT): EFT is a system that allows for the transfer of funds between
bank accounts electronically. This can be done through wire transfers, direct deposits, or
automatic bill payments, providing users with a secure and convenient way to manage their
finances. EFT is a widely-used method of transferring money from one bank account to
another, regardless of whether the accounts are held in the same bank or different banks.
This process can be completed using an Automated Teller Machine (ATM) or a computer. In
recent years, internet-based EFT has become increasingly popular. Customers can log into
their bank's website, register another bank account, and request a transfer of a certain amount
of money to that account. If the accounts are held in the same bank, the transfer is completed
immediately; if the accounts are held in different banks, the transfer request is sent to an
Automated Clearing House (ACH) to complete the transaction, and the amount is deducted
from the customer's account. Once the transfer is complete, the customer is notified by their
bank.

Need and uses of Electronic Payment System

With the development of technology, electronic payment systems (EPS) are growing in
popularity, and consumers are starting to favour online purchases over more conventional payment
methods. A variety of financial transactions that take place over an electronic network are referred to
as electronic payment systems. These transactions can be carried out online, on mobile devices, or
through other gadgets. Due to the numerous advantages they provide, EPS have grown in popularity
in recent years. Some of the most important EPS needs and applications are as follows:
• Convenience: Without the need for actual currency or checks, EPS enables quick and simple
transactions. Convenience is one of the main requirements for electronic payment systems.
Online transactions can be carried out from any location at any time on any device with an
internet connection. As a result, there is no need to carry cash, visit a bank, or stand in line.
• Security: Compared to conventional payment methods, electronic payment systems provide a
higher level of security. Technologies for encryption and authentication aid in preventing theft
and misuse of sensitive data, such as credit card information. Fraud is less likely, and the risk
of loss or theft is reduced. Businesses may be able to lower operating expenses and increase
cash flow as a result.
• Efficiency: Compared to conventional payment methods, electronic payment solutions are
quicker and more effective. They simplify the payment procedure and do away with the need
for human processing, lowering the possibility of mistakes.
• Security: To secure sensitive financial information and lower the risk of fraud and identity
theft, EPS uses encryption and other security measures.
• Efficiency: EPS improve the payment process by eliminating the need for human processing
and documentation, which can help people and businesses save time and money.
• Sales growth: By providing clients with a larger selection of payment options, including
online and mobile payments, EPS can assist businesses in growing their sales. It has been
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demonstrated that firms' sales grow when they use electronic payment systems. Businesses
may serve a wider client base and make it simpler for customers to make purchases by
providing a variety of payment alternatives, such as credit cards, debit cards, and e-wallets.
• Global reach: EPS can help with cross-border transactions, enabling people and companies to
send and receive money from anywhere in the world. By enabling cross-border transactions,
electronic payment systems have made it possible for firms to operate globally. They make it
simpler for firms to grow their operations abroad since they do away with the requirement for
currency exchange and allow transactions to be done in real-time.
• Savings: EPS can lower the cost of processing payments, including the cost of printing and
handling actual money, which can save money for both consumers and companies.
Compared to conventional payment methods, EPS offers a more practical, safe, and effective
means of sending and receiving payments. EPS can aid firms in growing internationally and are
practical, safe, and effective. As a result, in today's digital economy, they have emerged as a crucial
tool for both enterprises and individuals.

Electronic Fund Transfer

A digital transfer of funds from one bank account to another is known as an electronic funds
transfer (EFT), sometimes known as a direct deposit. These transfers are conducted without the
involvement of bank workers. It is a digital transaction, thus no paper documentation are required.
Due to its ease of use, accessibility, and directness, EFT has surpassed other money transfer methods
as the most popular choice. Paper checks becoming less and less common as firms use EFT more
frequently because it is cheaper, faster, and requires less labour overall.
An EFT transfer is typically extremely simple. The fund sender and fund receiver are the two
parties involved. When a sender requests a transfer, the request travels from the sender's bank to the
receiver's bank via a number of digital networks that can either be connected to the internet or come
from a payment terminal. Senders can range from an individual paying a vendor for a service like
energy to an employer, a business, or both. Similarly, beneficiaries can be organisations like workers,
suppliers of commodities, retailers, and utility companies. The majority of payments are cleared, or
finished, within a few days. The following steps are commonly included in EFT:
• Authorization: Using online banking, mobile banking, or other electronic payment platforms,
the sender of the funds initiates the transaction by authorising the transfer.
• Verification: The sender's bank checks for any necessary details and confirms that there are
funds in the sender's account.
• Transmission: Using a secure electronic network, the bank of the sender sends the recipient's
bank the payment information.
• Verification: The recipient's bank validates the receipt of the funds in the recipient's account
and verifies the transaction information.
EFT is a preferred payment method worldwide, and there are various ways to take part in EFT
payments. Here are the most common types:

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• Electronic Checks: With this payment, a digital check is generated upon the payer’s
authorization. E-checks are commonly used for vendor payments.
• Direct Deposit: Funds are automatically deposited into an account with minimal paperwork.
This method is popular among employees, but requires bank account information for the
recipient and other potential information for entry.
• Phone Payments: This casual transaction occurs during a phone call, where the payee supplies
their information, typically a card number, to the recipient over the phone. The transaction
is processed on the recipient’s line, and requires very little work from the payee after verbal
authorization. This is common for utility payments.
• ATM Transactions: A convenient global option, ATM transactions occur at electronic kiosks
found in cities and banks all over the world. A person withdraws cash from their bank account
by inserting their debit card into a machine, which transmits information to the bank and
processes the request to dispense money. It is an instant transaction.
• Card Transactions: Credit cards and debit cards are the most commonly used form of payment
around the world, replacing cash. This can be done in person or online, and entails the swipe,
dip, or entry of a card, during which account information is electronically received and a
payment withdrawal is approved. The payment is then scheduled and processed within a day
or two.
• Internet Transactions: This process is similar to tapping, swiping, or inserting a card, but
involves manual entry into a point of sale field, followed by clicking a payment button. This
process does the same as the above, but is done online.
EFT offers several advantages over traditional payment methods, such as reducing the need for
physical cash or checks and providing a faster and more secure payment process. EFT can also be
used for recurring payments, such as automatic bill payments, making it a convenient option for both
individuals and businesses.
One time password
A one-time password (OTP) is a randomly generated string of letters or numbers that serves as
a user's authentication for a single login or transaction. An OTP is more secure than a static password,
particularly one that was established by the user and may be insecure or used on several accounts.
OTPs can be used in place of or in addition to authentication login information to add an additional
layer of protection.
Several online services employ the OTP security feature to confirm a user's identity during a
login or transaction. Temporary passwords, or OTPs, are only good for one usage and are often only
good for a few minutes. OTP is frequently used in addition to conventional username and password
authentication methods as an extra layer of security. An OTP will be sent to a user by SMS, email, or
a dedicated mobile app when they log into an account or start a transaction.
When an unauthenticated user attempts to access a system or perform a transaction on a
device, an authentication manager on the network server generates a unique number or shared secret,
using one-time password algorithms. This same number and algorithm are then used by the security
token on the smart card or device to match and validate the one-time password and user. Many
companies use Short Message Service (SMS) to provide an additional layer of security by sending

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a temporary passcode via text message. After the user has submitted their login and password on
networked information systems and transaction-oriented web applications, a temporary passcode is
received out of band through cellphone or mobile phone communications. In order to access an
account or system that uses two-factor authentication (2FA), the user must first input their user ID,
regular password, and temporary passcode. This additional security measure makes it possible to
make sure that only the intended user may access the account or system.
To complete the login or transaction, the user must next enter the OTP into the system. OTP
use offers a number of security advantages, including:
• Improved security: OTP adds an extra layer of protection on top of the usual username and
password authentication procedures.
• Reduced risk of fraud: By giving users a temporary password that is only good for one use and
immediately expires, OTP lowers the danger of unwanted access to user accounts.
• User convenience: OTP is a user-friendly and accessible security solution because it may be
transmitted to a user's mobile device.
• Compliance: OTP is frequently used to adhere to rules and guidelines for online security, like
the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS).
The one-time password helps security managers and IT administrators avoid common password
security issues. They don't need to be concerned about composition guidelines, well-known terrible
and weak passwords, sharing of login information, or using the same password across several systems
and accounts. The fact that one-time passwords expire in a matter of minutes stops attackers from
collecting and using the secret codes is another benefit of them.

PIN and its Importance

Authenticating a user's identity when they access a system or conduct a transaction requires
the use of a Personal Identification Number (PIN), a numeric password. It is a number sequence that
is used as a password to verify a person's identification. The string of numbers is typically 4-6 digits
long. PINs are frequently used to log into personal accounts or devices like credit cards, mobile
phones, and bank accounts. A PIN is intended to be something that only the account or device owner
should be aware of, which adds an extra layer of protection to prevent unauthorised access. Bank
accounts, credit cards, mobile devices, and other sensitive systems are frequently accessed via PINs.
The value of PIN is found in its capacity to offer a safe method of access control and authentication.
PINs are crucial for the following reasons, among others:
• Security: PINs offer an additional layer of protection over a simple password because they are
normally known only by the user and difficult for outsiders to decipher. It makes sure that only
those who are permitted can access their private accounts or gadgets.
• Prevention against fraud: Because PINs need a specific set of digits to be entered, they help
guard against fraudulent activities like illegal access to bank accounts or credit cards.
• Convenience: PINs are a convenient way to access secure systems or conduct transactions
since they are simple to use and remember.

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• Speed: PINs may be instantly typed, enabling speedy access to devices or accounts.
• Compliance: PINs must frequently adhere to legal requirements for access control and security,
such as the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS).
• Privacy: By offering a safe method of authentication that does not require sharing personal
information with outsiders, PINs can help preserve users' privacy.
PINs are a crucial tool for securing access to systems and sensitive information. They aid in
fraud prevention, guarantee adherence to security laws, and offer a practical and simple method of
authentication.

Internet Banking
Internet banking, commonly referred to as online banking, is the practise of conducting
banking operations and transactions remotely via a website or mobile app. Because it is convenient
and accessible, internet banking has grown in popularity recently. Customers can carry out a variety
of banking tasks using internet banking, such as:
• Examining the history of transactions and account balances.
• Money transfers, including those to different banks, between accounts.
• Bill-paying, including the implementation of automatic payments.
• Applying for credit cards or loans.
• Using mobile deposit to deposit checks.
• Managing financial products and investments.
• Invest and transact business.
• Reserve travel, medical, and transportation packages.
• Use e-commerce platforms to buy and sell.
Customers can access online banks' banking services from any location with an internet connection
by using web browsers and mobile apps. A consumer with internet access would need to sign up with
the bank for the service, create a password, and create other credentials for customer verification in
order to utilise a bank's online banking facility. Three parties are normally involved in internet banking
transactions: the bank, the customer, and the merchant. In some circumstances, the transaction can be
completed with the involvement of just the bank and the customer. The customer starts the transaction
by either coming to the store, visiting an ATM, or making the request online. Based on the accuracy
of the information provided in the request (card number, address, account number, pin, etc.) and the
amount of available funds in the event of withdrawals, the bank evaluates the request and either allows
or denies the electronic transfer of cash. The monies electronically move to or from the consumer's
account after processing is finished in order to reach the appropriate recipient.
Internet banking offers several benefits to customers, such as:
• Convenience: Clients don't need to go to a physical bank location in order to conduct banking
operations because they can access their accounts and do so from anywhere with an internet
connection.

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• Saving time: Clients can do banking tasks quickly and effectively without having to stand in
line or complete paper paperwork.
• Security: To secure sensitive client information and stop fraud, internet banking platforms use
cutting-edge security methods including encryption and two-factor authentication.
• 24/7 access: Customers can access their accounts and complete transactions at any time
through internet banking, which is accessible 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

Credit Card
A credit card is a type of payment card that lets the owner borrow money from a bank or
other credit card provider to pay for goods or services. When a credit card is used, the issuer pays the
retailer on the cardholder's behalf, and the cardholder consents to pay the issuer back later, usually
with interest. Credit card users can take advantage of a number of benefits, including:
• Convenience: Credit cards are a practical method of payment because they are commonly
accepted by most retailers.
• Rewards: A lot of credit cards have reward systems that let users earn points, miles, or cash
back for every dollar they spend.
• Fraud prevention: Credit cards provide protection against unauthorised purchases, and many
issuers keep an eye out for unusual activity in customer accounts.
• Credit history development: Using credit cards responsibly can help establish a good credit
history and raise credit ratings.
• Grace period: A lot of credit cards provide cardholders with a grace period during which no
interest is applied to purchases, allowing them to pay down their balances without incurring
interest.
Nonetheless, there may be some potential risks to using credit cards, such as:
• High interest rates: If balances are not paid off in full each month, credit cards can be expensive
forms of borrowing due to their high interest rates.
• Fees: A variety of costs, including annual, late, and cash advance fees, may be associated with
credit cards.
• Debt accumulation: If credit card amounts are not paid off in full each month, it may result in
debt accumulation, which may cause financial issues.
Together with potential benefits and fraud protection, credit cards provide a simple and
generally accepted method of payment. If not utilised wisely, they also carry excessive fees, high
interest rates, and the possibility for debt accumulation.

Debit Card
A debit card is a type of payment card that enables the owner to make purchases and withdraw
cash from ATMs using money from their checking account. Unlike credit cards, which require the
cardholder to borrow money from the issuer, when a debit card is used, the money is immediately

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taken out of the cardholder's account. Debit cards provide cardholders with a number of advantages,
including:
• Convenience: Most establishments accept debit cards, which make it simple and quick to
make a purchase.
• Nil Interest: Debit cards don't charge interest because the cardholder is paying with their own
funds.
• No debt accumulation: Debt building is prevented by debit cards, which only let users spend
money that is already in their account.
• Cash access: Monetary withdrawals from ATMs are made possible via debit cards, giving
users easy access to cash.
• Fraud protection: Similar to credit cards, many debit cards provide fraud protection, and
consumers are not responsible for illicit purchases made using their card.
Debit cards, however, may also have some disadvantages, such as:
• Weak fraud protection: Although the majority of debit cards have fraud protection, it can take
longer than with credit cards to recover money from unauthorised purchases.
• Overdraft fees: Overdraft charges may apply if a cardholder uses more money than is available
in their account.
• Limited benefits: Rewards are often less lucrative than those offered by credit cards, though
some debit cards may provide rewards schemes.
Debit cards provide a practical and simple means to withdraw money from a checking account
without the risk of incurring debt. They do, however, have less generous rewards programmes than
credit cards and offer less protection against fraud.

UPI
The National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) invented the immediate real-time
payment system known as UPI, which stands for Unified Payments Interface. Users can utilise a
mobile app to transfer money across bank accounts in an easy, safe, and practical manner.
Among UPI's most significant features are:
• Instantaneous transactions: 365 days a year, 24 hours a day, UPI allows for instant fund
transfers between bank accounts.
• Simple to use: UPI uses a virtual payment address (VPA), which eliminates the need to
manually enter IFSC codes or lengthy bank account information for every transaction.
• Secure: Two-factor authentication (2FA), which combines a special UPI PIN and biometric
authentication, secures UPI transactions.
• Interoperable: UPI can transfer money between any two bank accounts that are registered with
the service, regardless of the banks involved.
• Paying bills: UPI enables users to pay their bills, such as those for electricity, gas, water, and
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• Payments to merchants: By scanning a QR code or entering a merchant's VPA, UPI can also
be used to make payments to retailers.
Due to its simplicity, security, and interoperability, UPI has grown in popularity in India. Also, it
has assisted in promoting digital payments and lowering the nation's reliance on cash.

