RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 135

3.1 INTRODUCTION
An antenna is basically a transducer. It converts radio frequency (RF) electrical
current into an electromagnetic (EM) wave of the same frequency.
It produces electric and magnetic f ields, which constitute an electromagnetic
f ield. The transmission and reception of EM energy is obtained by this field. It forms
a part of the transmitter as well as the receiver circuits. Its equivalent circuit is
characterised by the presence of distributed constants, namely, resistance,
inductance and capacitance. The current produces a magnetic f ield and a charge
produces an electrostatic f ield. These two in turn create an induction f ield.
When RF signal is applied to an antenna, electric and magnetic f ields are
produced. They are shown in Fig. 3.1. These two f ields constitute the EM wave. As
a result, antenna is known as a generator/radiator of EM waves and it is also a
sensor of EM waves.

Fig. 3.1 Electric and magnetic fields produced by RF signals

The electric and magnetic f ields of the EM wave are perpendicular to each
other and hence E . H = 0.
EM waves carry information signals from transmitter to receiver. There is no
communication system without one type of antenna or the other. The antennas are
characterised by several parameters. These parameters, antenna functions,
elementary antennas and their radiation parameters are presented in this chapter.

3.2 DEFINITION OF ANTENNA

Antenna is also known as Aerial:
An antenna can be def ined in the following different ways:
1. An antenna may be a piece of conducting material in the form a wire, rod or
any other shape with excitation.
2. An antenna is a source or radiator of electromagnetic waves.
3. An antenna is a sensor of electromagnetic waves.
4. An antenna is a transducer.
5. An antenna is an impedance matching device.
136 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

6. An antenna is a coupler between a generator/transmission line and space or

vice-versa.

3.3 FUNCTIONS OF ANTENNAS

1. It is used as a transducer. That is, it converts electrical energy into EM energy
at the transmitting end and it converts EM energy back into electrical energy
at the receiving end.
2. It is used as an impedance matching device. That is, it matches/couples the
transmitter and free space on the transmitting side and it matches/couples
free space and the receiver on the receiving side.
3. It is used to direct radiated energy in desired directions and to suppress it in
unwanted directions.
4. It is used to sense the presence of electromagnetic waves.
5. It is used as a temperature sensor.

3.4 NETWORK THEOREMS

The properties of antenna elements can be proved using network theorems. The
theorems are applicable basically to circuits which are linear and bilateral. The
network theorems commonly employed to obtain antenna properties are:
(a) Thevenin’s theorem
(b) Superposition theorem
(c) Maximum power transfer theorem
(d ) Compensation theorem
(e) Reciprocity theorem
( f ) Reaction theorem
(a) Thevenin’s theorem In a linear network containing one or more voltage or
current sources, the current in ZL connected between any two terminals is the
same when ZL is connected to a single voltage source. This source is equal to
the open circuit voltage across the terminals of interest and its impedance is
equal to the impedance of the network looking back from the terminals when
all the sources are replaced by their internal impedances.
(b) Superposition theorem In a linear and bilateral network containing more
than one source, the current at any point is equal to the sum of the currents
which f low when each source is considered to be present separately while the
remaining sources are replaced by their internal impedances.
(c) Maximum power transfer theorem The power transfer to an impedance
connected to two terminals of a network is maximum if the impedance is the
complex conjugate of the impedance seen looking back into the network from
the two terminals.
(d ) Compensation theorem An impedance in a network is equal to an ideal
voltage source if the generated voltage is equal to the instantaneous voltage
which exists across the impedance due to f low of current in it.
(e) Reciprocity theorem In a linear and bilateral network, if V is the applied
voltage across any two terminals, and if I is current in any branch, the ratio of
 RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 137

V and I is the same as the ratio of V and I when the generator and ammeter
V
are interchanged. The is called Transfer impedance. According to
I
reciprocity theorem, Z12 = Z21 or Y12 = Y21.
( f ) Reaction theorem

3.5 PROPERTIES OF ANTENNA

1. It has identical impedance when used for transmitting and receiving
purposes. This property is called equality of impedances.
2. It has identical directional characteristics/patterns when it is used for
transmitting and receiving purposes. This property is called equality of
directional patterns.
3. It has the same effective length when it is used for transmitting and receiving
purposes. This property is called equality of effective lengths.
These properties can be proved using Reciprocity theorem.

