Chapter 3: Electromagnetism

Introduction:
The study of electricity is not just bound to two categories (Electrostatics and
Current Electricity) rather it has vast applications and forms multiple fields of
study. One of these fields is called electromagnetism. Now what is
electromagnetism?

Definition:
“If we simply study the properties of a simple magnet then this is called
magnetism. However, if we study the magnetic properties in the field of electronics
and the laws regarding it then this is called electromagnetism.”

Why do we study electromagnetism?

As discussed earlier, electricity has vast applications. All of its applications fall
under a certain category (field of study). Some of these applications like cell
phones, MRI scanners, Tv’s, etc. include magnetism aspects in their study hence all
of the applications fall under the study of electromagnetism and their study is
important.

What is a magnet?
If we look at a simple definition of magnet, then it is a piece of iron or a similar
material whose atoms have the ability to attract the atoms of another material of the
same type towards it, hence displaying the property of magnetism. However, in
terms of electromagnetism it is an object that has the ability to create magnetic
fields (A field where its effect takes place) and attract unlike poles and repeling
like poles.
Generation of a magnetic field:
Magnetic fields are produced by moving electric charges. Everything is made up of
atoms, and each atom has a nucleus made of neutrons and protons
with electrons that orbit around the nucleus. Since the orbiting electrons are tiny
moving charges, a small magnetic field is created around each atom.
Now let us study some characteristics of a magnet.

Characteristic of a magnet:
1. A magnet has two poles (They can be like or unlike in terms of attraction or
repulsion). The north pole of the magnet coincides with the south pole of the
Earth’s magnet and vice versa.

2. If a magnet is freely suspended it sets itself along the direction of North to

South, which is a generalized assumption of magnets.
3. Let’s say if we have a magnet which is unmagnetized. By unmagnetized we
mean it does not exhibit the properties of magnetism. Then it can be
magnetized according to one of the following ways.
a. By electric method (Passing a strong direct current).
b. By single touch method (The magnet is rubbed over the bar (iron bar) in
the same direction in the single-touch method) or double touch method
(In a double-touch method, an iron bar is magnetized by stroking it with
two opposite poles of two bar magnets at the same time).
 4. If we wish to demagnetize a magnet, that is if we don’t want it to further
show magnetic properties, then it can be done according to one of the
following ways.
a. By passing alternating current. (As each magnet has a magnetic field. By
passing an alternating current it generates its own magnetic field which
cancels out the original magnetic field and it is no longer magnetized).
b. By heating strongly. (By heating strongly, we interfere with the
orientation of atoms hence a magnet cannot generate the magnetic effect).
c. By striking a magnet again and again with a surface like that of Earth.
This can be done by hammering it.
5. If an electric current is passed through a conductor, then a magnetic field is
produced around the conductor which is called its magnetic effect. i.e. the
magnetic effect of current.

Now let us discuss the magnetic field of a magnet.

Magnetic Field:
Just like electric fields, a magnet can also produce a magnetic field around it in
which its effects are experienced. It is represented by B. It is a vector quantity i.e.
its magnitude and direction both can be represented. Its S.I unit is weber m-2.

Magnetic field due to current in a long straight wire:

The phenomena of magnetic fields was discovered by Danish scientist Hans
Oersted. He found out that a magnetic field is generated around charges under
certain circumstances. His observations were.
a. The lines of magnetic force are circular and their direction depends upon the
direction of current.
 b. The magnetic field only remains as long as the current is flowing through the
wire. If the current diminishes then the magnetic field ends.

Direction of magnetic field:

The numerical value of the magnetic field can be obtained using the formulas for
the different cases. However, to determine the direction of magnetic field we use
the right-hand rule which is
“If the wire is grasped in the fist of the right hand with the thumb pointing in the
direction of the conventional current, the fingers of the hand will circle the wire in
the direction of the magnetic field.”

Explanation:
This method describes a simple way to figure out the direction of a magnetic field
around a wire with electric current. Just hold the wire with your right hand, with
your thumb pointing in the direction of the current. Your fingers will then show
you how the magnetic field wraps around the wire. It's an easy method to
understand how electricity and magnetism are linked.

Visual Representation:

We should keep in mind the following diagrams to better understand this concept.
 a. In the first figure the direction of magnetic field is into the piece of paper
(The area of reference) the direction is clockwise.
b. In the second figure the direction of magnetic field is out of the paper and it
is anticlockwise.