Point of Sale
Retailers conduct business with their customers using a technology called the point of sale
(POS). It consists of software and technology, such as a computer or tablet, that help the store accept
payments, control inventory, and produce reports. Point of Sale (POS) systems are essential for
businesses to facilitate sales, manage operations, and optimize their operations. POS systems enable
the processing of various payment types, including credit and debit cards, cash, and mobile payments,
and provide real-time inventory management, sales reporting, and customer relationship management
(CRM) features. By utilizing a POS system, businesses can improve efficiency, reduce errors, and
streamline the checkout process, leading to improved customer satisfaction and increased revenue.
Furthermore, POS systems provide valuable insights into customer behaviour and sales patterns,
allowing businesses to make informed decisions and optimize their operations for maximum success.
The essential elements of a POS system are as follows:
• Hardware: Hardware consists of the following: a laptop or tablet, cash register, barcode
scanner, and payment terminal.
• Software: This includes programmes for keeping track of sales, managing inventories,
collecting payments, and producing reports.
• Payment processing: Retailers can accept many payment methods, including credit cards,
debit cards, and mobile payments, thanks to POS systems.
• Inventory management: Retailers can measure inventory levels, monitor stock levels, and
produce data on sales patterns thanks to POS systems.
• Reporting: POS systems have the ability to produce reports on sales, inventory levels, and
customer information, giving useful information on the performance of the company.
POS systems provide retailers with a number of advantages, including:
• Increased accuracy: By doing away with the necessity for human computations, POS systems
lower the possibility of mistakes.
• Efficiency: POS systems can shorten transaction times, which cuts down on client wait times
and enhances the entire shopping experience.
• Inventory management: Real-time tracking of inventory levels by shops using POS systems
lowers the likelihood of stock outs and overstocks.
• Sales tracking: Retailers may track sales data with POS systems, allowing them to see trends
in sales and make strategic business decisions.

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The following are the primary security factors:

• Maintain the privacy of your PIN or password for logging in.
• Protect the privacy of personal information.
• Make sure the website is appropriate and secure.
• Defend your computer against viruses, hackers, and other harmful software.
• Never give out personal information over the phone, by text message, or via email, especially
passwords or PINs.
• When conducting online banking, keep other browser windows closed.
• Refrain from using a shared or public computer to make e-banking transactions.
• Conversations with the financial institution about security issues and possible solutions for
any problems with online e-banking accounts.

Security Issues
Users can benefit from the efficiency and convenience of electronic payment methods, but
there are security dangers as well. The following are a few security concerns with electronic payment
systems:
• Hackers may target sensitive client data stored in electronic payment systems, such as credit
card numbers and personal information.
• By sending phoney emails or messages that seem to be from a reliable payment system,
cybercriminals may try to steal important information from victims.
• Malware, such as viruses or trojans, can be used to access payment systems without
authorization or to steal sensitive information from users.
• Hackers may intercept data as it is being transmitted, giving them access to sensitive data like
login information or credit card numbers.
• Hackers may impersonate users and conduct illicit transactions using personal information
they have stolen.
• Hackers may try to get access to user accounts or payment systems without authorization in
order to steal money or personal data.
The following security methods are used by electronic payment systems to reduce these security
risks:
• Payment systems may employ encryption to safeguard sensitive data while it is being
transmitted and stored.
• To prevent illegal access, payment systems may ask users to provide extra authentication,
such as a one-time password or biometric verification.
• To spot shady transactions and stop fraud, payment systems may employ fraud detection
algorithms.

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• To ensure that data is communicated securely between the user's device and the payment
system's servers, payment systems may use secure connections, such as HTTPS.
• In order to fix flaws and defend against fresh threats, payment systems may periodically
provide security updates.
Although there are many advantages to electronic payment methods, there are also security issues.
Users must adhere to best practises, such as using strong passwords and keeping software updated, to
protect their sensitive data. Payment systems use a variety of security measures to reduce these risks.

Mobile Payment System

Consumers can conduct purchases using their mobile devices, such as smartphones or tablets,
thanks to mobile payment systems. In these systems, transactions between the user's mobile device
and the merchant's payment system are facilitated by the use of wireless technologies like NFC (Near
Field Communication) or QR (Quick Response) codes. Popular mobile payment methods include the
following:
• Apple Pay is a mobile payment solution that may be used to make purchases in-person, online,
or within an app. It is only compatible with Apple devices.
• Google Pay: This Android-compatible mobile payment solution employs NFC or QR codes to
enable users to conduct purchases both in-person and online.
• Samsung Pay: This mobile payment system, which is accessible on Samsung handsets,
enables users to conduct in-store transactions using magnetic secure transmission (MST) or
NFC technology.
• PayPal: Via this mobile payment platform, customers may conduct business both in-person
and online using their PayPal accounts.
• Venmo: This peer-to-peer mobile payment system enables users to send and receive money
using their mobile devices.
Mobile payment systems provide a number of advantages, including:
• Convenience: Customers don't need to carry cash or credit cards when making purchases
thanks to mobile technology.
• Security: To secure consumers' sensitive data, mobile payment systems use a number of
security features, including encryption and biometric authentication.
• Speed: Mobile payment solutions can speed up transactions, cutting down on wait times at the
register and enhancing the entire shopping experience.
• Accessibility: A wide range of users can conduct transactions using mobile payment systems
provided they have a compatible mobile device and internet connectivity.
However, there are certain difficulties with mobile payment systems as well, including:
• Risks related to security: Users' sensitive data may be compromised by data breaches or other
security concerns in mobile payment systems.

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• Restricted acceptance: The utility of mobile payment systems is constrained in some

circumstances since not all merchants accept them.
• Issues with compatibility: Certain mobile payment systems might not be accessible to all
users because they are incompatible with some mobile devices or operating systems.
• Mobile payment solutions are dependent on wireless technology and internet connection,
which may not be available or reliable in all locations.
Mobile payment systems have several advantages, such as ease, security, and speed, but they also
have certain drawbacks, like security issues and a small market. Users should assess the advantages
and hazards of various mobile payment systems as they develop in order to select one that best suits
their needs.

Different payment types:

Many payment forms are supported by mobile payment systems, such as:
• Payments made via a mobile device's tap at the point of sale are known as contactless payments
and utilise Near Field Communication (NFC) technology. Paying using a contactless device is
quick, simple, and safe.
• Users can make purchases inside a mobile app, such as a game or an online store, using in-app
payments. With in-app payments, users can complete transactions without ever leaving the
app, making them handy and simple to use.
• Mobile wallets: This kind of payment keeps a user's financial information, including bank
account and credit card information, on their mobile device. With the use of mobile wallets,
customers may make purchases without having to enter their payment details each time.
• Quick Response (QR) codes are used in QR code payments to enable customers to complete
transactions by scanning a code with a mobile device. Payments made with QR codes are
quite popular and extremely secure.
• Peer-to-peer payments: These kinds of payments let users to transfer money to and from other
users, generally through a smartphone app. Peer-to-peer payments are quick, practical, and
frequently cost nothing.
• Carrier billing: With this method of payment, customers can make purchases using their
mobile phone bill instead of a credit card or bank account. For users without access to regular
payment options, carrier billing is practical.
• Loyalty rewards: With this payment method, customers can receive incentives for utilising
a mobile payment system, such as discounts or points, for their purchases. Customers'
engagement is increased by loyalty awards, which encourage consumers to use the mobile
payment system.
Mobile payment systems enable a variety of payment methods, including carrier billing, in-app
payments, QR code payments, peer-to-peer payments, contactless payments, mobile wallets, and
loyalty incentives. Each payment method has unique advantages and may be better suited to particular
circumstances or user preferences.

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Mobile Wallets
Mobile wallets are digital wallets that let users store their payment credentials, including
credit or debit card information, and conduct transactions using their cellphones or other mobile
devices. As more people use their cellphones for a variety of daily activities, such as shopping and
banking, they have grown in popularity in recent years. In order for a mobile wallet to function, the
user's payment information must be connected to their smartphone, either through an app or the
device's internal digital wallet. This eliminates the need for consumers to carry a physical wallet or
credit card by allowing them to make payments directly from their phone.
Apple Pay, Google Pay, and Samsung Pay are a few of the most well-known mobile wallet
service providers. These services enable customers to use NFC technology to make purchases at
businesses that accept contactless payments. Mobile wallets allow users to send money to friends and
family and make online purchases.
Mobile wallets provide a number of additional advantages in addition to convenience, such
as enhanced security features like biometric identification and tokenization that help safeguard users'
payment information against fraud and theft. Those who utilise mobile wallets can also track their
spending and view real-time account balances.
Mobile wallets provide a simple and safe way to use your mobile device to make payments,
and as more people start utilising digital payment methods, they're only going to grow in popularity.

QR Code payments
Mobile payments that employ QR codes to facilitate transactions are known as QR code
payments. Two-dimensional barcodes called QR (Quick Response) codes can be scanned by a
smartphone camera to retrieve data, like a payment amount or a retailer's information. A mobile
wallet app that enables QR code payments must normally be installed on the user's smartphone in
order to make a QR code payment. The user initiates the transaction by scanning a QR code created
by the app with their smartphone's camera. The QR code contains the payment details. As there is no
need for physical money or credit cards to complete transactions, QR code payments are growing in
popularity. Because they use encryption and tokenization to safeguard users' financial information,
they are also thought to be more secure than conventional payment systems.
A QR code generates a pixel pattern that contains information about the merchant, transaction
details, and more. When the pattern is scanned, the software decodes it into a character string and
displays it to the user. Now, QR code payments come with a set of commands related to the transaction.
Merchants can generate QR codes for their shops or for fixed or variable amounts. Upon issuing
the command, a QR code is generated that, depending on the merchant's specifications, will either
generate a payment link, confirm payment, or perform any other function they specify. Payment is
then transferred once it is scanned by the customer.
You can connect with your potential customers in several different ways with QR codes, and
there are many benefits to doing so. One of the biggest advantages is the speed of payments; QR
codes are extremely fast, taking only a matter of seconds to make payments. All a user needs to do
is open an app, scan the QR code, and confirm the payment. Additionally, QR codes can be used

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without a touchpad, as they can be printed on a standard printer. Another benefit of QR codes is the
reduction of chargeback liability. By using scan-to-play, customers input all the payment information,
eliminating the possibility of chargebacks. This can save businesses up to rupee 600.00 per year if
chargebacks are reduced by half. Furthermore, QR codes are secure, as they generate a unique pattern
that is unable to be hacked. The data transferred via QR codes is encrypted, so payments are fool-
proof and safe. Finally, QR codes provide affordable and reliable solutions. Merchants can accept
payments without having to set up a card machine, and customers don’t even need debit or credit
cards to make payments. QR codes are easy to create through QR code generators and can save
merchants money. Plus, the probability of errors is also reduced due to the unique data contained in
the black box pattern.

Payment links
Without the use of a physical point of sale terminal or a conventional payment gateway,
payment links are a form of online payment technique that enables companies and private persons
to receive payments from clients. Typically, a payment provider will create and send the consumer
payment links via email, SMS, or other messaging services. The button directs the user to a secure
payment page where they can enter their payment information and finish the transaction. Payment
links are becoming more and more common because they give businesses, particularly those without
websites or e-commerce platforms, a quick and easy way to take payments. Businesses who wish
to give their consumers more payment alternatives than just standard credit and debit cards should
consider payment connections.
Payment links may be tailored to include particular payment information such the payment
amount, payment description, and currency. To make it simple for clients to make payments, payment
URLs can also be posted on social media sites, messaging services, and other avenues of contact. In
addition to Square, PayPal, Stripe, and other well-known payment link providers are also available.

SMS payments
SMS payments, commonly referred to as text payments, are a sort of mobile payment that let
customers use their smartphones to pay for goods and services. SMS payments operate by sending a
text message containing the payment amount and a special payment code to a predetermined phone
number. The user's mobile phone bill or their prepaid balance will subsequently be charged for the
payment. In nations where mobile phones are more common than traditional banking infrastructure,
SMS payments are a well-liked form of payment. They are especially helpful for minor transactions
or micropayments that would be difficult to complete using conventional payment systems.
Customers who do not have a credit card or debit card or who prefer not to use them for online
purchases can also benefit from SMS payments. Bill payment, purchase of products and services,
and donation are just a few of the transactions that can be completed with SMS payments. SMS
payments do have certain drawbacks, too, such as possible security problems like fraud or unapproved
payments. Before using an SMS payment service for transactions, it is crucial to confirm its security
and reliability. Boku, Payfone, and Fortumo are a few well-known SMS payment service providers.

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Benefits of Mobile Payment

Consumers can use their mobile devices, such as smartphones or tablets, to make payments
utilising mobile payment, also known as m-payment. Following are some advantages of mobile
payment:
• Convenience: Since users can quickly and easily make payments using their mobile devices
without using cash or credit cards, mobile payments are incredibly convenient for consumers.
As long as they have an internet connection, they can also make payments whenever and
wherever they choose.
• Security: Due to the use of encryption and other security measures to safeguard customers'
payment information, mobile payments are usually regarded as being secure. To ensure that
customers' financial information is kept safe, mobile payment providers also include fraud
protection and other security features.
• Speed: Consumers can complete transactions with mobile payments in just a few seconds since
they are quick and effective. Businesses who need to process a high volume of transactions
fast will find this to be especially helpful.
• Cost-effective: As compared to cheques or credit cards, mobile payments are frequently less
expensive. Businesses can save money on transaction fees by using mobile payment providers,
who frequently charge cheaper fees than conventional payment processors.
• Accessible: Anyone with a mobile device and an internet connection can use mobile payments.
They are therefore especially helpful for those who do not have access to credit cards or other
banking services.
• Loyalty programs: Mobile payments can be integrated with loyalty programmes, giving
companies the opportunity to reward and incentivize customers who use their mobile devices
to make purchases. Businesses can enhance sales and client loyalty by doing this.
Mobile payments provide consumers and businesses with a quick, safe, and affordable way to
complete transactions. Mobile payments are likely to grow in popularity over the coming years as
mobile technology continues to progress.

Security issues in digital payment system

Digital payment systems come with significant security hazards in addition to convenience and
speed. The following are a few security vulnerabilities that may occur with electronic payment
systems:
• Fraud: One of the biggest security issues with electronic payment systems is fraud. Hackers
and cybercriminals can get sensitive data, such as credit card numbers, passwords, or personal
identification numbers (PINs), using a variety of techniques. They then use this data to carry
out illicit transactions.
• Malware and viruses are tools that can be used to steal sensitive data and corrupt digital
payment systems. Phishing emails, bogus websites, and other methods can all be used to
transmit malware and infections.

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• Identity theft: Identity theft happens when someone steals the personal data, like the name,
address, and social security number, of another individual. This information can then be used
to open new accounts or carry out illicit activities in the victim's name.
• Man-in-the-middle attacks: These happen when a hacker intercepts data being sent between
two parties. The hacker may then get access to sensitive data including credit card numbers
and other personal details.
• Inadequate password security: Digital payment systems are susceptible to unwanted access if
they use weak or readily guessed passwords. To lessen the danger of security breaches, it is
crucial to use strong passwords and change them frequently.
• Absence of encryption: Digital payment systems can be protected from unwanted access with
the use of encryption, a critical security element. Sensitive data can be easily intercepted and
accessed by hackers if it is not properly encrypted.
The use of strong encryption, multi-factor authentication, and routine security software updates
are just a few examples of the different ways that digital payment systems can be made more secure.
Also, users need to be cautious about preserving their personal data and alert their digital payment
provider to any questionable activities.