3.6 ANTENNA PARAMETERS

1. Antenna Impedance, Za It is defined as the ratio of input voltage to input
current or
Vi
Za ≡ Ω
Ii

Za is a complex quantity and it is written as

Za = Ra + j Xa
Here, the reactive part Xa results from f ields surrounding the antenna. The
resistive part, Ra is given by

Ra = Rl + Rr

Rl represents losses in the antenna. Rr is called radiation resistance.

2. Radiation Resistance, Rr is defined as a f ictitious or hypothetical resistance
that would dissipate an amount of power equal to the radiated power.
138 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

power radiated
or Rr ≡ 2
Irms

3. Directional Characteristics These are also called radiation characteristics

or radiation pattern. These are of two types:
(a) Field strength pattern It is the variation of the absolute value of f ield
strength as a function of θ.

E Vs θ is called Field strength pattern.

(b) Power pattern It is the variation of radiated power with θ.

P Vs θ is called Power pattern.

An antenna radiation pattern is a three dimensional variation of the

radiation field. It is a pattern drawn as a function of θ and φ. The pattern
consists of one main lobe and a number of minor/side lobes.
Typical 3-D radiation patterns are shown in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.2 ( a)

4. Effective Length of Antenna ( Leff) It is used to indicate the effectiveness of

the Antenna as a radiator or receiver of EM energy.
Leff of Transmitting Antenna It is equal to the length of an equivalent linear
antenna which radiates the same f ield strength as the actual antenna and the
current is constant throughout the length of the linear antenna.
 RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 139

Fig. 3.2 ( b) Typical 3-D radiation pattern

Refer the Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 Definition of effective length of transmitting antenna

Leff of transmitting antenna is def ined mathematically as

L⁄2
1
Leff (Tx) =
Ic ∫ I (z) d z (m)
–L ⁄ 2

Leff of receiving antenna It is def ined as the ratio of the open circuit voltage
developed at the terminals of the antenna under the received f ield strength,
E. That is
VOC
Leff (Rx) ≡ (m)
E
140 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

Effective length of an antenna is always less than the actual length. That is,
Leff < L.

5. Radiation Intensity (RI) It is def ined as the power radiated in a given

direction per unit solid angle. That is,

r2 E2
RI = r 2 P = watts ⁄ unit solid angle
η0

Here η0 = intrinsic impedance of the medium (Ω)

r = radius of the sphere, (m)
P = power radiated−instantaneous
E = electric f ield strength, (V ⁄ m)
RI = RI (θ, φ) is a function of θ and φ
The unit of a solid angle is Steradian (sr).
6. Directive Gain gd It is defined as the ratio of intensity of radiation in a
specif ied direction to the average radiation intensity. That is,
RI RI
gd ≡ =
RIav wr ⁄ 4 π

4 π (RI)
or gd =
wr

wr = radiated power.
7. Directivity, D It is def ined as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity
to the average radiation intensity. That is,
D ≡ (gd)max
D in dB = 10 log10 (gd)max

Directivity is also def ined as maximum directive gain.

8. Power Gain, gp It is defined as the ratio of 4π times radiation intensity to
the total input power. That is,
4 π (RI)
gP ≡
wt
where wt = wr + wl,
wl = ohmic losses in the antenna.
9. Antenna Eff iciency ( η) It is def ined as the ratio of the radiated power to
the input power. That is,
wr wr g
η≡ = = P
wt wr + wl gd
 RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 141

10. Effective Area It is defined as

λ2
Ae = g (m2)
4π d
wR
or Ae ≡ (m2)
P
where wR = received power (watt)
P = power f low per square meter (watts ⁄ m2) for the incident wave.
11. Antenna Equivalent Circuit It is a series Ra , La and Ca circuit (Fig. 3.4).

Fig. 3.4 Antenna equivalent circuit

The main difference between the antenna equivalent circuit and an RLC circuit
is that Ra, La and Ca vary with frequency. As a result, the antenna conductance
peak appears not at resonant frequency but at a frequency slightly away from
fr (Fig. 3.5).

Fig. 3.5 Typical variation of antenna conductance (g) and susceptance (b)

The antenna impedance, Za = R + j (XL – XC)

1
where XL = ω L, XC =
ωC
142 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

The corresponding admittance,

1
Ya = = g + jb
Za
Here g = conductance
b = susceptance.
12. Antenna Bandwidth It is def ined as the range of frequencies over which
the antenna maintains its characteristics and parameters, like gain, front-
to-back ratio, standing wave ratio, radiation pattern, polarisation, impedance,
directivity and so on, without considerable change.
13. Front-to-Back ratio (FBR) FBR is def ined as the ratio of radiated power in
the desired direction to the radiated power in the opposite direction.
Radiated power in desired direction
That is, FBR = ×
Radiated power in opposite direction
14. Polarisation It is def ined as the direction of the electric vector of the EM
wave produced by an antenna.
It is of three types:
(i ) Linear polarisation
(ii ) Circular polarisation
(iii ) Elliptical polarisation
Linear polarisation is again of three types, namely Horizontal, Vertical and
Theta polarisations. Circular and elliptical polarisations can also be described
in terms of their sense of rotation. The sense of rotation can be right-handed
or left-handed. Accordingly, they are called right-handed or left-handed
circular/elliptical polarisations.