Now let us discuss the force on the current carrying conductor.

Force on a current carrying conductor:

A better study of a magnetic field is done by placing a current carrying conductor
on and the effect (force) of the magnetic field on it is studied. It experiences a force
when it is placed in a uniform magnetic field that can be found by using the
formula.
Fm = I (LXB)
Where L is the length of the current carrying conductor, B is the magnetic field
value and Fm is the force. If we discuss the speed of an electron in a conductor. It is
given by:
𝐼
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑛𝐴𝑒

By rearranging the above formula, the magnetic field can be given as:
𝐹𝑚
𝐵= 𝐼𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛θ

So, the definition of magnetic field is given by:

“It is defined as the magnetic force acting on a conductor of 1 m carrying 1 A
current and placed perpendicular to the magnetic field.”

Note: If Fm = 1 N, I = 1 A, L = 1 m and θ = 90, then B = 1 tesla,

𝑁 4
1𝑇 = 𝐴.𝑚
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 1𝑇 = 10 𝐺 𝐺 = 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠
Before discussing the force and path of the charged particle in a magnetic field. Let
us first discuss magnetic flux and magnetic flux density.

The Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field

Let's assume a single charged particle (q) moving with a velocity (v) within a
magnetic field (B). The force (F) acting on this particle can be described by the
following equation:

F = q(v x B)
This equation embodies the fundamental relationship between the charge, velocity,
magnetic field, and the resulting force. The direction of the force is determined
using the right-hand rule:
1. Point your fingers in the direction of the velocity (v).
2. Curl your fingers towards the direction of the magnetic field (B).
3. Your thumb points in the direction of the force (F).

Quantifying Magnetic Field Strength:

The intensity of a magnetic field is measured using a unit called Tesla (T). A Tesla
represents the magnetic force exerted on a unit charge (1 Coulomb) moving at 1
meter per second perpendicularly through the field.

Key Points:
● Tesla (T): The unit for measuring magnetic field strength.
● Force = qvB (if v and B are perpendicular).
Current-Carrying Coils in a Magnetic Field:
When a coil of wire carrying an electric current is placed within a uniform
magnetic field, it experiences a torque that tends to align its plane perpendicular to
the field. This torque is given by the following equation:
T = NIABsinθ
where:
● N: Number of turns in the coil.
● I: Current flowing through the coil.
● A: Area of the coil.
● B: Magnetic field strength.
● θ: Angle between the normal to the coil's plane and the magnetic field.

Key Points:
● Torque is maximum when the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic
field.
● Torque is zero when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic
field.
● Net force on the coil is zero, but net torque is not.

Applications of Magnetism:
The principles of magnetism have vast applications in various fields, including:
● Electric motors: Utilizing the torque on a current-carrying coil in a
magnetic field to produce rotational motion.
● Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Using magnetic fields to generate
detailed images of internal organs and tissues.
● Data storage devices: Hard drives and magnetic tapes store information by
using magnetic domains.
Conclusion:
Magnetism, a fundamental force in the universe, arises from the motion of electric
charges. Understanding the force experienced by moving charges in magnetic
fields and the behavior of current-carrying coils within magnetic fields provides a
foundation for comprehending various technologies that shape our modern world.

Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Flux Density

Magnetic Flux:
● Definition: Magnetic flux is a measurement of the total magnetic field lines
passing through a given area.
● Formula: The scalar product of magnetic field strength (B) and the vector
area (A) is represented as Φ = B⋅A.
● Angle Dependence: If the magnetic field is not perpendicular to the plane,
but makes an angle (θ) with the normal to the plane, the flux linked with the
plane will be Φ = BA cos(θ).
● Maximum Flux: When the angle between B and A is 0o, the flux will be
maximum, i.e., Φmax ​= BA.
● Minimum Flux: When the angle between B and A is 90o, the magnetic flux
will be zero, i.e., Φmin ​= 0.
● Unit: The unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb).
Magnetic Flux Density:
● Definition: Magnetic flux density, denoted as B, is the amount of magnetic
flux per unit area.
Φ
● Formula: B= 𝐴
​

● Unit: The SI unit of magnetic flux density is the tesla (T), where
1 tesla=1 weber meter-2. In the CGS system, the unit of magnetic flux density
is gauss (G), where 1 tesla=104 gauss.

● Relationship: The magnetic induction B is the flux per unit area of a surface
perpendicular to B, hence it is also called flux density.
In summary, magnetic flux measures the total magnetic field passing through a
given area, while magnetic flux density measures the amount of magnetic flux per
unit area. The relationship between them is crucial in understanding magnetic
fields and their applications. Now let us discuss the force on a charged particle.

Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge

Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field:
When a charged particle of charge q is moving with velocity v in a magnetic field
B at an angle θ, then the force acting on the particle can be calculated using the
formula:
F=q (v×B)
Or in magnitude form:
F= qvBsinθ
Where:
● θ is the angle between v and B.
 ● q is the charge of the particle.
● v is the velocity of the particle.
● B is the magnetic field.

Direction of Force:
The direction of the force F is perpendicular to both v and B. This direction can be
determined using Fleming's left-hand rule, where if the thumb points in the
direction of v, the index finger points in the direction of B, then the middle finger
will point in the direction of F.

Special Cases for Electron and Proton:

● For an electron (e is the charge of an electron), the force is given by
F=−e(v×B).
● For a proton (e is the charge of a proton), the force is given by
● F=+e(v×B).

Explanation:
When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field, it experiences a force due
to the interaction between its velocity and the magnetic field. This force is
perpendicular to both the velocity vector and the magnetic field vector. The
magnitude of this force depends on the charge of the particle, its velocity, the
strength of the magnetic field, and the angle between the velocity vector and the
magnetic field vector.
Fleming's left-hand rule provides a simple way to determine the direction of the
force experienced by the charged particle. This rule is based on the cross product of
v and B, which gives the direction of the resulting force.
For electrons and protons, the direction of the force is determined by their charges.
Since electrons have a negative charge, their force vector will be opposite to the
direction given by the cross product of v and B. Conversely, for protons with a
positive charge, their force vector will align with the direction given by the cross
product of v and B.
We have discussed the force acting on a charged particle in a uniform magnetic
field. Now let us discuss the particle’s path.

Path Followed by a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field

When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field, it experiences a force
known as the Lorentz force, which determines its trajectory. Let's explore the
different scenarios:
1. When Velocity (v) is Zero:
● If v = 0, then F = 0.
● The particle will continue to move in a straight line with the same
speed.
2. When Angle (θ) Between Velocity and Magnetic Field is Zero (0°):
● If θ = 0o, then F = qvBsinθ = 0.
● The particle will move in the same direction in a straight line with the
same speed.
3. When Angle (θ) Between Velocity and Magnetic Field is 180°:
● If θ = 180o, then F = qvBsinθ = 0.
● Here also, the particle will move in the same direction in a straight
line with the same speed.
4. When Angle (θ) Between Velocity and Magnetic Field is 90°:
● If θ = 90o, then F = qvBsinθ, resulting in Fmax​= qvB.
● The charged particle will move in a circular path perpendicular to the
magnetic field, with the plane of the circle being perpendicular to B.
𝑚𝑣
● The radius of the circular path (r) is given by r = 𝑞𝐵
​.
𝑞𝐵
● The angular velocity (ω) of the particle is given by ω = 𝑚
.​
2π𝑚
● The time period of the particle (T) is 𝑇 = 𝑞𝐵
​.

𝑟𝑞𝐵 2
2 2 2
● K.E of particle:
1
2
2
𝑚𝑣 =
1
2 ( )
𝑚 𝑚
→ K.E =
𝑟𝑞𝐵
2𝑚
5. When Angle (θ) Between Velocity and Magnetic Field is Between 0° and
90°:
● In this case, the path of the particle is helical or helix.
𝑚𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
● The radius of the helix is given by r = 𝑞𝐵
​.
2π𝑚
● The pitch of the helix (x) is given by x=vcos(θ) X T, where T = 𝑞𝐵
​.
 Ampere's Circuital Law
Introduction:
Ampere's Circuital Law is a fundamental principle in electromagnetism that
provides a powerful tool for calculating magnetic fields generated by steady
currents. This law, discovered by André-Marie Ampère, beautifully connects the
concept of current flow with the creation of magnetic fields.

Ampere's Circuital Law:

Ampère's Circuital Law states that the line integral of the magnetic field (B)
around any closed loop is proportional to the total current enclosed by that loop.
Mathematically, this can be expressed as:
𝑛 → →
( )
∑ 𝐵. ∆𝑙 = μ₀Ienc
𝑛=𝑟

where:
● B: Magnetic field strength
● μ₀: Permeability of free space (4π × 10⁻⁷ T⋅m/A)
● Ienc: Total current enclosed by the loop

Applications of Ampère's Circuital Law:

Ampère's Law is incredibly useful for calculating magnetic fields in various
scenarios. Let's explore some key applications:

Field Due to a Solenoid:

A solenoid is a tightly wound coil of wire, often wrapped around a core material.
Using Ampère's Law, we can determine the magnetic field inside a long solenoid:
B = μ₀nI
where:
● n: Number of turns per unit length (N/L)
Key Points:
● The magnetic field inside a long solenoid is uniform and parallel to the axis
of the solenoid.
● The magnetic field outside the solenoid is weak.
Field Due to a Toroid:
A toroid is a solenoid bent into a donut shape. The magnetic field inside a toroid is
also calculated using Ampère's Law:
B = μ₀nI
where:
● n: Number of turns per unit length (N/2πr)

Key Points:
● The magnetic field inside a toroid is confined to the space within the toroid.
● The magnetic field outside the toroid is practically zero.
Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Wires:
Two parallel wires carrying current exert a magnetic force on each other. This force
is attractive if the currents flow in the same direction and repulsive if they flow in
opposite directions. Using Ampère's Law, we can calculate the force per unit
length:
μ₀𝐼₁𝐼₂
𝐹 = 2π𝑑

where:
● I₁ and I₂: Currents in the wires
● d: Distance between the wires
Key Points:
● The force is proportional to the product of the currents and inversely
proportional to the distance between the wires.
● The force is attractive for currents flowing in the same direction and
repulsive for currents flowing in opposite directions.
Solenoids and Toroids:
Solenoids:
● A solenoid acts like a bar magnet when current flows through it.
● The magnetic field lines are concentrated inside the solenoid, creating a
strong and uniform field.
● Solenoids are widely used in various applications, including electromagnets,
actuators, and inductors.
Toroids:
● A toroid is a closed loop solenoid, effectively eliminating any magnetic field
outside the toroid.
● The magnetic field inside a toroid is stronger and more uniform than that in
a solenoid, making it useful for applications requiring a controlled and
contained magnetic field.
Force on a Charged Particle in an Electric and Magnetic Field:
● The total force (F) on the particle is the sum of the electric force and the
magnetic force.
● It can be represented as F = Felectric ​+ Fmagnetic ​= qE + q(v×B).
● This force is called the Lorentz force.
Key Points:
● Electric force does work.
● Magnetic force does not work.

When two parallel plates are both positively or negatively charged, the charges
resist one another, producing two opposing electric fields in the space between the
two plates.
The direction of the magnetic field between parallel plates is determined by the
direction of the current passing through the plates. If the current is flowing in the
same direction, the magnetic field will be parallel to the plates.

Electric Force Magnetic Force

Collinear with electric field Perpendicular to magnetic field
Independent of motion Velocity-dependent; acts only in motion
Does work when particle is
Does no work when particle is displaced
displaced
F = qE F = q(v×B) = qvBsinθ
May or may not be non-central Always non-central

Determination of Specific Charge (e/m) of Charged Particles

e/m of a charged particle can be given as:

𝑒 𝑣
𝑚
=
𝐵 𝑟

The specific charge (e/m) of a charged particle can be determined using various
methods, as outlined below:
1. Determination of Velocity (v): Velocity (v) of the charged particle can be
determined by two methods:
𝑒
a. Potential Difference Method: 𝑣 = 2𝑉𝑜 𝑚

𝑒 2𝑉𝑜
so that 𝑚
= 2 2
𝐵𝑟

𝐸
b. Velocity Selector Method: 𝑣 = 𝐵
​
𝑒 𝐸
so that 𝑚
= 2
𝐵𝑟
 𝑒
The value of 𝑚
is 1.7588 x 1011C/kg

2. Maximum e/m for Electrons: Among charged particles such as alpha particles,
protons, and electrons, the maximum specific charge (e/m) is observed for
electrons.
3. e/m of Neutron: It's important to note that the e/m of a neutron is zero, as
neutrons have no charge.