Online banking frauds

Internet or Online banking scams are illegal actions intended to steal money or private information
from people or companies using these services. A few prevalent types of internet banking frauds are
listed below:
• Phishing scams: These involve con artists sending phoney emails, texts, or posts on social
media that purport to be from a reliable financial institution. The messages prompt the
recipients to submit their login credentials, account numbers, or other personal information
and contain links to phoney websites that imitate legitimate ones. The thieves can access the
victims' accounts and take their money once they have this information.
• Malware attacks: These occur when scammers infect their victims' machines with malware,
such as viruses, worms, or Trojan horses, in order to steal their online banking credentials.
Malware can be concealed in emails, text messages, attachments, or links that appear to be
genuine software updates. Once the victims' devices are infected, the scammers can take their
account numbers, login credentials, and other private data.
• Social engineering: This is the process fraudsters employ to manipulate their victims into
divulging their internet banking login credentials. In order to obtain the victims' login details,
account numbers, or other sensitive information over the phone or by email, they may pose as
bank personnel, law enforcement officers, or other reliable people.
• Skimming: This is the process fraudsters utilise at ATMs and point-of-sale terminals to
steal the credit or debit card information from their victims. They can then make unlawful
transactions or take money out of the victims' accounts using this information.Attacks using
remote access: Remote access attacks take place when a criminal gains unauthorised access to
a victim's computer or mobile device. This enables them to steal private information like login
passwords and other sensitive data. Card skimming is a method that fraudsters employ to

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obtain credit card or debit card information. To obtain card numbers and PINs, thieves utilise
devices that can be attached to ATMs and other payment terminals.
• Attacks using remote access: Remote access attacks take place when a criminal gains
unauthorised access to a victim's computer or mobile device. This enables them to steal private
information like login passwords and other sensitive data.
People should take numerous actions to safeguard themselves from online banking frauds,
including generating strong passwords, routinely updating security software, avoiding public Wi-
Fi networks, and keeping an eye out for shady emails or text messages. Also, they should routinely
check their bank accounts for any unauthorised transactions and immediately alert their bank to any
suspicious behaviour. Let's look into some of the ways to protect yourself from online banking fraud.
For this, you should:
• Keep your account numbers, login information, and other critical data private.
• To secure your online banking accounts, use two-factor authentication and strong passwords.
• Any emails, texts, or social media posts asking for your login information or other personal
information should be avoided.
• Use the most recent security updates and antivirus programmes to keep your hardware and
software up to date.
• Check your account statements frequently, and notify your bank right away of any questionable
activity.

Do's and Don'ts in electronic/mobile payment system

Following are some guidelines for using electronic/mobile payment systems:
Do's:
• Utilize a secure network: Only use secure networks, like your home or business Wi-Fi network,
to make electronic or mobile payments. Because they are frequently unsafe and can expose
your information to hackers, avoid utilising public Wi-Fi networks.
• Employ strong passwords: For your electronic/mobile payment accounts, use strong, one-
time passwords at all times. To assist with creating and storing complex passwords, think
about utilising a password manager.
• Maintain software updates: To make sure that any known security flaws are fixed, keep the
operating system, web browser, and mobile payment apps on your device updated.
• Regularly check your account: Check your electronic/mobile payment account statements
frequently to be sure there haven't been any fraudulent transactions. Inform your payment
provider right once if you see any questionable behaviour.
• Verify the recipient: Before sending any electronic or mobile payments, confirm the recipient's
identity. Before finalising the transaction, check the recipient's name and account number one
again.

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Don'ts:
• Use private computers only: Private computers should not be used to make electronic or
mobile payments. Public computers may include viruses or spyware that might steal your
personal data.
• Keep your passwords private: Never divulge your passwords to anyone, not even family
members, friends, or customer service agents.
• Don't reply to suspicious messages: Never give your personal information in response to
shady emails, texts, or phone calls. Genuine payment processors will never email or text you
to ask for your account information.
• Avoid saving your credit card information: Keep your payment information off of public
computers and out of the browser's cache. After finishing your purchases, you should always
log out of your electronic/mobile payment account.
Use secure websites only: Use secure websites only to make electronic and mobile payments. To
check if a website is secure, look for the "https" and padlock symbol.

References
1. https://business.ebanx.com/en/resources/payments-explained/electronic-funds-transfer-eft
2. https://www.computer-pdf.com/7-cyber-security-and-hacking-tutorial-for-beginners
3. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/dbms/index.htm?key=computer+security
4. https://www.ringcentral.com/what-is-web-conferencing.html
5. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/

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Module V
Social Media & Cyber Security
Social Media
Instead of defining the word using a huge amount of boring jargon that would probably only
make things more difficult, it is usually preferable to break it down into simpler terms. Let's first look
at each word separately or in isolation.
• The term "social" refers to connecting with others and exchanging and receiving information
from them.
• The term "media" refers to a tool for communication, such as the internet (while TV, radio,
and newspapers are examples of more traditional forms of media).
So we can put together these two terms together and define term "social media" refers to a
computer-based technology that makes it possible to share concepts, ideas, and knowledge through
online groups and networks. In other words, websites and programs that emphasise collaboration,
sharing of content, engagement, and community-based feedback are collectively referred to as social
media. Social media is internet-based and allows users to share anything quickly, including movies,
images, documents, and personal information. People interact with social media through web-based
software or applications on a computer, tablet, or smartphone.
The idea behind social media was originally to connect with friends and family, but businesses
later adopted it as a way to connect with clients by utilising this well new communications system.
The ability to connect and share information with anyone on Earth, or with many people at once, is
the strength of social media. Social media is used by people to connect and communicate with their
friends, family, and other communities. Through different social media platforms, some people can
communicate and discover job opportunities, interact with people around the world who share their
interests, and publish their own ideas, feelings, and thoughts online. Social media applications are used
by businesses to track consumer complaints as well as market and promote their products. Globally,
social media is extremely popular. These platforms are made available by mobile applications. Twitter,
Facebook, Watsapp, and LinkedIn are a few popular universal social media platform examples.

Social Media – Past and Present

The need for communication among people and the development of digital technology have
both contributed to social media's evolution. The Internet was the first social media platform. The
only social networking options available in the early days of the internet were chat rooms, emails, and
bulletin board messaging. The development of the internet led to the emergence of social networking
sites like Six Degrees in the US, widely regarded as the first social networking site where users
could upload profile images and maintain friend lists. Yet, networks at the time were limited due to
the low internet usage. GeoCities, Blogger, and Napster all played a role in its evolution. With the
introduction of Craigslist, it first became creepy before regaining some intelligence with Wikipedia.

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Many platforms appeared in the early 2000s, including Friendster (2001), which at one point
had over 100 million users, the professional network LinkedIn (2002), MySpace (2003), and of course,
acebook (2004). Friendster gave social media a Second Life, and Linkedin followed with a specially
designed suit for those want to be social like a boss. When new social networks formed, they began to
serve varied purposes. Examples include Twitter (2006), which valued conciseness, Instagram (2010)
for picture-sharing, and Snapchat (2011) for disappearing video communication.
Social networks were first intended to be platforms for bringing people together, but it soon
became clear that the volume of data that users were producing could also be used to power more
effective advertising. The first social media platform to use behavioural targeting for revenue
generation was MySpace. Advertisers had the opportunity to purchase customized banner ads with it.
Facebook has excelled where MySpace failed. Facebook also aimed to monetize its network through
advertising by providing marketers with more specialised chances for ad placements by exploiting
user data. The fact that it encouraged firms to establish pages allowed consumers to develop a more
emotional connection with brands, and the fact that its advertising solution was affordable for both
large and small businesses, were only two of the factors that contributed to its success in improving
engagement.
Today, one of the most popular means for companies to interact with customers is through
social media marketing. From both the customers' and marketers' viewpoints, it is essential to every
step of the sales process. 71% of social media users are more likely to make a purchase as a result of a
suggestion from a social media platform, and the majority of them (54%) use it to research products.
The consumer journey has become shorter because to social media. People may now find new goods
and services much more easily, and many do so immediately jump from awareness to decision to
purchase. Instagram, which offers in-stream native advertising in both its feed and Stories, has made
it simple for customers to get from awareness to purchase in just a few clicks. While 81% of users of
Twitter use the network to stay up to date on current events, it is thought to be a vital place for product
discovery.
It has been discovered that social media marketing is effective in connecting with consumers
and, more significantly, influencing consumer behaviour through in-stream advertising that doesn't
interrupt the user's experience.

Types of Social Media

Social media services come in a variety of shapes and sizes, accommodating diverse content
types and meeting a range of purposes. While some of them share features, others are more specialised
in their application and the services they provide. Businesses and marketers are now using social
media platforms to reach a wider audience and market their brands, goods, and services. The four
main types of social platforms are these:
• Social netowks - These networks are used by people to connect with one another and exchange
knowledge, ideas, and thoughts. These networks typically have the user as their primary focus.
Participants can find other individuals who share their interests or concerns by looking at their
user profiles. With branding, social awareness, relationship building, customer service, lead
generation, and conversion, they support your business. In these networks, anyone can direct
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different kinds of social media campaigns that will help them reach more people. To ensure
mutually beneficial interactions, they encourage people and businesses to interact online and
share data and ideas. On social media sites like Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn, companies
may find both free and paid approaches to optimise their current marketing campaigns.
• Media sharing networks - These networks are content-driven. Also, they will aid you with lead
creation, target marketing, and other activities. In order to reach and convert target audiences
in the most persuading and result-driven ways possible, they provide both individuals and
businesses with a space to discover and exchange media. Users can exchange photographs
and videos using apps like TikTok and Snapchat, as well as a number of unique interactive
features. These two apps include interactive games, musical overlays, and AR/VR filters. The
interaction on YouTube, for instance, revolves around user-generated videos.
• Community based networks - These social media platforms are employed for gathering,
disseminating, and debating various kinds of news, opinions, and information. They assist
companies by providing a first-rate source for conducting excellent market research. The
earliest methods of doing social media marketing efforts are these forums. Similar to a blog
forum, this kind of social network focuses on in-depth conversation. People post-debate topics
that develop into in-depth comment threads. Communities often develop around particular
subjects. These forums were the places where professionals, experts, and enthusiasts used to
do various types of talks regarding a number of areas before the advent of prominent Social
Media players like Facebook. The community-based network includes Reddit, Quora.
• Review board/ Consumer review Networks - The emphasis on these networks is on a review,
typically of a good or service. You can learn, discuss, and review various details about a
variety of goods, services, or brands by using customer review networks. Positive ratings on
these networks give a company's claims more credibility because they serve as Social Proof
for consumers. It is crucial for today's firms to have great evaluations on these websites in
order to operate successful social media marketing campaigns. Another thing that will be
crucial for the success and productivity of your company is to address all the complaints
that your consumers are submitting on these review platforms. Users of these networks have
access to a place where they may provide reviews of various goods and services they have
used. A brand's value is greatly increased by review content because it encourages more and
more potential customers to try your services. For instance, Yelp users can rate restaurants and
recommend one another's reviews. Social media is used by billions of people worldwide to
connect and share information. Social media gives you the personal freedom to interact with
loved ones, learn new things, explore new interests, and be entertained. By engaging with
other professionals in your business, you may use social media to expand your professional
network and deepen your knowledge in a certain field. Social media gives your business
the opportunity to interact with customers, get their opinion, and build brand recognition to
increase visibility.
• Blogging and publishing social media networks are the best ones to use for creating, finding,
and commenting on online articles, blogs, and other information. The traditional blogging
platforms are WordPress and Blogger, whereas the most recent blogging and publishing
networks are Tumblr and Medium.
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Popular web-based social media platforms

• Registered users can build profiles, upload photos and videos, send messages, and keep in
touch with friends, family, and colleagues on Facebook, a free social networking website.
• A social media platform specifically created for the corporate world is called LinkedIn.
Registered users can build networks of professionals they know and trust.
• For DIY home projects, recipes, sewing patterns, travel itineraries, interior design, brand
marketing, and everything in between, Pinterest is a social networking platform that serves
as a bookmarking tool. Customers of many different brands frequently mention this platform
as an essential component of their product discovery process.
• Reddit is a social news platform and discussion forum where users create and advertise
stories. The website is made up of numerous smaller communities known as subreddits. Each
subreddit on Reddit has a particular focus, such as music, politics, or technology. Members of
the Reddit website, commonly referred to as "redditors," contribute content that users can vote
on. The main thread page of the website is intended to feature highly valued content at the top.
• Twitter is a free microblogging platform where registered users can publish brief entries
known as tweets. Using a variety of platforms and gadgets, Twitter users can broadcast tweets
and follow the tweets of other active users.

Benefits of using Social Media

Social media is used by billions of people worldwide to connect and share information. It
gives you the personal freedom to interact with loved ones, learn new things, explore new interests,
and be entertained. By engaging with other professionals in your business, you may use social media
to expand your professional network and deepen your knowledge in a certain field. It also gives your
business the opportunity to interact with customers, get their opinion, and build brand recognition.
Let’s look into the benefits of using social media:
• Expanded access to potential clients - Users can share material with a larger audience through
social media sites like Facebook and Twitter than through conventional online advertising. As
a result, your company can possibly reach a larger audience with its messaging and increase
conversion rates.
• Increased consumer involvement - Using social media increases the likelihood that customers
will contact you directly. Your clients may become more devoted to you as a result, which
could encourage them to make larger purchases from you.
• Enhanced brand recognition - Using social media can help you advertise your company more
successfully than using conventional marketing techniques because the majority of social
media platforms are built around information exchange.
• Public relations improvements - Businesses can increase their goodwill among potential
customers who might have unfavourable opinions about the company or product by engaging
with critics and reacting to their comments. Social media additionally enables businesses
to produce "storytelling" within the platform, which can emotionally connect clients and
motivate them to take action like signing up for company newsletters or purchasing.

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Usage in business
Building relationships and connecting with clients through social media is highly recommended.
Businesses, however, need to be aware of some drawbacks of social media. The public uses social
media. This suggests that, regardless of product interest, anyone can read your posts. Companies’
reputation may diminish if your posts contain untruths or are inflammatory. Social networking takes
time to use. The responsibilities of posting frequent updates and keeping up a good relationship
with everyone of your followers can be difficult to meet. As a result, your posts may receive less
engagement and your website may receive less traffic. Social media calls for marketing expertise.
If your posts are irritating or unpleasant, you risk losing clients who go to other, more respectable
platforms instead of using social media at all. If you ignore these warnings, your company may suffer
severely! Few benefits of using social media for businesses is given below:
• Direct Contact With Target Audience - You can directly contact your target audience through
social media platforms rather than calling or emailing people at random to see if they are
interested in your business. Your target audience may now be just a click away from you given
that practically everyone uses social media. You may gain a significant amount of reach by
using hashtags to place your brand immediately on the page of your target market.
• Gaining Popularity Easily - Gaining popularity is the most important thing for those who
work in the content and digital advertising industries. These platforms give this group of
individuals additional exposure, which is exactly what they need. Simple, entertaining duties
like responding to questions, posting times, and so forth would guarantee that you quickly
become popular on these websites. Even if it takes some time to invest, the substantial returns
make it worthwhile in the end.
• Improved Traffic - Since a wide variety of people from different backgrounds use social media,
the potential for diverse traffic is also expanded. By customizing social media to your needs,
you can make sure that you get traffic and visitors from a variety of sources. Since most people
use their phones these days, it is very probable that someone will stumble across your firm or
work collection. The proper use of keywords and other SEO procedures and practices would
likewise guarantee more substantial and better traffic.
• Make a Lasting Impression - The greatest approach to ensure that your product creates a lasting
impression on the viewer's mind is to use social media. People do, in fact, occasionally check
their emails. On the other hand, individuals adore wasting hours on their phones scrolling
through social media. Hence, if you can maximize your work effectively there, you are likely
to leave your mark.
• Collaborations - Giving businesses the ability to work with the right accounts is another
efficient method social media platforms help enterprises. Every social media platform now
has a large number of influencers who are all willing to promote any product they think their
followers would be interested in. Companies seeking to expand frequently get in touch with
these influencers, who run paid advertisements on their page and drive a lot of traffic to the
client's account.
• Tool accessibility for analysis - The ability to dig into the insights is another feature of social
media that contributes to its relevance among businesses and content producers. As a result,
business and content accounts can examine their posts to determine which ones were most
popular and why, as well as how to enhance their feed.
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• Get Inspired - As the majority of content and company pages or websites are easily accessible
to the public, one can browse their feeds rapidly to find inspiration. You can examine their
feeds to find out what you're missing out on if your account isn't performing particularly
well in comparison to the other accounts in the space. Correcting these issues could greatly
increase your popularity.

Usage in Education
Social media has evolved into a priceless tool not only for marketing and communication,
but also for teaching. Students typically use social media to share information, read reviews, and find
instantaneous solutions to their problems. It is a new media technology in education that can broaden
your perspective on various topics and highlights the original information. It allows you the chance
to interact with experts to find solutions to problems with which you might require help. As a reliable
information source, social media is becoming more credible. The biggest benefit of using social
media for learning is that you can identify subject and field experts very quickly. As you start paying
attention to these professionals, you learn more from them and receive more assistance. You can
achieve amazing outcomes because of this. It has evolved into a priceless tool not only for marketing
and communication, but also for teaching. Students typically use social media to share information,
read reviews, and find instantaneous solutions to their problems.
By integrating with other educational systems and learning communities, social media use
in the classroom enables students, teachers, and parents to obtain more useful information. Websites
and social networking platforms offer several opportunities for teachers and students to improve their
methods of instruction and learning, respectively.
Several factors contribute to social media's value for students. Web-based social networks
can offer pertinent data, such as analysis and knowledge on numerous topics or concerns for study
purposes. Being active on various social media platforms is crucial for educational institutions. In
addition to improving student training approaches, this also influences student culture.

Social media etiquette

The rules that organisations and people follow to protect their online reputations are referred
to as social media etiquette. In other words, it is the spoken and unwritten set of social norms that
govern appropriate personal and professional conduct on social media. Social norms are making their
way into digital spaces as social media platforms have developed into one of the main daily means of
communication in the modern world. Social media etiquette focuses on rules to adhere to while using
social media, much as how people should act around others in the real world. It establishes guidelines
for online behaviour to ensure that users are respectful and respectable. Companies are no longer
able to simply erase comments that receive negative feedback. A single error has the ability to either
establish or break a company. Modern brands frequently incorporate social media etiquette into their
social media policies. This policy often includes a comprehensive code of behaviour for everyone
using social media:
• Safeguard yourself from security and legal problems - Your system will keep you in compliance
with the rules if you work in a profession where privacy and compliance restrictions are strict.

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• Empower employees - Employees that are trained in safe online content sharing can represent
and promote your company without ruining or degrading your reputation.
• Promote your brand - With proper social media etiquette, you can be sure that everyone who
engages with your brand will perceive you as a respected, capable company.
The numerous forms of social media covered are just one example of the amazing prospects
and cutting-edge technology that it is full of. Yet, there are risks as well, such as cyber bandits. You
must take a few common-sense steps in order to safeguard yourself, your family, and your computing
device.
• Keep your identity private - Don't disclose private information to strangers online. Take into
account what it says about you, your house, and your family before making any information
public. Photos and Web cam photographs are especially susceptible to this warning.
• Utilize trusted websites and services - It's dangerous to navigate an uncommon website,
interact in an unknown service, or open a questionable email, just like it's dangerous to go
down a dark street in a city. To be safe, only use websites and services with a regional or
global reputation.
• Before you click, look - Spammers use innocent-sounding identities to mask hazardous links.
Phishers send emails that appear to be from a trusted source but actually contain malicious
attachments or links to fake websites. Do not click if you are not certain. Avoid accessing
links in emails if you receive a message stating that you need to check your account; instead,
navigate directly to the website in your browser.
• Shut the door - Remember to log out after using a personal account on a shared computer,
whether it be at school, the library, or even a friend's home. This will prevent the next user
from being able to access your account.
• Avoid downloading anything suspicious - Downloading an inappropriate file is the surest
way to get a computer virus. Untrustworthy persons frequently provide infected materials in
this way because they are aware of how alluring a "free" record, movie, game, or book is. It's
common for even trustworthy programmers to be bundled with a ton of extra software that can
slow down your computer. Before to granting it access to your computer, make sure you are
completely aware of what you are installing.
• Verify the anti-virus and anti-spam software on your computer - Many security providers
provide apps that can aid in protecting your computer from infiltration in free versions. But
make sure the program's virus definitions are current. Every six to twelve months, it's a
good idea to utilise an internet scanner to determine if your antivirus application has missed
anything.

Social Media and Digital Marketing

In order to develop a company's brand, boost sales, and enhance website traffic, social media marketing,
often referred to as digital marketing and e-marketing, makes use of social media platforms where
users may create social networks and share information. Social media marketing (SMM) gives

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businesses a method to interact with existing customers and attract new ones. It also contains data
analytics features that are specifically designed to help marketers monitor the effectiveness of their
campaigns and find new opportunities for interaction.
SMM, which is supported by data that has been shared creatively, motivates people to
work towards specific company goals no matter where they are physically located. SMM enables
companies to react rapidly as a result, reducing the period between the creation of an advertisement
and its impact on potential customers. Also, businesses can use SMM at every stage of the customer
lifecycle. The term "consumer lifecycle" specifically refers to many phases that customers go through
when dealing with businesses, such as brand awareness, initial purchase, and brand loyalty. The
unmatched ability of social media in following three essential marketing areas is what gives SMM its
potency- Connection, Interaction & Customer data.
SMM's success depends on understandings:
• The client as a unique person.
• Customer's occupation, behaviour, and interests.
• Variety of ways for flawlessly interacting with customers via various platforms and channels.
• Outcome of communicating with each client.
• The locations of customers' primary online and offline activities.
Building your brand through social media marketing will help you engage with customers and
increase sales. Social networking does not entail creating a profile on a platform and calling it a day.
It encompasses all of the pillars that you would take into account for your business. The following is
an outline of the 5 pillars of social media marketing:

Fig 5.1: Pillars of Social Media

Let’s discuss each one briefly
1. Strategy - The purpose of strategy in SMM is to enable you to successfully develop a
comprehensive plan that may produce the best results for your brand. If you want to publish
content on social media, we advise you to start by developing a social media strategy/
marketing plans. At this point, you might be wondering how to develop a social strategy. to
create a customer-centric strategy. The easiest way to gauge the success of your social media
marketing is to examine your key performance indicators, which include conversion rates and
sales figures in addition to measures of how many people you reached and engaged with.
2. Planning and Publishing - In SMM, planning and publication play a key part in determining
when to engage your audience. Publishing interesting and informative content is just as simple
as adding photographs or videos to your social media profile. If your goal is to use social
media to promote a business or a product, you should focus on creating a plan for your post.
The role of publishing in SMM is one of them, and planning necessitates knowing the kind of
message you want to convey and how much time you have to achieve it in. One of the most
crucial components of any SMM strategy is publishing. When you publish content, you have
the chance to interact with your users/ clients and develop relationships with them, which is
especially important if you are just starting to build a brand or business that requires more
customers.
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3. Listening and Engagement - Engagement indicates that viewers are reacting after viewing
your content. Customers are more inclined to interact with your brand if they enjoy your
content. You might find that as the number of people who follow you on social media grows,
they start interacting with you in posts, comments, and direct messages as well as by tagging
you in them. Also, if you consistently post interesting content, there's a chance that they'll
start spreading your work. As a result, keep an eye on your direct messages and comments
to see what your public is saying. Try to solve any issues they may be facing, and be sure to
appreciate customers who are complimentary of your business or product and provide you
with constructive criticism.
4. Analytics & reporting - You can determine the effectiveness of your efforts with the use of
analytics and reporting. Check your dashboard frequently if you use a social media platform
to see what people are saying about your company or product. You can also see the calibre of
the comments and how many people click on your content.
5. Advertising - One of the most well-known aspects of social media is social advertising.
Advertising plays a critical part in social media marketing. It raises brand awareness, connects
businesses with potential clients, and forges connections between businesses and their clients.
When you're ready to make an investment in social media, use social advertisements to
promote your brand. It will let you reach the largest possible market and present adverts to
your target market. Social media marketing does not have to be expensive or time-consuming.
In fact, social media advertising is regarded as a fantastic tool for small businesses looking to
establish a reputation for themselves and build a following of committed clients.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Social Media Marketing

Advantages:
• A wide audience can be reached with the use of social media marketing.
• It facilitates developing a personal connection with customers.
• You can create and publish your own content for nothing.
• Contributes to the development of a brand's legitimacy via the social business page.
• You may have a social media hit with your content.
• You can offer comprehensive product knowledge.
Disadvantages:
• A lot of negative feedback could be given if your product isn't moving successfully.
• Your writing may make others uncomfortable.
• Building an engaged audience takes time.
• You should devote a lot of time to campaign monitoring.
• Sharing other content puts businesses in legal problems.

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Information Security
Information security, also known as cybersecurity or IT security, refers to the practice of
protecting information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption,
modification, or destruction. Information security involves a range of measures, including technical,
physical, and administrative controls, to safeguard sensitive data and ensure its confidentiality, integrity,
and availability. This includes identifying potential threats and vulnerabilities, implementing security
protocols and technologies, monitoring and detecting suspicious activities, and responding to security
incidents. Effective information security requires a holistic approach that involves people, processes,
and technology. It involves establishing security policies and procedures, educating employees on
security best practices, and using a combination of technical tools and controls to secure information
systems and networks.
Information security is critical in today's digital age, where businesses and organizations rely
heavily on technology and data to operate. A security breach can result in significant financial losses,
reputational damage, and legal liabilities. Therefore, ensuring the security of sensitive information is
crucial to protect against cyber threats and maintain the trust of customers and stakeholders.

Concepts of Security
Security refers to the measures and practices used to protect assets, resources, and information
from harm or damage. There are several key concepts related to security, including:
1. Confidentiality: Confidentiality refers to the protection of information from unauthorized
disclosure. Confidential information includes personal information, financial data, intellectual
property, and trade secrets. Loss of confidentiality occurs when someone who isn't allowed
to read or copy information does so. Confidentiality is a particularly significant characteristic
for some sorts of information. Examples include research findings, health and insurance
information, new product specs, and business investment plans. There can be a legal
requirement to preserve people's privacy in some places. This is particularly true for banks and
loan companies, debt collectors, companies that extend credit to their clients or issue credit
cards, hospitals, doctors' offices, and testing facilities for medical conditions, as well as people
or organisations that provide services like drug or psychological counselling or counselling
for substance abuse.
2. Integrity: Integrity refers to the protection of information from unauthorized modification or
deletion. Ensuring the integrity of data is essential to maintain its accuracy and reliability.
Integrity is crucial for vital financial and safety information utilised in processes like air traffic
control, electronic fund transfers, and financial accounting.
3. Availability: Availability refers to the ability to access information and resources when
needed. Ensuring the availability of critical systems and data is essential to maintain business
continuity and prevent disruptions. When it comes to service-oriented organisations that rely on
information, such online inventory systems and flight itineraries, availability is frequently the
most crucial factor. Everyone whose business or education depends on a network connection
must consider the network's availability.

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4. Authentication: Authentication refers to the process of verifying the identity of a user or

system. Authentication is used to ensure that only authorized individuals or systems have
access to sensitive information.
5. Authorization: Authorization refers to the process of granting or denying access to specific
resources based on user permissions. Authorization ensures that users have access to only the
information and resources they need to perform their jobs.
6. Accountability: Accountability refers to the responsibility of individuals and organizations for
their actions and decisions. Accountability is essential for ensuring that security breaches are
identified and addressed promptly.
These concepts are critical to maintaining the security of information, assets, and resources. By
implementing effective security measures, organizations can protect against cyber threats and prevent
unauthorized access, modification, or disclosure of sensitive data.

Two factor authentication (2FA)

Two-factor authentication (2FA) is a security process that requires users to provide two forms
of identification to access a system or service. It adds an extra layer of security beyond traditional
username and password authentication, which can be vulnerable to phishing, social engineering,
and other forms of cyberattacks. In a typical 2FA process, the user first enters their username and
password to access a system or service. Then, they must provide a second factor of authentication,
such as a fingerprint, voice recognition, or a one-time password (OTP) generated by an authentication
app or device. 2FA is an effective security measure because it requires attackers to obtain both the
user's password and the second factor of authentication, making it much more difficult to breach an
account. It also provides an additional layer of protection against unauthorized access, even if a user's
password has been compromised. Some of the benefits of 2FA include:
1. Improved security: 2FA adds an extra layer of security beyond traditional authentication
methods, making it more difficult for attackers to breach an account.
2. Reduced risk of identity theft: With 2FA, even if an attacker obtains a user's password, they
still cannot access the account without the second factor of authentication.
3. Increased trust: 2FA can help build trust between users and service providers, as it demonstrates
a commitment to security and protecting user data.
However, 2FA can also have some limitations, such as:
1. Complexity: 2FA may require additional steps or technology to implement, which can make it
more difficult for users to access their accounts.
2. Cost: Some 2FA solutions may require additional hardware or software, which can add to the
cost of implementing the technology.
Overall, 2FA is an effective security measure that can help protect against cyberattacks and improve
the overall security of systems and services. Two-factor authentication (2FA) typically works in the
following way:

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1. The user enters their username and password into a system or service, as shown in the first
step of the diagram below.
2. The system or service then prompts the user to provide a second factor of authentication. This
may involve a code sent to the user's mobile phone or email address, a fingerprint scan, or a
hardware token, as shown in the second step of the diagram.
3. The user provides the second factor of authentication, which is then verified by the system or
service. If the authentication is successful, the user is granted access to the system or service.
In the diagram given in Figure 5.2, the user is trying to log in to a server that requires 2FA.
The user has a device, such as a phone, that is capable of generating one-time passwords or codes.
1. The user enters their username and password into the server.
2. The server sends a request to the authentication server to check the user's credentials.
3. The authentication server generates a secret key and sends it to the user's device.
4. The device generates a one-time password/code using the secret key and displays it to the user.
5. The user enters the one-time password or code into the server.
6. The server verifies the code and grants access to the user if it is correct.

Fig. 5.2: 2FA process

In this diagram, the user first enters their username and password into a system or service.
The system then prompts the user to provide a second factor of authentication, which in this case is
a code sent to the user's mobile phone. The user receives the code on their mobile phone and enters
it into the system or service. If the code is correct, the system grants access to the user. In short, 2FA
increases security by asking users to give a second factor of authentication, often delivered to their
mobile phone or created by a device, in addition to traditional login and password authentication. This
enhances the general security of systems and services while defending against cyberattacks.

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Biometric authentication methods

Biometric authentication is a security mechanism that uses a person's unique physiological or
behavioural characteristics to verify their identity. Biometric authentication is a security mechanism
that uses a person's unique physiological or behavioural characteristics to verify their identity. These
characteristics may include fingerprints, facial features, iris or retina patterns, voice patterns, hand
geometry, or even behavioural patterns such as typing rhythm or gait. The biometric data is captured
using sensors such as fingerprint readers, cameras, or microphones, and is then compared to pre-
existing templates or profiles stored in a database. If the biometric data matches the profile, the system
grants access to the individual.
Biometric authentication offers several benefits over traditional authentication methods such
as passwords or PINs. Firstly, biometric authentication is more secure since it is difficult to replicate
or forge a person's unique biometric traits. Secondly, it is more convenient as users do not have to
remember passwords or carry physical tokens like smart cards. Finally, biometric authentication is
more reliable and accurate, reducing the chances of human error or fraud. However, there are also
some concerns with biometric authentication. Firstly, there are privacy concerns, as the collection and
storage of biometric data could potentially be misused. Secondly, there is a risk of false positives or
false negatives, where the system may incorrectly identify or reject an individual. Finally, biometric
authentication systems can be costly to implement and maintain. Overall, biometric authentication
is a powerful security tool that can help to improve the security and convenience of authentication
processes in various applications. Here are some common biometric authentication methods:
1. Fingerprint recognition: This method involves capturing an image of a person's fingerprints
and comparing it to a pre-existing database of authorized fingerprints.
2. Face recognition: This method uses software to compare the unique features of a person's face
to a pre-existing database of authorized faces.
3. Iris recognition: This method involves capturing an image of a person's iris and comparing it
to a pre-existing database of authorized irises.
4. Voice recognition: This method analyzes the unique characteristics of a person's voice, such
as tone, pitch, and cadence, to verify their identity.
5. Signature recognition: This method involves analyzing a person's unique signature to verify
their identity.
6. Behavioural biometrics: This method analyses a person's unique behavioural patterns, such as
the way they type, swipe, or move their mouse, to verify their identity.
With several benefits, including increased security, convenience, and accuracy they, also
have some limitations, such as high implementation costs, privacy concerns, and the possibility of
false positives or false negatives. Biometric authentication has several advantages over traditional
authentication methods, such as:
1. Increased Security: Biometric authentication is more secure than traditional authentication
methods, such as passwords, as it is difficult to forge or replicate a person's unique physiological
or behavioural traits. Biometric traits are unique to each individual, making it more difficult
for unauthorized individuals to gain access.

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2. Convenient: Biometric authentication is more convenient for users as they do not need to
remember passwords or carry physical tokens like smart cards. This saves time and effort for
users, especially in situations where they need to access systems frequently.
3. More Accurate: Biometric authentication is more accurate than traditional authentication
methods, such as passwords or PINs, which can be guessed or forgotten. Biometric
authentication eliminates the possibility of human error or fraud, reducing the chances of
unauthorized access.
4. Reduced Costs: While biometric authentication systems can be expensive to implement, they
can reduce costs in the long run by reducing the need for password resets, user support, and
other maintenance tasks associated with traditional authentication methods.
5. Scalable: Biometric authentication can be scaled to accommodate a large number of users and
access points, making it an ideal solution for enterprise-level security.
Biometric authentication offers a higher level of security, convenience, accuracy, and scalability
than traditional authentication methods, making it an ideal solution for various applications, from
financial services to healthcare and government.
Biometric authentication works by comparing an individual's unique physiological or
behavioral traits to a pre-existing template or profile stored in a database. Here is a general overview
of how biometric authentication works:
1. Enrollment: The user's biometric data, such as fingerprints, facial features, iris patterns, or
voice patterns, are captured and stored in a database.
2. Authentication: When the user attempts to access a system or any resource, their biometric
data is captured and compared to the pre-existing template or profile stored in the database.
3. Comparison: The system compares the captured biometric data with the stored template or
profile and determines if the two are a match.
4. Verification: If the biometric data matches the template or profile, the system grants access to
the user. If the data does not match, access is denied.
The process of biometric authentication varies depending on the type of biometric trait being
used. For example, fingerprint recognition systems capture an image of the user's fingerprint and
compare it to the pre-existing database of authorized fingerprints. Similarly, facial recognition systems
capture an image of the user's face and compare it to the pre-existing database of authorized faces.
The biometric authentication offers a higher level of security, convenience, and accuracy than
traditional authentication methods, making it an ideal solution for various applications, from financial
services to healthcare and government.

Data Encryption and Decryption

Data encryption is the process of converting plain text into a coded or unreadable form, called
cipher text, using an encryption algorithm and a key. This is done to protect the confidentiality of the
data and prevent unauthorized access or interception. The encrypted data can only be read or decoded
using a key that matches the encryption algorithm used to encrypt it. The encryption algorithm takes

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in the plaintext and the secret key and produces the cipher text. The resulting cipher text cannot be
understood without the knowledge of the secret key. There are many types of encryption algorithms
available, including symmetric key encryption and public key encryption.

Fig 5.3: Encryption Process

The general steps for data encryption are as follows and is depicted in Figure 5.3 :
• The plain text data is input into an encryption algorithm, along with a key.
• The encryption algorithm transforms the plain text into cipher text, which is unreadable and
unrecognizable.
• The encrypted data, or cipher text, is transmitted or stored.
Data decryption is the process of converting encrypted data or cipher text back into its original
plain text form using a decryption algorithm and the matching key. Decryption is typically performed
by the recipient of the encrypted data, who possesses the matching key. Decryption requires the
secret key that was used during encryption. The decryption algorithm takes in the ciphertext and the
secret key and produces the original plaintext.

Fig 5.4: Decryption Process

Here are the general steps for data decryption and is depicted in Figure 5.4:
• The encrypted data, or cipher text, is input into a decryption algorithm, along with the
matching key.
• The decryption algorithm transforms the cipher text back into plain text.
• The decrypted data can now be read and used by the recipient.
The process of encryption and decryption involves two parties: the sender and the receiver.
The sender encrypts the plain text using the secret key and sends the cipher text to the receiver over an
untrusted network. The receiver, who possesses the secret key, decrypts the cipher text to obtain the
original plain text. To ensure the security of the communication, the secret key should be kept secret
and should only be shared between the sender and the receiver. If the secret key falls into the wrong
hands, an attacker can decrypt the cipher text and obtain the original plain text.

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Encryption and decryption are widely used in various applications, such as secure
communication over the internet, protecting sensitive information in databases, and secure storage
of confidential data. There are different types of encryption algorithms and keys used for data
encryption and decryption, such as symmetric key encryption, asymmetric key encryption, and
hashing algorithms. The strength and security of the encryption and decryption process depend on the
complexity of the algorithm used, the length and randomness of the key, and the security of the key
management system.
Table 5.1: Encryption vs Decryption
Sl.
Encryption Decryption
No
It involves transforming regular data
It is a technique for returning unreadable or
1 into an unintelligible format. It aids in
coded data to its original state.
preventing any unwanted data access.
Data is automatically encrypted using You are automatically given the option by the
2 a secret key whenever it is transmitted data receiver to restore the data's original form
between two different machines. after it has been converted from codes.
3 Occurs at the sender's end. Carried out under at the receiver's end.

Example: A employee is emailing a Example: The manager is getting the necessary

4
manager important documents. paperwork from the employee.
During the process of the encryption and A pair of keys and a single algorithm are used
5 decryption, the same algorithm and key are for encryption and decryption, with each key
employed. being used for both operations.
Converting messages that can be It involves transforming a complex message
6 understood by people into messages that into one that a human being can easily
are unintelligible and obscure. comprehend.

Cryptography
Cryptography is the practice of securing communication by converting plaintext (unencrypted
data) into ciphertext (encrypted data) in order to protect its confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity.
The goal of cryptography is to provide a secure and private way for individuals and organizations to
communicate over untrusted networks like the internet.

Fig 5.5: Basic components of Cryptography

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A simple diagram in Figure 5.5 that shows the basic components of cryptography. The plain
text data is the original message that needs to be protected. The encryption process converts this plain
text into cipher text, which is unreadable and unrecognizable to unauthorized persons. The decryption
process reverses this transformation to produce the original plain text.
Cryptography relies on algorithms that use mathematical functions to scramble and unscramble
data, as well as keys (secret values) that control the encryption and decryption processes. The most
commonly used cryptographic algorithms include symmetric-key algorithms and asymmetric-key
algorithms.
• Symmetric-key algorithms use a single secret key that is used both for encryption and
decryption. The sender and receiver must share this secret key in order to communicate
securely. Symmetric-key cryptography (also known as secret-key cryptography) uses a single
secret key for both encryption and decryption. The sender and receiver both use the same
key to encrypt and decrypt messages. Examples of symmetric-key algorithms include AES
abbreviated as Advanced Encryption Standard and DES which stands for Data Encryption
Standard.
• Asymmetric-key algorithms use two keys: a public key and a private key. The public key is
used to encrypt data, while the private key is used to decrypt it. Anyone can use the public
key to encrypt data, but only the owner of the private key can decrypt it. This is also known as
public-key cryptography, uses two different keys: a public key and a private key. The public
key can be freely distributed to anyone, while the private key is kept secret. The sender encrypts
the message using the recipient's public key, and the recipient decrypts the message using their
private key. Examples of asymmetric-key algorithms include RSA and ECC (Elliptic Curve
Cryptography).
Cryptography also includes various cryptographic protocols and techniques, such as digital signatures,
hash functions, and key exchange protocols, which help to ensure the integrity and authenticity of
data.
1. Hash functions: Hash functions are mathematical algorithms that take input data of any size
and output a fixed-size string of characters. The output string, called a hash or digest, is unique
to the input data and cannot be reversed to obtain the original input data. Hash functions are
commonly used for digital signatures, message authentication codes, and password storage.
2. Digital signatures: Digital signatures are a way to provide authenticity and integrity to digital
messages. A digital signature is created using the sender's private key, and can be verified using
the sender's public key. Digital signatures are commonly used to sign electronic documents,
emails, and software code.
3. Key exchange protocols: Key exchange protocols are used to securely exchange secret keys
between two parties. Examples of key exchange protocols include Diffie-Hellman and Elliptic
Curve Diffie-Hellman (ECDH).
Features of Cryptography are as follows:
• Confidentiality: Information can only be accessed by the person for whom it is meant, and
no one else is permitted access.

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• Integrity: Information cannot be changed while being stored or sent between a sender and the
intended recipient without the addition of new information being noticed.
• Non-repudiation: The information creator/sender is unable to later retract his desire to send
information.
• Authentication: The sender's and receiver's identities are verified. Also, the information's
origin and destination are verified.
The different types of cryptography techniques and protocols are used in combination to
provide strong security for sensitive data and communications. The cryptography plays a crucial role
in ensuring the security of modern communication systems and protecting sensitive information from
unauthorized access and manipulation.
Awareness about cybercrime and Cyber security
Awareness about cybercrime and cybersecurity is crucial in today's digital age. Cybercrime
refers to any criminal activity that involves a computer or network, such as hacking, phishing, identity
theft, and cyberbullying. Cybersecurity, on the other hand, refers to the protection of computer
systems and networks from unauthorized access, theft, and damage. It is important for individuals,
businesses, and organizations to be aware of the risks and threats associated with cybercrime and to
take proactive measures to protect themselves from these threats. This includes implementing strong
passwords, using antivirus and firewall software, and regularly updating software and systems to
patch vulnerabilities.
Education and awareness campaigns can help individuals and organizations to understand
the importance of cybersecurity and the risks associated with cybercrime. This can include training
programs for employees, awareness campaigns for the public, and partnerships between government
agencies, law enforcement, and private organizations to share information and collaborate on
cybersecurity initiatives. Some common cybercrime prevention tips that individuals and businesses
can follow include:
1. Use strong and unique passwords for all online accounts
2. Keep software and systems up-to-date with the latest security patches and updates
3. Use antivirus and firewall software to protect against malware and other threats
4. Be cautious when clicking on links or downloading attachments from unknown sources
5. Protect sensitive information by encrypting files and data
6. Use two-factor authentication for added security
7. Back up important data regularly to prevent loss in the event of a cyberattack or system failure.
By raising awareness about cybercrime and cybersecurity, individuals and organizations can better
protect themselves from the risks and threats associated with the digital world.
What is Cybercrime?
Cybercrime refers to any illegal activity that involves the use of a computer, network or electronic
device, often with the intention of gaining unauthorized access, stealing sensitive information, or

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causing harm or disruption to individuals, businesses or governments. Examples of cybercrime

include hacking, phishing, identity theft, ransomware attacks, distributed denial-of-service (DDoS)
attacks, malware and viruses, cyber stalking and cyber bullying. Cybercrime has become increasingly
prevalent as more people and organizations rely on digital technology for communication, storage,
and processing of sensitive information. It can have serious consequences for victims, including
financial loss, damage to reputation, and loss of personal or corporate data. As a result, it is important
for individuals and organizations to take steps to protect themselves from cybercrime, such as using
strong passwords, regularly updating software, and being cautious when opening email attachments
or clicking on links.
Computer Virus
A computer virus is a type of malicious software (malware) that can replicate itself and spread
to other computers or devices through various means, such as email attachments, infected files, or
malicious websites. Once a computer virus infects a system, it can perform a variety of harmful actions,
including deleting or corrupting data, stealing personal information, slowing down the computer's
performance, displaying unwanted ads or pop-ups, and even taking control of the computer remotely.
Computer viruses can be designed to exploit vulnerabilities in operating systems, applications, or
web browsers, and can infect computers without the user's knowledge or consent. To protect against
computer viruses, it is important to use antivirus software, keep software and operating systems up to
date, and avoid opening email attachments or downloading files from untrusted sources.

Cyber Security Threats & Preventive Measures

A threat in the context of cyber security is a method by which the computer systems sustain
serious damage. It can be described as a possible incident that could result in serious injury even if it
never happens. A network or a single computer system may be exposed to these risks. The key points
and preventative actions can be used to stay safe from these cyberattacks.
Malware (malicious software)
Malware, also referred to as malicious software, is any program or file that is harmful to a
computer user. Spyware, Trojan horses, worms, and computer viruses are all examples of malware.
These malicious program have a wide range of capabilities, including the ability to steal, encrypt, or
destroy private information, alter or hijack standard computer functions, and covertly monitor users'
online activity.
Malware is typically created by cybercriminals and attackers with the goal of stealing sensitive
information, causing damage to computer systems or networks, or using compromised systems for
illegal activities such as launching DDoS attacks or spam campaigns. Malware can be distributed
through various channels, including infected email attachments, malicious websites, and software
downloads. To protect against malware, it is important to keep software up-to-date, use antivirus
and anti-malware software, avoid clicking on suspicious links or downloading unknown files, and
regularly backup important data. In addition, organizations should implement security measures such
as firewalls, intrusion detection and prevention systems, and security training programs for employees.

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Types of malware
There are different types of malware that contain unique traits and characteristics.