3.7 BASIC ANTENNA ELEMENTS

The basic antenna elements are
1. Alternating current element or Hertzian dipole
2. Short dipole
3. Short monopole
4. Half-wave dipole
5. Quarter-wave monopole
1. Alternating Current Element or Hertzian Dipole It is a short linear antenna
in which the current along its length is assumed to be constant.
λ
2. Short Dipole It is a linear antenna whose length is less than and the
4
current distribution is assumed to be triangular.
λ
3. Short Monopole It is a linear antenna whose length is less than and the
8
current distribution is assumed to be triangular.
 RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 143

λ
4. Half-wave Dipole It is a linear antenna whose length is
and the current
2
distribution is assumed to be sinusoidal. It is usually centre-fed.
λ
5. Quarter-wave Monopole It is a linear antenna whose length is and the
4
current distribution is assumed to be sinusoidal. It is fed at one end with
respect to each.

3.8 RADIATION MECHANISM

When a transmitting antenna is excited with an alternating voltage, the initial
motion is started by the balanced motion of charges in the antenna. Resonant
oscillations are produced by the supplied energy. Electric and magnetic f ields are
generated due to sudden changes in charge. When the charges around the antenna
are set in motion f irst, the other charges are separated from the antenna and they
are also set in motion. The disturbance is spread from the antenna into space. The
electric and magnetic f ields so produced are perpendicular to each other. EM waves
have no boundaries. The EM energy decreases as it propagates.

3.9 RADIATION FIELDS OF ALTERNATING CURRENT ELEMENT

(OR OSCILLATING ELECTRIC DIPOLE)
The concept of an alternating current element, I d l cos ω t is of theoretical interest.
But the theory developed for this can be extended to practical antennas. The concept
of retarded vector magnetic potential A is very useful to derive radiation f ields of
antenna elements including current element.
Derivation of radiation f ields consists of the following steps:
1. Write expression for retarded vector magnetic potential.
2. Write expressions for the components of A in Cartesian coordinates.
3. Express A in components of spherical coordinate system.
4. Obtain the components of H from µ H = ∇ × A.
5. Obtain the components of E from
. ∂E 1
E= = ∇×H (as J = 0 for free space)
dt ∈
1
6. E =
∈ ∫ (∇ × H) dt .

Identify radiation and near-f ield terms.

An alternating current element at the origin of a spherical coordinate system
is shown in Fig. 3.6.
The retarded vector magnetic potential, A (r, t ) is given by
µ J (r, t – r ⁄ υ0)
4π ∫
A (r, t ) = dυ ...(3.1)
r
υ

r
As the element is z-directed, A is also z-directed. is the delay time.
υ0
144 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

Fig. 3.6 Alternating current element at the origin of a spherical coordinate system

The volume integral in Equation (3.1) can be simplif ied by taking integration
over the cross-sectional area of the element and an integration along its length. We
know,

∫ J . dS = I
o
S
dl
and ∫ I dL = I dl
0

µ0 I d l cos ω (t – r ⁄ υ0)
A = Az az = az ...(3.2)
4π r

This means A has only z-component and Ax = 0and Ay = 0.

Changing Cartesian components to spherical coordinate components, we get
Ar = Az cos θ 

Aθ = – Az sin θ  ...(3.3)

Aφ = 0 
1
But we know H= ∇×A ...(3.4)
µ0
1
So Hr = (∇ × A)r
µ0
1
Hθ = (∇ × A)θ
µ0
1
and Hφ = (∇ × A)φ
µ0
 RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 145

1  ∂ ∂ Aθ 
Hr =  (sin θ Aφ) – 
µ0 r sin θ  ∂ θ ∂φ 

As Aφ = 0 and Aθ ≠ f (φ), Hr = 0

1  1 ∂ Ar 1 ∂ (r Aφ) 
Similarly, Hθ =  – =0 [as Ar ≠ f (φ)]
µ0  r sin θ ