Chapter 13: Current Electricity

Introduction
As we know that study of electricity is done in two branches
1. Static electricity
2. Current electricity
What is meant by current electricity? By current electricity we mean the study of
flow of electricity in a circuit due to the flow of charges. As we have discussed
earlier that charge is the intrinsic property of a particle due to which it can repel or
attract other particles. There are two types of charges.

Current:
Now what is current. The rate of flow of charge in a circuit is defined as electric
current. Its formula is:
𝑄
𝐼= 𝑡
𝑜𝑟 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡

There are two types of current.

1. Alternating current
2. Direct current
Alternating current:
It is that type of current in which the magnitude and direction both vary with time.
It reverses its direction many times a second at regular intervals, typically used in
power supplies. Its graph is of the form:

Which represents a sinusoidal wave.

Direct Current:
It is that current which flows in one direction only.

If we further discuss electric current, then we have to keep following few points in
mind
1. An electric current is a scalar quantity
2. It’s S.I unit is ampere and
3. 1 ampere = 6.25 x 1018 electrons/second

Now let us discuss two more types of currents:

 1. Conventional current
2. Electronic current

Conventional current Electronic current

1. Current due to positive charge is 1. Current due to electrons or negative
called conventional current. charges is called electronic current.

2. It flows from higher to lower 2. It flows from lower to higher

potential. potential.

3. It flows in direction along the 3. It flows opposite to direction along

direction of field. the direction of field.

Now let us discuss some points regarding these two types.

1. Total Current in Circuits:

When both convective (Itotal) and electronic currents flow simultaneously, the total
current (Itotal) is calculated as the sum of positive and negative currents.
Itotal = I+ve + I-ve

2. Drift Velocity (Vd):

Drift velocity (Vd) is the average velocity of free electrons under an external
electric field, typically around 10-3 ms-1 in conductors.

3. Current Density (J):

 𝐼
Current density (J) represents current flow per unit area and is given by J = 𝐴

(amp m-2). It's a vector pointing from higher to lower potential, defined as J = nevd,
where vd is the drift velocity of elections

4. Rotatory Motion of Charge:

When a point charge (q) moves in a circle of radius (r) with speed (v), it generates
currents described by:
𝑞 𝑞𝑓 𝑞ω
I = qf = 𝑇
= 2π𝑟
= 2π

Where f= frequency, T= time period, ω = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

Let us discuss a few more points

I. Types of Circuits
II. Charge Carriers
● In metallic conductors, electrons are the primary charge carriers.
● In electrolytes, positive and negative ions serve as charge carriers.
● Gases feature electrons and positive ions as charge carriers.
III. Principles of Current Flow
● Potential Difference: Current only flows where there's a potential
difference, driving the movement of charge.
● Heat Generation: Inelastic collisions of electrons under potential difference
produce heat, known as Joule heating.
● Steady Current: Maintaining a constant potential difference ensures a
steady flow of current.
IV. Source of Current
● Current is generated by converting different forms of energy into electrical
energy.
● For instance, cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy.

Device Notable Feature

Dry Cell Most commonly used
Primary Cell Non-rechargeable
Secondary Cell Rechargeable
Voltaic Cell Convert chemical into electrical energy
Electric Generator Convert mechanical into electrical energy
Solar Cell Convert light into electrical energy
Thermocouple Convert heat into electrical energy

Effect of Current
1. Heating Effect: Current flowing through a conductor produces heat, utilized
in devices like heaters, toasters, and stoves. H=I2Rt
2. Magnetic Effect: Current creates a magnetic field around the conductor,
crucial in devices like transformers and motors for power generation and
mechanical motion.
 3. Chemical Effect: Current can induce chemical reactions, as seen in
electroplating processes where metal ions are deposited onto a surface
through electrolysis.
Conclusion:
Understanding these principles is essential for comprehending the behavior of
electrical circuits and designing efficient systems for various applications. Now we
begin our discussion of an important topic of current electricity that is the Ohm’s
law.
Ohm’s Law
1. Ohm's Law:
When temperature remains constant, the applied potential difference (V) across a
conductor is directly proportional to the current (I) flowing through it.
Mathematically, this relationship is expressed as V=IR, where R represents the
constant resistance of the conductor.

2. Ohmic Substances:
Substances that adhere to Ohm's law are termed ohmic substances. Typically,
metals are classified as ohmic substances. The graph depicting the relationship
between potential difference (V) and current (I) for ohmic substances is a straight
line.

3. Non-Ohmic Substances:
Conversely, substances that do not follow Ohm's law are termed non-ohmic
substances. Examples include semiconductor diodes and filament bulbs. For
non-ohmic substances, the graph illustrating the relationship between V and I is not
linear; instead, it forms a curve.
4. Conductance and Resistance:
● The slope of the current-voltage (I−V) graph for ohmic substances equals
conductance. Because in normal case of Ohm’s law graph we take V along y
axis and I along x axis and obtain resistance but if we reverse the case i.e.
we take V along x axis and I along y axis then obtain the reverse case of
resistance which is conductance.
● For filament bulbs, the slope of the I−V graph represents resistance when
current (I) is plotted along the x-axis and potential difference (V) along the
y-axis.
Explanation:
Ohm's law serves as a fundamental principle in understanding the relationship
between voltage, current, and resistance in conductors. While metallic conductors
adhere to Ohm's law, non-metallic substances may not exhibit such behavior,
resulting in varied current-voltage characteristics. Understanding these principles
aids in analyzing and designing electrical circuits effectively.

Now let us see that what is electrical resistance?

1. Definition:
Electrical resistance is the inherent property of a conductor that hinders the flow of
current through it. It is denoted by R and can be calculated using Ohm's law:
 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 𝐼
​, where V is the potential difference across the conductor and I

is the current flowing through it.

2. Units:
The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω) in the M.K.S. (meter-kilogram-second)
system and the stat-ohm in the C.G.S. (centimeter-gram-second) system.

3. Ohm's Law:
One ohm is defined as the resistance of a wire through which a current of 1 ampere
flows when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across its ends.

4. Factors Affecting Resistance:

Resistance depends on several factors:
● The area of cross-section (A) of the conductor.
𝐿
● The length (L) of the conductor, as given by the formula 𝑅 = ρ 𝐴
​, where ρ

is the specific resistance or resistivity of the material.

● The nature of the material of the conductor, influencing its resistivity (ρ).
● The temperature of the conductor, as resistance typically increases with
temperature.

Now what is specific resistance or resistivity?

1. Definition:
Specific resistance, also known as resistivity, represents the resistance of a material
per unit cross-sectional area and unit length. It is denoted by the symbol ρ and
calculated using the formula: ρ=RA/L​, where R is the resistance, A is the
cross-sectional area, and L is the length.
2. Units:
The unit of resistivity is the ohm-meter (Ω⋅m). It reflects the material's inherent
resistance to the flow of electric current.
3. Factors Affecting Resistivity:
Resistivity depends on:
● The nature of the material: Different materials exhibit varying resistivity
values due to their atomic structure and electron mobility.
● Temperature: Resistivity typically increases with temperature due to
increased atomic vibrations, which hinder electron flow.
4. Characteristics:
● Invariance with size and shape: Resistivity remains constant regardless of
the size or shape of the material, as it is an intrinsic property of the material
itself.
● Types of materials:
● Conductors: Materials like silver (Ag) exhibit low resistivity, making
them excellent conductors of electricity.
● Alloys: Alloys such as constantan, nichrome, and tungsten have
higher resistivity, leading to increased resistance in wires made from
these materials.
5. Examples:
 ● Best conductors: Silver (Ag) has the lowest resistivity, followed by copper
(Cu), making them ideal for electrical conductivity.
● Alloys and high resistivity: Constantan, nichrome, and tungsten alloys
possess higher resistivity, resulting in higher wire resistance.
Explanation:
Resistivity serves as a fundamental parameter in understanding the electrical
behavior of materials. It is essential for determining the suitability of materials for
various electrical applications and designing efficient electrical circuits. By
recognizing the factors influencing resistivity and its implications across different
materials, engineers can make informed decisions in material selection and circuit
design.

This factor of resistance can be significantly affected by the effect of temperature.

So now let us discuss it.
Temperature coefficient of resistance or resistivity
1. Definition:
The temperature coefficient of resistance (α) denotes the rate of change in
resistance per unit change in temperature. It is expressed as the increase in
resistance (R) per unit original resistance (Ro​) at 0°C per unit rise in temperature
𝑅𝑡−𝑅𝑜
(1°C), calculated as α = 𝑅𝑜𝑡
​.

2. Units:
The unit of the temperature coefficient of resistance is per degree Celsius (oC-1). It
quantifies how the resistance of a material changes with variations in temperature.

3. Behavior Across Materials:

 ● For conductors like copper and aluminum, the temperature coefficient (α) is
positive. This means that with an increase in temperature, the resistance of
the conductor also increases.
● In contrast, for semiconductors such as germanium and silicon, as well as
insulators like diamond and quartz, the temperature coefficient (α) is
negative. Here, an increase in temperature results in a decrease in resistance.

4. Variation of Resistivity with Temperature:

For most materials, including conductors, the resistivity (ρ) tends to increase with
temperature.

● However, for semiconductors and insulators, the resistivity typically

decreases as temperature rises.
 ● For superconductors it decreases typically and becomes zero at a certain
temperature

5. Constantan Wire and its Application:

● Constantan wire exhibits a very small temperature coefficient of resistance,
meaning its resistance remains relatively unchanged with small fluctuations
in temperature.
● Hence standard resistance used in resistance boxes and post office box is
made of constantan.

6. Reciprocal of Resistivity:

● The reciprocal of resistivity is termed conductivity (σ), measured in siemens

per meter (S/m) or mho/meter (mho/m).
● Conductivity quantifies how easily a material allows the flow of electric
current.
Let us now begin our discussion of internal resistance of supply

Superconductivity and its Properties

1. Effect on Resistance and Resistivity: In superconductors, the vibrations of
the lattice atoms decrease with decreasing temperature. Consequently, both
resistance and resistivity decrease.
2. Limitations of Zero Resistance: Despite lowering temperatures, it's
impossible to reduce resistance or resistivity to absolute zero because ions
maintain their oscillations even at 0 Kelvin.
3. Superconductors Definition: Superconductors are metallic conductors
exhibiting a significant decrease in resistance with temperature reduction.
4. Critical Temperature (Tc): This is the temperature at which a superconductor
loses all its resistance. It's a defining characteristic of superconductors.
5. Challenges with Superconductors: The primary drawback is that
superconductivity is lost at room temperature. This restricts their practical
utility.
6. Virtue of Superconductivity: Despite limitations, superconductors offer
immense potential for saving electrical energy in the future. Electrical
energy could pass through them with zero loss.

Combination
Description
Type
One path for current passage
Same current flows through each component
Different potential difference across each component
Series
𝑅𝑒𝑞 is larger than the largest resistance in the circuit.
Combination
𝑛
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = ∑ 𝑅𝑖
𝑖=1
More than one path for current flow
Parallel Different current through each component, depending on its
Combination resistance
Same potential difference across each component
 𝑅𝑒𝑞 is smaller than the smallest resistance in the circuit.
𝑛
1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑞
= ∑ 𝑅𝑖
𝑖=1
Conservation - Law of conservation of energy and charge apply in all
Laws combinations of resistors

Internal resistance of supply

1. Electromotive Force (EMF):

The EMF of a power supply refers to the potential difference between its output
terminals when either its internal resistance is zero or no current is being drawn
from it. It represents the ability of the source to drive current through a circuit.
2. Loss of Energy:
As charge carriers flow through a conductor, they lose their electrical kinetic
energy while working against resistance. However, this loss of energy is
compensated by the source of EMF at the same rate, ensuring continuous flow of
current in the circuit.
3. Internal Resistance:
Every source of EMF possesses its own internal resistance. The internal resistance
characterizes the resistance inherent within the power supply itself. A lower
internal resistance indicates a better power supply as it allows for more efficient
delivery of current to the external circuit.
4. Terminal Potential Difference:
Terminal potential difference refers to the voltage between the output terminals of
a source of EMF when current is drawn from it. It accounts for the voltage drop
across both the internal resistance and the load resistance of the circuit.
5. Relationship between EMF, Terminal Potential, and Internal Resistance:
The relationship between EMF (ϵ), terminal potential (vt), and internal resistance
(r) can be expressed as:
vt=ϵ−Ir

Where:
● vt is the terminal potential difference.
● ϵ is the electromotive force (EMF) of the power supply.
● I is the current flowing through the circuit.
● r is the internal resistance of the power supply.

Finally let us now discuss that what is meant by electrical power.

Kirchhoff's Laws

1. Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

● Definition: KCL states that the sum of all currents flowing towards a point
in a circuit is equal to the sum of all currents flowing away from that point.
● Explanation: In a steady state, charge cannot accumulate at any point in a
conductor. Therefore, the total current entering a junction must equal the
total current leaving the junction.
2. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
● Definition: KVL states that the algebraic sum of potential changes around
any closed loop in a circuit is zero.
● Explanation: When traversing a closed loop in a circuit, the sum of the
voltage rises must equal the sum of the voltage drops, resulting in a net
change of zero. This law is based on the principle of conservation of energy.
● Loop Definition: A loop is a path in a circuit that starts and ends at the same
point, forming a closed path.
Kirchhoff's laws are fundamental in analyzing complex electrical circuits,
providing insights into the behavior of currents and voltages within the system.

Electrical Power
1. Definition:
Electrical power represents the rate at which electrical energy is supplied or
consumed per second. It is calculated as the ratio of energy supplied to the time
taken, expressed mathematically as P=W/t​, where P is the power, W is the energy
supplied, and t is the time taken.

2. Power Dissipation:
Power dissipation (P) in a circuit can be calculated using Ohm's law (P=I2R),
where I is the current and R is the resistance.

3. Heat Production:
Heat produced due to power dissipation is given by H = P × t. If P represents the
power dissipated per second, then it is measured in watts (W).
4. Joule's Law:
Joule's law states that the amount of heat generated in a resistance due to the flow
of charges is equal to the product of the square of the current (I), resistance (R),
and time duration (t).
W = I2Rt
5. Bulbs in Series and Parallel:

1 1 1
● Total power consumed: 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
= 𝑃1
+ 𝑃2
+........

𝑃
● If n identical bulbs are present , 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑛

1
● 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑(𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠)∝𝑉∝𝑅∝ 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

● Bulb of lesser wattage will give more bright light and potential difference
appeared across it will be more.
●

● Total power consumed: 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 +...... 𝑃𝑛

● If n identical bulbs are present , 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑛𝑃

 𝐼
● 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑(𝐵𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠)∝𝑃𝑅∝𝐼∝ 𝑅
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

● Bulb of higher wattage will give more bright light and more current will pass
through it.

6. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

Maximum power is delivered to a load when the internal resistance of the source of
EMF is equal to the load resistance.
2 2
ϵ ϵ
Its formula is (Pout)max = 4𝑟 = 4𝑅
. Power delivered will be maximum when R = r,
2
𝐸
Pmax = 𝑟
. Its graph is of the form.

7. Kilowatt-hour (kWh):
Kilowatt-hour is a commercial unit of electrical energy. It represents the energy
dissipated when a power of 1 kW is maintained through a circuit for 1 hour.

8. Cost Calculation:
The cost of electricity can be determined by multiplying the energy consumed (in
kWh) by the unit price.
Example: Two bulbs in parallel, bulb A brighter than bulb B. If Ra​and Rb​are their
resistances respectively, then Ra​<Rb​.
If we look at its mathematical representation then
1 KWh = 1000 W x 3600 sec = 3.6 x 106 J
● Where J = 2.77 x 10-7 kWh
● E (kWh) = P(W) x t(h) /1000
● Cost of electricity = kWh x Unit price

Color Codes for Carbon Resistors

● Carbon resistors are marked with color bands to indicate their resistance
values.
● The first two bands represent numeric values, while the third band indicates
the multiplier.
● The fourth band denotes the tolerance, specifying the possible variation from
the marked value.
● For example, a resistor with bands Brown, Black, Green, and Gold would
indicate a resistance value of 10 ohms with a tolerance of ±5%.

Rheostat
● A wire-wound variable resistor used for controlling electrical current.
● Consists of bare manganese wire wound over an insulating cylinder.
● Works on the principle that changes in length affect the resistance value.
● Used as a variable resistance and potential divider, similar to a dimmer
switch in electric fans and volume control knobs in radio sets.
 Thermistors
● Resistors with a negative temperature coefficient, meaning resistance
decreases with temperature increase.
● Also available with positive temperature coefficients.
● Used for accurate temperature measurement and as heat sensors converting
temperature changes into electrical voltage.

Wheatstone Bridge (W.S.B)

● Consists of four resistances 𝑅1, 𝑅2, 𝑅3, 𝑅4 connected in a specific pattern in

loop or mesh. It is used for accurate measurement of resistance values. It can

display the value up to two decimal places. It is balanced when the
galvanometer shows no deflection even when its keys are closed. The
condition for balanced bridge is that current through the galvanometer is
zero then the voltage across the galvanometer terminals would be equal.
Principle of wheatstone bridge:
 𝑅1 𝑅3
● 𝑅2
= 𝑅4

● The unknown resistance is placed at 𝑅3 or 𝑅4

Potentiometer
● Used for comparing and finding unknown EMF in a circuit without drawing
current from the circuit.
● Measures potential difference accurately.
● Measures EMF of batteries and compares their EMFs.
● Utilizes a high-resistance wire, with voltage proportional to length and
constant current flow.

𝐸1 𝑙1
Formula: 𝐸2
= 𝑙2

Difference between Potentiometer and Voltmeter:

Voltmeter Potentiometer
Its resistance is high but
Its resistance is infinite
finite
It draws some current from It draws no current from the
source of emf source of unknown emf
 The potential difference
The potential difference
measured by it is lesser
measured by it is equal to the
than the actual potential
actual potential difference
difference
Its sensitivity is low Its sensitivity is high
It measures only emf or
It is a versatile instrument
potential difference
It is based on deflection It is based on zero deflection
method method