Fig 5.6: Types of Malware

• Virus - The most prevalent form of malware is a virus, which is described as a harmful software
that can run on its own and spreads by infecting other files or applications. It is designed to
replicate itself and spread from one computer to another. Once a virus infects a computer, it
can cause damage to files, programs, and data.
• Worm - A worm is a sort of malware that has the ability to duplicate itself without the aid of a
host application; worms frequently propagate without the assistance of humans or instructions
from the malware's developers.
• Trojan horse - a harmful application that is made to look like a trustworthy program. After
installation, Trojans can be activated to carry out their malicious operations. Trojans are
malware that are disguised as legitimate software. Once a Trojan is downloaded and executed,
it can give an attacker remote access to the infected computer.
• Spyware - It is a type of software that is made to track users' online activities and gather
personal information about them without their knowledge. It is designed to spy on a user's
activity and steal sensitive information such as passwords, credit card numbers, and other
personal data.
• Other types of malware include functions or features specifically for a certain goal. For
instance, Ransomware is made to infect a user's computer and encrypt their data. The victim
is then required to pay a ransom to the cybercriminals in order to have the data on the system
decrypted.
• Rootkit - Malware called Rootkits is created to get administrative access to the victim's
system. The program grants threat actors root or privileged access to the system after it has
been installed. It is designed to give an attacker root-level access to a computer system. Once
a rootkit is installed, it can be difficult to detect and remove.
• Backdoor virus or Remote Access Trojan (RAT) - Is a malicious program that discreetly
opens a backdoor into an infected system to enable threat actors to remotely access it without
the user or the system's security programs being made aware of it.

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• Adware: Malware that continuously inundates users with pop-up windows and adverts has
the potential to be damaging for devices. It is a type of malware that displays unwanted ads
on a user's computer or mobile device. While adware may not be as harmful as other types
of malware, it can be annoying and intrusive. Use an adware removal program to get rid of
adware.
• Crime ware : It is a program or collection of programs created specifically to support illicit
conduct online. A virus, spyware, or other piece of software that allows for fraud and identity
theft could be the culprit.

How malware works

Malware or harmful software can be physically installed on a machine using a USB drive or
another method. Drive-by downloads, which automatically download malicious programs to users'
PCs without their knowledge or consent, are a common method for malware to proliferate online.
They begin, for instance, when a user accesses a malicious website. Phishing assaults are another
frequent method of malware distribution; emails that look like legitimate messages but actually
contain malicious links or attachments can trick victims into downloading the malware executable.
Here are the general steps of how malware works:
1. Delivery: The malware is delivered to the target system. This can be done through various
methods, such as email attachments, malicious links, or infected software.
2. Execution: Once the malware is on the target system, it is executed. This can happen
automatically or through user interaction, such as opening a file or clicking on a link.
3. Infection: The malware then infects the system, which may involve modifying files, altering
system settings, or creating new files or processes.
4. Communication: The malware communicates with a command and control (C&C) server,
which is used to control the malware and gather information about the infected system.
5. Payload: The malware then carries out its intended payload, which could include stealing
sensitive information, modifying files, deleting data, or hijacking the system for use in a larger
attack.
6. Persistence: Malware is designed to be persistent and to remain on the system even after a
reboot. This ensures that the malware can continue to carry out its intended purpose and evade
detection.
7. Spreading: Some types of malware are designed to spread to other systems, either through
network connections or by copying themselves to removable media.
Preventing malware infections requires a multi-layered approach that includes regular software
updates, anti-malware software, and user education to prevent social engineering attacks.

Pornography
The negative impacts of pornography on teenagers and others are one of society's largest
problems. The easy availability to porn is seen to be one of the main causes of the surge in sexual

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crimes committed by minors. The generation of today is accustomed to using social media and other
forms of technology. Everyone now has a mobile device with internet access. On their phones, kids
can easily access porn and other sexually explicit material. This has led to a rise in sexual offences
against adolescents. As these are freely discussed in public, even youngsters would be exposed to
them, which would have a serious negative impact on their emotional and psychological health.
Preventing internet pornography
• Set up PCs in public parts of the house and limit late-night internet use.
• Set up a filtering application on all phones and PCs.
• Make all PCs' parental controls active.
• Use a password to restrict pornographic-content-heavy TV networks.
• Inform family members of the risks associated with pornography.
• Choose media that supports our family values, such as books, websites, music, publications,
activities, and/or films.
• Showing kindness to ourselves and to others by refraining from posting or sharing anything
that would embarrass, offend, or cause hurt. We will inform a parent immediately away if we
receive a text, email, or post that makes us feel uneasy, depressed, or afraid.
• Dissuading from viewing or uploading indecent or otherwise improper photographs as a sign
of respect for our own bodies and the bodies of others. If we unintentionally come across any
dubious content, we will immediately inform a parent.
• Keeping personal information private by avoiding displaying phone numbers, addresses, or
other identifying information in public areas. Before posting any personal information, if we
are unsure, we will consult a parent.
• As a family, establish media guidelines.

Forgery
It comprises forged mark sheets, revenue and postage stamps, counterfeit money notes, and
counterfeit postage and postage stamps. Forgery may have been performed when the perpetrator
changed computerised records that were stored there. In this case, criminal behaviour centres on
computer systems. But, forgery can also be carried out using computers as the tool. These scams
require relatively little technical expertise to execute. Scanners, colour printers, and graphics software
can be used to create fake checks, invoices, and stationery. The untrained eye has a tough time spotting
such forgeries. Making a fraudulent document or other item, forging a signature without authorisation,
or making unauthorised changes to a document or other object.
Types of Forgery
• Forgery is the act of creating a false document, signature, or other item with the intent to
deceive others. There are several types of forgery, including:
• Document Forgery: This involves creating or altering a document with the intent to deceive.
This can include forging a signature, changing dates or amounts on a check or contract, or
creating a fake ID.
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• Art Forgery: This involves creating a fake work of art with the intent to deceive. Art forgery
can be a lucrative business, as rare and valuable works of art can sell for millions of dollars.
• Identity Forgery: This involves creating or altering a document or other item to falsely represent
oneself as someone else. This can include creating a fake passport or driver's license, or using
someone else's name and social security number to open credit card accounts or obtain loans.
• Signature Forgery: This involves forging someone else's signature on a document, check,
or other item. Signature forgery is a common type of forgery and can have serious legal
consequences.
• Prescription Forgery: This involves creating a fake prescription for controlled substances
or altering an existing prescription. Prescription forgery is a serious crime and can lead to
addiction, overdose, and other health problems.
Forgery is a serious crime that can result in significant legal and financial consequences. It is
important to be vigilant and take steps to protect against forgery, such as checking the authenticity
of documents and signatures and using secure passwords and authentication measures to protect
personal and financial information.

Hacking
Hacking is the process of identifying security vulnerabilities or flaws in a computer network or
computer system and using them to get access to customer/ client or business information. One
instance of computer hacking is using a password cracking method to gain access to a computer
system. Nowadays, successful firms must operate on computers. In order to ease contact with outside
firms, it is not sufficient to have isolated computer systems. This makes them vulnerable to hacking and
the outside world. System hacking refers to the use of computers to commit fraud, privacy violations,
the theft of business or individual data, etc. Every year, cybercrime costs numerous firms millions of
dollars. Companies must defend themselves from these attacks. It is important to note that hacking is
illegal and unethical. Hacking involves unauthorized access to computer systems, networks, or data,
with the intent to steal, modify, or destroy information. Below are some of the common techniques
used by hackers to gain unauthorized access:
• Password cracking: This involves using tools or software to guess or crack passwords used to
protect access to computer systems or data.
• Social engineering: This involves manipulating people to disclose confidential information,
such as passwords or personal details, through methods such as phishing emails, pretexting,
or baiting.
• Malware: This involves using malicious software, such as viruses, Trojans, or worms, to infect
computer systems or networks and gain access to sensitive information.
• SQL injection: This involves exploiting vulnerabilities in a website or web application's code
to inject malicious SQL statements that can be used to access sensitive data or modify its
contents.
• Cross-site scripting: This involves exploiting vulnerabilities in web applications to inject
malicious scripts that can be used to steal sensitive information, such as login credentials or
personal data.
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• Wi-Fi hacking: This involves exploiting vulnerabilities in Wi-Fi networks, such as weak
encryption or passwords, to gain access to sensitive data or intercept communications.
Overall, it is important to take steps to protect against hacking, such as using strong passwords,
keeping software up to date, and being cautious when sharing personal information online. If you
suspect that your computer or network has been hacked, you should contact law enforcement and a
cybersecurity professional immediately. Certain corporations employ hackers as part of their support
staff. These legitimate hackers use their skills to find flaws in the company security system, thus
preventing identity theft and other computer-related crimes.
Hackers are of three types.
• White Hat Hackers (Ethical Hackers):- Hacks for good reasons.
• Black Hat Hackers: Hacks for malicious reasons.
• Grey Hat Hackers: Hacks sometimes for good reasons and sometimes for malicious reasons.
How to protect from hacking
• If not automatically, update your operating system and other applications often.
• Download the most recent versions of security tools, such as anti-malware software that uses
a variety of technologies to guard against spyware, ransomware, etc.
• Enable the firewall in the operating system.
• Remove all personal data from any hardware you intend to sell.
• Avoid using public Wi-Fi since it makes it too simple for threat actors to seize your connection
and download unlawful content. Use a password that is encrypted to secure your Wi-Fi.
• Turn on two-step authentication, high security, and complicated passwords for optimal safety.

Cyberstalking
Cyberstalking refers to the use of technology to harass, intimidate, or stalk someone. This can
include sending threatening messages, monitoring someone's online activities, spreading rumors or
false information, and using social media or other online platforms to track someone's movements or
activities. Cyberstalking can have serious consequences for the victim, including emotional distress,
anxiety, and even physical harm in some cases. It can also be difficult to detect and prosecute, as the
anonymity of the internet can make it difficult to identify the perpetrator. If you or someone you know
is experiencing cyberstalking, it is important to take steps to protect yourself, such as blocking the
perpetrator and reporting the behavior to the appropriate authorities. It may also be helpful to seek
support from a trusted friend or family member, or a professional counselor.
Protection from cyberstalking
1. Don't give out your name or phone number when using online dating sites.
2. Create a unique email account with a free provider that is exclusively used for online activities
and is unrelated to personal or professional addresses.
3. Preserve your privacy by keeping your true name, address, and other contact information
private. Set privacy settings as tightly as you can
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4. Change your password on every password-protected website, including Facebook, your

voicemail, and all other password-protected websites.
5. You should only accept friend requests from people you know well.
6. If you don't know the sender of a private message on a social networking platform, do not
reply.
7. Adjust your Facebook security settings to prevent those who are not friends from posting to
your wall.
8. Anybody who behaves suspiciously on Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram can be simply blocked.
9. On any social media network, avoid disclosing unneeded or particular information about who
you are or where you are.
10. You have every right to ask someone to stop recording or uploading images or videos of you
to the Internet.
11. Avoid erasing original messages. Preserve all harassing or unwanted texts in both soft and
hard copies; doing so will be helpful if you need to contact the police.
You should contact the concerned authorities if you come across someone exhibiting stalker behaviours
that look serious or if you start to get threats.

Email Spamming
The act of sending undesired, unsolicited emails to numerous recipients is known as email
spamming. It is the practise of randomly sending thousands of users the same email to no apparent
reason. Email spam is the practise of sending undesired email messages, typically with commercial
content, in bulk to a random group of recipients. These emails frequently have advertising or
promotional content and are distributed without the recipients' knowledge. Although email spamming
is frequently used for business or advertising, it can also be used for dishonest or criminal activities
like phishing schemes or the distribution of malware. Businesses should also abide by anti-spam laws
and rules to avoid being branded spammers and suffering legal repercussions. It is also referred to
as unsolicited bulk email (UBE), junk mail, or unsolicited commercial email (UCE). Sending mass
quantities of emails to users, a la chain letters, is known as email spamming.
Email spamming is a prevalent issue that can be extremely annoying for both individuals
and companies. Email inboxes can get clogged, time and resources can be wasted, and if the emails
contain harmful content, it may even be a security issue. Many email providers use spam filters to
automatically identify and block spam emails in order to combat email spamming. Consumers can
take precautions to safeguard themselves by designating spam emails as undesirable and exercising
caution while disclosing their email address online.
It can be quite challenging to identify the real sender's email address when email spamming
and email spoofing are combined. Several email programs allow you to stop receiving mail from
a certain address. Nevertheless, because these people regularly change their email addresses, it is
challenging to stop some spam from getting to your inbox. Spammers utilise programs to gather
recipient addresses online and from publicly available sources.

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The following are a few effects of spam:

• Overflows your Inbox with ridiculous emails.
• Spam occasionally contains links to viruses or other harmful software for our computers.
• Significantly reduces your Internet speed.
• Steals important information, such as your contact information.
• Modifies the search engine results you receive.
Preventing Spam
You can use the following strategies to prevent spam from reaching your inbox:
• Consistently use an antivirus application that is up to date and reliable.
• Never provide your email address or other private information, such as credit card numbers,
to an unauthorised source.
• Don't reply to any emails that you didn't request. If you ever receive such an email, delete it
right away.
• Try to stay away from emails with the subject "need help or some money" or any other
attention-grabbing language. Also, never, ever forward such emails as they may be used to
gather as many email addresses as possible.
• Use the BCC field to disguise the email addresses from the other recipients whenever you
need to transmit an email to a number of people.
• In chat rooms or newsletters, never share your email address.

Email Spoofing
Although the email appeared to have originated from one source, it actually did. Email spoofing
is the practice of altering an email header to make it look as though the message came from a different
address or location than it actually did. Just fabricating a persona, such as an internet username, might
be used for spoofing. Creating emails using a falsified sender address, or making them look to be from
a reputable source while actually coming from a scammer, is known as email spoofing. This kind of
fraud starts with a phishing email that includes a malicious attachment. Examples of these emails
include the word "invoice" in the subject line and an attachment with the same name.
When the attachment is opened, malware is downloaded into the computer. The criminals have
access to the system thanks to this malware. Once they have this access, criminals can use a variety of
techniques to access sensitive data. The crooks frequently observe and look into the practice's internal
email traffic to ascertain who handles requests for electronic banking and who is most likely to make
one. The criminal then writes an email from a fee earner to the appropriate employee in the accounts
department asking for a money transfer to a foreign bank account. When the criminal has access to
the system, they can locate open cases and make references to real clients and their names in emails.
In other instances, criminals have intercepted and read external emails sent between the attorney and
the client. When a genuine email with bank account information is received, the fraudster intercepts
it and changes the information. The spoofed email account then forwards this modified email to the
proper recipient. If the receivers take any of the aforementioned actions after receiving the emails,
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the money will be moved to the fake account and then vanish before the fraud is discovered, making
it incredibly challenging to retrieve the funds. Precaution and prevention from email spoofing
• Ensure that your computer system is up to date with a reliable anti-virus and is configured to
update software automatically.
• If the sender of the mail is unfamiliar, avoid opening it.
• Ignore any emails that don't include sender names.
• Disregard any email that lists your name as the sender.
• If any email contains merely a link in the body of the message, do not open it.
• Choose the filtering option for messages with blank senders.
• Be cautious of any attachments you receive via email, especially those coming from an
unidentified sender. Avoid opening the attachment if uncertain.
• Take caution not to follow any unforeseen instructions when transferring money, such as
when doing so to overseas bank accounts.
• After opening an email, always verify the sender's address in the "From" field to rule out any
anomalies.

Email Bombing
A harmful act in which numerous emails are sent in quick succession to a single email address
is known as an email bomb or "mail bomb." An email bomb's primary objective is often to fill up the
recipient's inbox. In some circumstances, it will also cause the mail server to become unresponsive
and crash the server. In email bombing, one user sends hundreds or thousands of messages to another
user from a single machine. The email bomber may utilise a script to automate the procedure and
deliver the mails swiftly. You may send thousands of emails every minute by using a script to send
emails. After a successful email bombing attempt, a large volume of undesired email was delivered to
the recipient's mailbox. Also, it can exceed the recipient's email allotment, prohibiting the user from
getting fresh emails. As a result, the user is forced to manually remove the communications.
Using various means, email bombing can be avoided.
• Utilize antivirus software and turn on the firewall on your computer.
• Employ email filtering software such as spamkiller, email chomper, etc.
• Utilize proxy servers. The proxy server filters messages it receives that ask for data and
resources from the computers connected to it according to a set of rules.
• Making use of the Basic Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).

Web Jacking
A sort of cyberattack known as "web jacking" occurs when a hacker acquires illegal access to
a website's domain name and changes the website's content, diverts traffic, or steals confidential data.
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The word "hijacking," which describes assuming control of something without authorization, is the
origin of the term "web jacking." Online jacking can be carried out in a number of ways, including
by taking advantage of software flaws on the website or by using social engineering techniques like
phishing. A hacker can alter a website's content, lead users to other websites, or steal sensitive data
from users of the website once they have control of the domain name.
Website owners should employ two-factor authentication, strong passwords, and regular
software updates to prevent web jacking. They should also keep an eye on their website's traffic and
domain name registration for any unusual activity. When visiting unfamiliar websites, users should
exercise caution and keep an eye out for any indications of phishing or other questionable activities.
Threats and risk of web jacking
Threat:
• If a fraudster seizes possession of a domain, he could demand payment from the legitimate
owner in exchange for giving him back the domain. He might use the website to engage in
unlawful activity as well.
• The fraud website may trick users/subscribers of the original website into disclosing their
credentials since it is so similar to the legitimate website.
• The criminal may even post visuals or text to make it appear as though the legitimate website
has been vandalised.
Risk :
Online service cannot be restarted until the site's link has been established again, and as a result, the
victim may suffer reputational, brand-image, brand-value, and monetary losses.

Phishing
Phishing is merely one of the several online scams that aim to dupe individuals into handing
up their money. Phishing is a form of social engineering assault that is frequently employed to obtain
user information, such as login credentials and credit card details. Malicious links or attachments that
can carry out a number of tasks, including obtaining login credentials or account information from
victims, are distributed by the attacker through phishing emails. Phishing is popular among online
fraudsters because it makes it much simpler to deceive someone into clicking a dangerous link and
gather information. There are numerous variations of phishing, including spear phishing, whaling
attacks, pharming, voice phishing, etc.
How Phishing works?
Phishing attempts frequently use direct messages delivered on social networks, SMS text
messages, and other instant messaging modes as well as email or other electronic communication
channels. Phishers may utilise social engineering techniques as well as other open information sources,
such as social media sites like Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter, to learn more about the victim's
background, including his interests, activities, and past employment. Effective phishing emails, which
are typically presented as coming from a reputable firm, are challenging to distinguish from genuine
emails because they may contain corporate logos, other identifiable images, and information obtained
from the company being misrepresented.

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How to prevent Phishing?

Phishing is a significant issue. A phishing assault is quite tough to recognise. Here are some
suggestions on how to stay away from such websites altogether.
• A gateway email filter can prevent phishing emails from reaching users' inboxes by catching
a large volume of mass-targeted phishing emails.
• A online security gateway can add another line of defence by stopping users from clicking on
a harmful link's intended target.
• Verify the recipients of the email. If you do come across other addresses, it's wise to use some
caution and scepticism.
• Users should never click on links in emails, particularly if they didn't request the communication.
• Pay close attention to the spelling of the domain name because many thieves like to use
misspelt names, such as paypl.com, ctibank.com, and event factbook.com. They appear to be
correct at first glance, yet they are only there to trap us.
• The easiest strategy to avoid being phished is to never visit a phishing website.
• Cybercriminals may call you and offer to buy you a software licence or assist you with your
computer issues. Cold calling, commonly known as telemarketing, is not done by Microsoft
or any of its partners in order to advise you on computer security or software updates. Record
the caller's information and report the incident to your local authorities if you receive a false
call.

Cookies and threats

Websites utilise cookies, which are little text files stored on a user's device, to remember details
about the user, such as login information or website preferences. Although cookies by themselves are
typically safe, improper cookie use might result in hazards to user security and privacy. The following
are some harmful uses of cookies:
• Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) attacks: Cookies can be used by hackers to launch XSS attacks, in
which they introduce malicious code into a website to steal user information or take over the
user's device.
• Session Hijacking: Cookies can be used to hack user sessions, giving an attacker the ability to
operate in the user's place and access confidential data or carry out unlawful actions.
• Cookie Poisoning: Attackers have the ability to manipulate cookies and the data they contain,
including user credentials and session data.
• Tracking and Profiling: Cookies can be used to track a user's online activity and build a
behavioural profile of them, which can then be exploited for targeted advertising or other evil
intentions.
It's crucial to often clear your browser's cookies, use browser extensions that prevent third-
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you want to guard yourself against these dangers. In order to encrypt your internet traffic and conceal
your online activities from prying eyes, you can also use a virtual private network (VPN).

Introduction to Cyber Security

Cybersecurity is a set of strategies used to safeguard the integrity of networks, programs,
and data against attack, damage, and illegal access. Cybersecurity is the prevention of cyberattacks
on internet-connected systems, including hardware, software, and data. Protecting data and systems
from serious online attacks is the fundamental role of cyber security. These online dangers can be in
the form of phishing, malware, ransomware, application attacks, etc.
Objective
• Confidentiality Disclosure: information is not made available unauthorized individuals,
entities, or processes. Information that is protected against access by unauthorised individuals
is said to be confidential. Access to sensitive information is restricted to those who have
the proper credentials. A failure to protect confidentiality means that by malicious action or
mistake, someone who should not have access has managed to get it. Such a confidentiality
violation, generally known as a breach.
• Availability Access: accessible & usable upon demand by an authorized entity. Availability
means that the approved users can access the information. Customers and businesses can access
information and other essential assets when needed. Information is not only inaccessible if it
is lost or damaged but also if access to the information is refused or delayed.
• Integrity Authenticity: safeguarding the accuracy and completeness of assets. Ensures
information's authenticity that information is not changed, and the source of the information
is genuine. Imagine creating a website, and selling items on that website. Now imagine an
intruder /attacker being able to shop on the website and maliciously change the prices of
the items, so they can purchase something for any price they want. That would be a lack of
honesty, as the information — in this case, the price of a commodity — has changed and one
have not approved this change.

Elements of Cyber Security

Every organisation and individual must adhere to the principles of cybersecurity in order to
safeguard their sensitive data. Ensuring cybersecurity requires the coordination of efforts throughout
an information system. There are six fundamental elements that make up cybersecurity depicted in
Figure 5.6 followed by its explanation:
• Application security: Application security is a technique for enhancing software's capabilities
or functionality to thwart a variety of threats. The main element of cyber security, application
security, incorporates security features inside apps throughout the development phase to protect
against cyberattacks. It protects websites and online programs from a variety of cyber security
threats that take use of flaws in source code. The goal of application security is to protect
software applications from threats. They include cyberattacks, data breaches, and incidents
involving data theft and denial of service. Unauthorized access can be stopped using several
forms of application security, including firewalls, antivirus software, encryption software, and
other tools. Application security firms that use cloud services are generally the focus.

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Fig 5.7: Elements of Cyber Security

• Information security: Information security aims to keep harmful individuals from gaining
access to the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of computer system data. The CIA
Triad of information security stands for Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability.
• Network security: The policies and practises a network administrator implements to prevent
and maintain track of unauthorised access, exploitation, modification, and denial of the
network and its resources are referred to as network security. This means that properly
designed network security prevents malware, hackers, and other threats from accessing or
changing secure data.
• Disaster recovery: A system of rules and procedures that safeguard an organisation from any
substantial consequences in the event of a negative occurrence, such as a cyberattack, a natural
disaster, or a failure of a facility or technology. Disaster recovery aids in the creation of plans
for the speedy restoration of hardware, software, and data for business continuity. Even in the
event of disasters and adverse occurrences, company continuity can be achieved with the aid
of a solid disaster recovery strategy. Most organisations' security management teams conduct
routine audits and drills to ensure that each department and the organisation as a whole are
using effective disaster recovery procedures.
• End-user education: The biggest security risk in enterprises today is coming from end users.
Employees may unintentionally open the virtual gates to attackers via no fault of their own,
most commonly owing to a lack of understanding and business ICT policy. To decrease these
incidences and improve risk mitigation, companies must exert significant effort to concentrate
on user education and awareness. It is more crucial than ever to adequately inform employees
about security attacks and how they may proactively contribute to the cyber security of the
company due to the rise in both cybercrime and BYOD.
• Operational Security: Operational Security (OPSEC) or procedural security is a technique that
enables managers to see actions from the perspective of a hacker to safeguard sensitive data
from risks. OPSEC is used to protect an association's operations. It keeps track of fundamental
information and assets to identify where the practical technique has flaws. All of your IT
security procedures fall under the broad category of operational security. It ensures that the
organisation as a whole not only secures all potential points of vulnerability but also frequently
updates its security methods to stay abreast of new threats and security developments.

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Benefits:
• It protects the business against ransomware, malware, social engineering, and phishing.
• It protects end-users.
• It gives good protection for both data as well as networks.
• Increase recovery time after a breach.
• Cybersecurity prevents unauthorized users.
Safety Measures
• Using antivirus software
• Installing firewalls and pop-up blockers
• Removing unneeded software
• Regularly maintaining backups
• Checking security settings
• Using secure connections
• Open attachments with caution
• Don't share personal information until absolutely necessary and use strong passwords

Data Security and Protection from Cyber Attack

Data security is the practice of protecting digital information from unauthorized access, theft,
damage, or disruption. Cyber-attacks are a growing threat to data security, and organizations must
take proactive measures to protect their sensitive data from such attacks. Here are some ways to
protect against cyber-attacks and ensure data security:
1. Use strong passwords and two-factor authentication: Passwords should be complex and
unique, and two-factor authentication should be used whenever possible to add an extra layer
of security.
2. Regularly update software and systems: Outdated software and systems are more vulnerable
to attacks, so it's important to regularly update and patch any vulnerabilities.
3. Encrypt sensitive data: Encryption converts data into a secret code that can only be deciphered
with a key, making it unreadable to unauthorized users.
4. Backup important data: Regular backups ensure that important data can be restored in case of
a cyber-attack or other disaster.
5. Use firewalls and antivirus software: Firewalls block unauthorized access to a computer or
network, while antivirus software detects and removes malicious software.
6. Educate employees: Employees should be trained on best practices for data security, such as
identifying phishing emails and avoiding risky online behavior.
7. Implement access controls: Access controls limit access to sensitive data to only those who
need it, reducing the risk of data breaches.
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By following these best practices and staying vigilant, organizations can significantly reduce their
risk of cyber-attacks and ensure the security of their sensitive data.

Antivirus
Antivirus software is used to protect a computer from malware, such as Trojan horses,
computer worms, and viruses. It is a tool that checks a hard drive for viruses and gets rid of any that
are discovered. The majority of antivirus products have an auto-update capability that enables the
program to download profiles of new viruses so that it can scan for them as soon as they are found.
The following are required for an antiviral program to function properly:
• be active all the time in the background.
• kept up-to-date so that it can detect fresh versions of harmful software.
• be able to scan downloaded files and email attachments as they come in from the Internet.
• users ought to perform routine complete disc scans.
Even Windows Defender, which works with the most recent versions of Windows to protect
against computer viruses, is included in newer versions of Microsoft Windows. AVG, Kaspersky,
McAfee, Norton antivirus, and more well-known antivirus products are also available.
Password
A password is a secret combination of characters that is used to authenticate a user's identity
and grant access to a protected system or account. Passwords are a critical aspect of cybersecurity and
are used to protect sensitive data and personal information from unauthorized access.
Here are some important concepts related to passwords:
1. Password strength: Password strength refers to the degree of difficulty in guessing or cracking
a password. Strong passwords contain a mix of upper and lower case letters, numbers, and
special characters, and are at least 8-12 characters long.
2. Password complexity: Password complexity refers to the variety of characters used in a
password. Complex passwords include a mix of letters, numbers, and special characters.
3. Password hashing: Password hashing is a process that converts a password into a unique,
fixed-length string of characters that cannot be converted back to the original password. This
adds an extra layer of security by preventing anyone who gains access to the password file
from being able to read the actual passwords.
4. Password expiration: Password expiration is a policy that requires users to change their
passwords after a certain amount of time. This helps to prevent unauthorized access in case a
password is compromised.
5. Password manager: A password manager is a software tool that stores and encrypts passwords,
making it easier for users to manage and remember multiple complex passwords.
It is important to use strong and complex passwords, to change them periodically, and to never
share them with anyone. By following these best practices, individuals can help to ensure the security
of their sensitive information and protect against cyber attacks.
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Concept of Firewall
A firewall is a type of network security system that keeps an eye on and regulates incoming
and outgoing network traffic in accordance with pre-established security rules. Its main purpose is to
prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network, while allowing authorized communication.
Firewalls can be implemented either in hardware or software form and are typically placed
at the boundary between a private network and the internet. They use a set of rules to filter network
traffic, blocking or allowing traffic based on specific criteria, such as the source or destination of the
traffic, the type of application or service, or the type of protocol used.
There are several types of firewalls, including:
1. Packet-filtering firewalls: These firewalls examine packets of data as they travel between
networks and decide whether to block or allow them based on predetermined criteria.
2. Stateful firewalls: These firewalls keep track of the state of network connections and can make
more informed decisions about whether to block or allow traffic based on the context of the
connection.
3. Application-level gateways: These firewalls monitor and filter traffic at the application layer,
allowing for more granular control over specific applications or services.
4. Next-generation firewalls: These firewalls combine multiple security functions, such as
intrusion prevention, antivirus, and web filtering, into a single device.
Firewalls are a critical component of network security and can help to protect against a wide range
of cyber-attacks, such as malware infections, denial-of-service attacks, and unauthorized access.
However, they should be used in conjunction with other security measures, such as regular software
updates, user education, and strong passwords, to provide comprehensive protection against cyber
threats.

Digital Signature
A block of data at the conclusion of a message known as a digital signature verifies the
legitimacy of a file. The signature won't be valid if the file is altered in any way. Message integrity
and authentication are both accomplished using digital signatures. A message, piece of software, or
digital document can be authenticated and its integrity verified using a digital signature, which is only
a mathematical procedure. The signer is the only person who has access to the private key. It is used
to create the digital signature, which is then attached to the message. The public key is available to
anyone who receives the signed communications or messages from the sender. It is utilised to validate
the message that has been received.
Benefits:
• Authentication: Used to verify the messages' origin. A valid signature verifies that the
communication was transmitted by the user who is the owner of the digital signature key.
• Non-repudiation: make sure the person who signed the information cannot later retract their
signature.

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• Integrity: Both the sender and the recipient of a message need to be sure that it was not
changed during transmission. Use the cryptographic message digest routines to provide this
feature.
Working of digital signature
Public key cryptography, commonly referred to as asymmetric cryptography, is the foundation
of digital signatures. One can create two keys that are mathematically linked—one private and one
public—using a public key scheme like RSA. Public key cryptography relies on two cryptographic
keys that can mutually authenticate each other for digital signatures to function. Data that is relevant
to the digital signature is encrypted using the signer's private key, and can only be decrypted using the
signer's public key. Digital signatures are verified in this way.