Condition Formula for e/m

Constant Speed (v) 𝑒
=
𝑣
​
𝑚 𝐵𝑟

𝑚𝑣
𝑟= 𝐵𝑒

𝑚
𝑟∝ 𝑒
​

Constant Momentum 𝑒
=
𝑉
=
𝑃
𝑚 𝐵𝑒 𝐵𝑒
Cathode Ray
1
​𝑟∝ 𝑒

Constant Kinetic 𝑒
=
𝑉
=
𝑃
=
2𝑚𝐾.𝐸
𝑚 𝐵𝑟 𝐵𝑒 𝐵𝑒
Energy
𝑚
𝑟∝ 𝑒
Oscilloscope (CRO)
Definition: A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a device used to display and
analyze the waveform of electrical signals.
Components and Functions:
1. Display Screen: Shows the waveform of the input signal.
2. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): Produces electron beam for displaying the
waveform.
3. Vertical Amplifier: Controls the amplitude of the input signal displayed
vertically on the screen.
4. Horizontal Amplifier: Controls the time base of the input signal displayed
horizontally on the screen.
5. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Controls: Adjustments for focus, intensity, and
position of the electron beam.
6. Triggers: Synchronizes the display of the waveform.

Applications:
● Measurement of voltage, frequency, and phase of electrical signals.
● Analysis of waveforms in various electronic circuits.
● Troubleshooting and debugging electronic systems.

Torque on Current Carrying Coil

Definition: Torque on a current-carrying coil placed in a magnetic field is the
rotational force experienced by the coil due to the interaction between the magnetic
field and the current flowing through the coil.
 Formula: Torque=NIABsinθ
Where:
● N is the number of turns of the coil.
● I is the current flowing through the coil.
● A is the area of the coil.
● B is the magnetic field strength.
● θ is the angle between the plane of the coil and the direction of the magnetic
field.
Principle: When a current-carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field, a torque is
exerted on the coil due to the interaction between the magnetic field and the
current, causing the coil to rotate.
Types of Torque:
1. Magnetic Torque: Produced when the coil is placed in a uniform magnetic
field.
2. Electromagnetic Torque: Generated when the coil carries current and
interacts with a magnetic field.
Applications:
● Electric motors: Conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy.
● Galvanometers: Instruments used for detecting and measuring small
currents.
● Electromagnetic devices: Control and manipulation of mechanical systems
based on electrical signals.
Conclusion:
Electromagnetism plays a crucial role in various aspects of modern technology,
from electronic devices like the cathode ray oscilloscope to the operation of
electric motors and generators. Understanding the principles of electromagnetism
is essential for designing and analyzing electrical and electronic systems.
Electrical Measuring Instruments
Electrical measuring instruments are devices that convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy. These devices are crucial for measuring various electrical
quantities like current, voltage, and resistance. Some common examples of such
instruments include:
● Galvanometer: A device used for detecting both AC and DC currents and
voltages.
● Voltmeter: Measures voltage across a circuit element.
● Ammeter: Measures current flowing through a circuit.
● AVO meter: A multi-purpose instrument that can measure current, voltage,
and resistance (hence the name AVO).
Galvanometer (G.M)
The galvanometer is a foundational instrument for measuring electrical quantities.
Its principle of operation relies on the torque experienced by a current-carrying coil
placed in a magnetic field.
Principle of G.M:
A coil carrying current experiences a torque (τ) given by the equation:
τ = NAIBcosθ
Where:
● N = Number of turns in the coil
● A = Area of the coil
● I = Current flowing through the coil
● B = Magnetic field strength
● θ = Angle between the coil's plane and the magnetic field
Types of Galvanometers:
1. Moving Coil G.M (MCGM): The coil moves within a fixed magnetic field.
2. Moving Magnet G.M (MMGM): The magnet moves within a fixed coil.
Major Parts of Moving Coil G.M:
1. Permanent Magnet: Generates the magnetic field.
2. Concave Pole Pieces: Shape the magnetic field to increase sensitivity.
3. Suspension Wire: Supports the coil and acts as a conductor.
4. Lamp-Scale Arrangement: Provides a visual indication of the coil's
deflection.
5. Coil: The current-carrying component that experiences the torque.
6. Hair Springs: Provide restoring torque to bring the coil back to its original
position.
When the coil of G.M stops after deflection:
The deflecting torque is equal to the restoring torque. This can be represented as:
INAB cosθ = Kθ
Where:
● K = Torsion constant of the suspension wire
Galvanometer Constant:
The galvanometer constant (K) is a key parameter and is defined as:
K = C/BAN
Where:
● C = Couple per unit twist (torsion constant)
To make the galvanometer more sensitive:
The galvanometer constant (K) should be minimized. This can be achieved by:
● Decreasing C: Increasing the length and decreasing the diameter of the
suspension wire.
 ● Increasing A, R, N: Increasing the area of the coil, the resistance, and the
number of turns.
● Increasing B: Making the magnetic field as strong as possible.
Modifications in Weston-type Galvanometer:
● Suspension wire is replaced by a shaft with pivots.
● Lamp-scale arrangement is replaced by a light aluminum needle and a
graduated scale.

Ammeter
An ammeter is a modified galvanometer used for measuring electric current
flowing through a circuit.

How to convert a Galvanometer into an Ammeter:

A low-resistance shunt (Rs) is connected in parallel to the galvanometer coil. The
value of the shunt is calculated using the following equation:
𝐼𝑔𝑅𝑔
𝑅𝑠 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔

Where:
● Ig = Full-scale deflection current of the galvanometer
● Rg = Resistance of the galvanometer coil
● I = Range of the ammeter
To increase the range of an ammeter:
The resistance of the shunt (Rs) should be decreased.

Ammeter Connection:
An ammeter is always connected in series with the circuit element whose current is
to be measured.

Important Note:
Ammeters should have very low resistance to avoid significant disturbance in the
circuit's current flow.

Voltmeter
A voltmeter is a modified galvanometer used for measuring the voltage across a
circuit element.

How to convert a Galvanometer into a Voltmeter:

A high resistance (Rh) is connected in series with the galvanometer coil. This
resistance is called a multiplier. The value of the multiplier is calculated as:
𝑉 −𝐼𝑔𝑅𝑔
𝑅ℎ = 𝐼𝑔
Where:
● V = Required range of the voltmeter
● Ig = Full-scale deflection current of the galvanometer
● Rg = Resistance of the galvanometer coil
Range of Voltmeter is given by rearranging:
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 (𝑅𝑔 + 𝑅ℎ)

To increase the range of a voltmeter:

The value of the multiplier resistance (Rh) should be increased.

Voltmeter Connection:
A voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the circuit element whose voltage
is to be measured.
Important Note:
Voltmeters should have high resistance to minimize the current drawn from the
circuit, ensuring accurate voltage measurements.
Ohmmeter
An ohmmeter is a device that measures the resistance of a circuit element.
Internal Components of an Ohmmeter:
An ohmmeter typically contains:
● An adjustable resistance: Used to calibrate the meter.
● A cell: Provides a known voltage source.
● A galvanometer: Detects the current flow.
Operation of an Ohmmeter:
 1. The resistance to be measured is connected across the terminals of the
ohmmeter.
2. The current flowing through the circuit is dependent on the resistance value.
3. The galvanometer deflection is proportional to the current and hence, the
resistance.
4. The ohmmeter scale is calibrated to directly display the resistance value.

AVO Meter (All-purpose Volt-Ohm Meter)

An AVO meter is a versatile instrument that combines the functionality of an
ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter in one device. It is commonly used in various
electrical applications for measuring current, voltage, and resistance.
Avo meter is an electrical measuring instrument used for measuring current,
voltage and resistance. A for AMP, V for Volt and O for ohm

AVO Meter as an Ohmmeter:

 ● An adjustable resistance is used internally.
● The circuit is designed to measure the current through the resistance under
test.
● The galvanometer deflection is proportional to the resistance, and the scale
is calibrated accordingly.
AVO Meter as a Voltmeter:

● A multiplier (high resistance) is connected in series with the galvanometer

coil.
● The multiplier's value determines the voltage range.
● The galvanometer deflection is proportional to the voltage.

AVO Meter as an Ammeter:

 ● A set of shunts (low resistance) is connected in parallel with the
galvanometer coil.
● The shunt's value determines the current range.
● The galvanometer deflection is proportional to the current.
Key Features of an AVO Meter:
● Three Scales: Ohm scale, Current scale (AC & DC), and Voltage scale (AC
& DC).
● Range Switch: Allows selection of the desired measurement range.
Digital Multimeter (DMM)
A DMM (Digital Multimeter) is a modern version of the AVO meter. It uses digital
circuitry to display measurements on a digital screen.
Advantages of a DMM:
● Decimal Counting: Provides precise readings with decimal values.
● Polarity Indication: Displays the polarity of the measured quantity.
● Unit Display: Shows the units of the measurement (e.g., volts, amps, ohms).
● Human Error Reduction: Eliminates the possibility of errors due to
misinterpretation of the scale or polarity.