Fig 5.8: Digital Signature Working

Using digital signature technology, all parties must have faith that the person who created
the signature was able to protect their own private key. A third party could produce false digital
signatures in the signer's name if they have access to the private key of the signer. Cryptography,
which is concerned with converting electronic records into seemingly nonsensical forms and back
again, merely creates and verifies digital signatures.
How to create a digital signature
A signing tool, such as an email program, that generates a one-way hash of the electronic data
to be signed is required in order to construct a digital signature. The hash is then encrypted using the
private key. The digital signature consists of the encrypted hash as well as other details like the hashing
technique. It is simple to sign any outgoing emails and validate digitally signed incoming messages
because the majority of modern email programs accept the usage of digital signatures and digital
certificates. Moreover, digital signatures are frequently employed to demonstrate the authenticity,
correctness, and non-repudiation of communications and transactions made online. The IT Act has
given digital signatures legal recognition, making them equally recognised as signed or handwritten
signatures for the purposes of verifying any document referencing a person. Electronic files called
digital signature certificates are used to identify users and resources on the Internet. Communication
between the parties is protected.

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In digital communication and transactions, there are several uses for digital signatures, including:
• Used to authenticate the sender's identity in messages and documents.
• Give confirmation that a message's or documents content hasn't been changed or tampered
with since it was signed.
• Offer evidence that the sender of a message or document signed it, preventing the sender from
subsequently denying that they sent it.
• Utilized in contracts, agreements, and financial transactions to satisfy legal requirements for
signing and exchanging documents.
• Used to protect the privacy and secrecy of messages or documents because only the intended
receiver can decrypt them.
• Used to keep track of how quickly documents move through a workflow because every
signature leaves a trace of who signed it when.
Cyber laws are a set of guidelines that control how people use computers, the internet, and
other digital technologies. These laws are intended to solve a variety of problems relating to data
protection, internet privacy, cybercrime, and intellectual property rights.
Here are some key types of cyber laws:
1. Cybercrime laws: Hacking, identity theft, phishing, and the trafficking of malware are just a
few of the many cybercrimes that these laws are intended to stop and punish. They provide an
overview of the legal sanctions and processes for identifying and punishing cybercriminals.
2. Data protection laws: These rules control how businesses and other organisations gather, store,
and use personal data. They mandate that businesses seek user consent before collecting data
and put in place the necessary security safeguards to safeguard that data.
3. Online privacy laws: By limiting the gathering and use of individuals' personal information,
these rules safeguard the privacy of online users. They mandate that websites get user consent
before collecting data and describe their data collection procedures.
4. Intellectual property laws: These laws safeguard the owners' and creators' rights to copyrights,
trademarks, and patents. They describe how to enforce these rights legally and how to deal
with violations.
5. Electronic transaction laws: These regulations apply to contracts, electronic signatures, and
other online transactions. They demonstrate the transactions' legitimacy and enforceability
under the law.
Cyber laws might differ depending on the jurisdiction, therefore it's critical for people and
businesses to know which ones apply to them. Cyberlaw violations can carry harsh legal consequences,
such as fines, incarceration, and reputational damage.

An Overview & Scope of Cyber Law

An area of law called "cyber law," usually referred to as "Internet law," is concerned with legal
matters relating to the use of the internet, digital technology, and computer systems. The practise of
cyber law is continually changing as a result of new legal issues emerging and advancing technology.
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The scope of cyber law includes various legal areas, such as:
1. Cybercrime: Cybercrime laws address crimes that are carried out online or on computer
networks. They include actions like identity theft, cyberstalking, cyberbullying, and hacking.
2. Data protection and privacy: These rules control how businesses and other organisations
gather, store, and use personal data. They mandate that businesses seek user consent before
collecting data and put in place the necessary security safeguards to safeguard that data.
3. Intellectual property: Copyrights, trademarks, and patents are a few examples of the rights that
intellectual property laws safeguard for content producers and owners. They describe how to
enforce these rights legally and how to deal with violations.
4. Online transactions and contracts: These regulations apply to contracts, electronic signatures,
and other online transactions. They demonstrate the transactions' legitimacy and enforceability
under the law.
5. Internet governance: Internet governance laws deal with issues like net neutrality, censorship,
and domain name conflicts that are related to managing and regulating the internet.
Because of the rapid advancement of technology and the emergence of fresh legal issues, the
realm of cyber law is continually expanding. Therefore, it is critical for individuals and organisations
to keep up with the most recent legal changes in this area. The security and privacy of people and
businesses in the digital age are maintained in large part thanks to cyber legislation.

Copyright
Copyright is a legal idea that gives the author of an original work, such as a literary, artistic,
or musical production, exclusive rights. These privileges cover the ability to duplicate, distribute,
exhibit, perform, and create derivative works based on the original work. The goal of copyright law
is to strike a balance between creators' rights and societal interests. It ensures that these works are
accessible for others to build upon and use while giving artists incentives to develop new ones. When
a work is first created, copyright protection is often automatic and lasts for a set amount of time.For
instance, copyright protection in the United States lasts for the creator's lifetime plus an additional 70
years.The author has the exclusive authority to restrict use of their creation during this time.
When someone makes use of a copyrighted work without the owner's consent or without a
valid explanation, such as fair use, this is known as copyright infringement. Infringement can lead to
legal repercussions, such as fines and damages, as well as hurt the creator's reputation and financial
interests.In general, copyright law is a crucial tool for upholding the rights of authors and promoting
the creation of fresh, original works.

Trademarks and Software Patenting

Two distinct legal ideas, software patenting and trademarking, are crucial for safeguarding
intellectual property in the software sector.
A trademark is a design, word, or phrase that identifies and sets one company's products and
services apart from those of other businesses. In the software sector, trademarks are crucial because
they help businesses establish their brands and safeguard their reputations. To protect other businesses
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from using identical marks that would confuse customers, a business might trademark its logo or the
name of its software product, for instance.
Software patenting, on the other hand, is a controversial subject. Software may be eligible for
patent protection in some nations as a category of computer-implemented invention. Patents give the
inventor exclusive rights to prevent unauthorised production, use, or sale of the innovation. Although
some contend that software is not a legitimate innovation and should not be eligible for patent
protection, the patentability of software is a complicated and contentious issue. By offering incentives
to businesses that create new and inventive software, proponents of software patenting contend that
it promotes innovation and investment in the software sector. Yet, some contend that software patents
can hinder innovation by allowing businesses to monopolise specific facets of software development
and barring others from expanding on their ideas.
Important techniques for defending intellectual property in the software sector include
trademarks and software patenting. However, the appropriateness and efficacy of these tools in
diverse situations are frequently disputed and depend on a number of variables, including the market,
the legal environment, and the software's particular character.

Data Privacy & Confidentiality

Important ideas related to the protection of sensitive data, including personal information,
include data privacy and confidentiality.
The ability of people to manage the gathering, usage, and sharing of their personal data
is referred to as data privacy. Names, addresses, phone numbers, social security numbers, and
other identifying information are included in this. Data privacy laws and regulations mandate that
businesses and organisations acquire consent before collecting personal information, use it only for
those purposes that are specified in the law, and take steps to keep it secure and confidential in order
to respect peoples' rights to privacy.
Contrarily, confidentiality refers to the safeguarding of private data that has been entrusted
to a person or organisation. Trade secrets, financial information, and personal health information
fall under this category. To safeguard the privacy of this information and stop unlawful disclosure
or use, confidentiality agreements, non-disclosure agreements, and other legal arrangements may be
employed.
Data privacy and confidentiality are major issues in the digital era since so much personal
data is gathered and maintained by businesses and organisations. Cybersecurity risks, such hacking
and data breaches, might jeopardise the privacy and confidentiality of this information, which could
have major repercussions like identity theft and financial fraud. In order to secure sensitive data and
personal information, it is crucial to understand the principles of data privacy and confidentiality. In
order to ensure that people's privacy rights are upheld and that personal information is kept secure and
shielded from unwanted disclosure or use, laws, rules, and other legal agreements might be helpful.

Cyber laws in India

In order to solve cybersecurity issues and defend against cybercrime, India has many laws and
regulations in place. Key cyber laws in India include the following:
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1. The Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000: This law creates penalties for cybercrime, such
as hacking, data theft, and the propagation of computer viruses, and grants legal recognition
for electronic records and digital signatures.
2. The IT (Amendment) Act, 2008: This law broadens the original IT Act's purview and adds
additional clauses addressing sensitive personal data protection, preventing cyberterrorism,
and criminalising child pornography and online harassment.
3. The National Cyber Security Policy, 2013, which sets down the government's plan for
protecting India's cyberspace and aspires to create a reliable and secure digital infrastructure
4. The Aadhaar (Targeted Delivery of Financial and Other Subsidies, Benefits and Services) Act,
2016: This legislation creates a national identification system that is connected to a person's
biometric information with the intention of enhancing the provision of public services.
5. The Personal Data Protection Bill, 2019: This legislation, which the Indian parliament is now
debating, seeks to control the gathering, archiving, processing, and transfer of personal data in
India and to impose sanctions for violations.
These laws and rules are designed to guard against cybercrime and ensure that technology
is used safely in India. There is definitely potential for improvement, especially with regard to
enforcement and combating new cybersecurity risks.

IT ACT-objectives, features, offences

A comprehensive piece of legislation that controls electronic transactions, communication,
and data in India is the Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000. The IT Act's primary goals are to:
• Ensure that electronic transactions and documentation are recognised legally.
• Maintain the privacy and security of electronic data.
• Combat cybercrime and establish a legal framework for punishing perpetrators.
• Provide provisions for the creation of a Cyber Appellate Tribunal to handle appeals pertaining
to cases of cybercrime.
The following are some of the main components of the IT Act:
1. Digital signatures: The IT Act sets a framework for their usage in electronic transactions and
grants legal validity to digital signatures.
2. Cybercrime offences: The Act outlines different cybercrime offences, including hacking,
identity theft, and the dissemination of computer viruses, and it outlines the punishments for
each.
3. Protection of privacy: The Act contains clauses that limit surveillance and interception of
electronic communications and data in order to safeguard users' privacy.
4. Liability of intermediaries: Under some conditions, the Act shields intermediaries, such as
internet service providers and social media platforms, from liability for user-generated content.

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The following are a few examples of violations of the IT Act:

1. Hacking is a crime that can result in up to three years in prison and a fine and entails
unauthorised access to a computer system or network.
2. Data theft: This crime, which entails stealing or copying computer data without authority, is
punishable by a fine and a prison sentence of up to three years.
3. Cyberstalking is a crime that can result in up to three years in prison and a fine and involves
using electronic communication to harass or threaten a person.
4. Identity theft: This offence, which carries a maximum three-year prison sentence and a fine,
entails using another person's identity to conduct a crime.
5. Publishing obscene content: This comprises publishing or transmitting obscene material and
is punishable by a maximum of five years in prison and a fine.
In general, the IT Act establishes a legal framework for controlling electronic transactions and
communication in India, aims to combat cybercrime, and ensures the security and privacy of electronic
data.

References
1. https://medium.com/marketing-and-advertising/the-past-present-and-future-of-social-media-
d0eadc72fee
2. https://fifty.io/blog/the-past-present-and-future-of-social-media-marketing
3. https://buffer.com/social-media-marketing
4. https://www.techeduhry.gov.in/sites/default/files/1_DTE_IT%20Cell%20/1_Home/1-Other%20
Links/1-CYBER%20SECURITY%20AWARENESS/2021/CYBER%20SECURITY%20
AWARENESS.pdf
5. https://www.bbau.ac.in/dept/Law/TM/1.pdf
6. https://cytrain.ncrb.gov.in/staticpage/pdf/Cyber-security-tips-by-cyber-dost.pdf

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Abbreviation

ADSL : Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

AES : Advanced Encryption Standard
AI : Artificial Intelligence
AP : Access Point
AR : Augmented Reality
ARPA : Advanced Research Projects Agency
ARPANET : Advanced Research Agency Network
ATM : Automated Teller Machine
AWS : Amazon Web Services
BHIM : Bharat Interface For Money
CIDR : Classless InterDomain Routing
CSC : Common Service Centre
DDUGJY : Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana
DES : Data Encryption Standard
DHCP : Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
DHQ : District/Sub-Divisional Headquarters
DIPP : Department Of Industrial Policy And Promotion
DLP : Data Loss Prevention
DoD Department Of Defence
DoS Denial-Of-Service
DSL : Digital Subscriber Line
DTE : Data Terminal Nodes
EPS : Electronic Payment System
EFT : Electronic Fund Transfer
FTP : File Transfer Protocol
FTTH : Fiber To The Home
G2B : Government To Busines
G2C : Government To Citizens
G2E : Government To Employees
G2G : Government To Government
Gbps : Gigabits Per Second
HTML : Hypertext Mark-Up Language
HTTP : Hypertext Transfer Protocol
ICT : Information And Communication Technology
IMAP : Internet Message Access Protocol
IOT : Internet Of Things
IP : Internet Protocol
ISDN : Integrated Services Digital Network
ISP : Internet Service Providers

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ITU : International Telecommunication Union

LAN : Local Area Network
LEC : Local Exchange Carrier
LMS : Learning Management Systems
LTE : Long-Term Evolution
MAC : Media Access Control
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
Mbps : Million Bytes Per Second
ML : Machine Learning
MMP : Mission Mode Projects
MMS : Multimedia Messages
Modem : Modulator-Demodulator
MOOCs : Massive Open Online Courses
NeGP : National E-Governance Plan
NIC : Network Interface Card
NID : Network Interface Device
NII : National Information Infrastructure
NKN : National Knowledge Network
NMEICT : National Mission on Education Through Information And
Communication Technology
NOFN : National Optical Fibre Network
NSD : National Services Directory
NSDG : National E-Governance Services Delivery Gateway
NSFNET : National Science Federation Network
OFDM : Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
ONT : Optical Network Terminal
OSI : Open Systems Interconnections
OTP : One Time Password
PAN : Personal Area Network
PIN : Personal Identification Number
POP : Post Office Protocol
PPP : Public Private Partnership
PPTR : People, Process, Technology, And Resource
PSTN : Public Switched Telephone Network
PWA : Progressive Web Apps
REST : Representational State Transfer
RJ : Registered Jack
RPA : Robotic Process Automation
SCA : Service Centre Agency
SDA : State Designated Agency
SDC : State Data Center

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SERP : Search Engine Results Page

SIEM : Security Information And Event Management
SMART : Simple, Moral, Accountable, Responsive, Transparent
SMM : Social Media Marketing
SMS : Short Message Service
SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SOAP : Simple Object Access Protocol
SSDG : State Service Delivery Gateway
SWAN : State Wide Area Network
SWAYAM : Study Webs Of Active-Learning For Young Aspiring Minds
UIDAI : Unique Identification Authority Of India
UPI : Unified Payments Interface
URL : Uniform Resource Locator
UTM : Unified Threat Management
VLE : Village Level Entrepreneur
VoIP : Voice Over Internet Protocol
VPA : Virtual Private Address
VPN : Virtual Private Network
VR : Virtual Reality
WAF : Web Application Firewall
WAN : Wide Area Network
WAP : Wireless Access Points
WATS : Wide Area Telephone Service
WiBB : Wireless Broadband
WiMAX : Worldwide Interoperability For Microwave Access
WWW : World Wide Web
XML : Extensible Mark-Up Language
XML-RPC : Xml Remote Procedure Call
XSS : Cross-Site-Scripting
WiBB : Wireless Broadband
WiMAX : Worldwide Interoperability For Microwave Access
WWW : World Wide Web
XML : Extensible Mark-Up Language
XML-RPC : Xml Remote Procedure Call
XSS : Cross-Site-Scripting

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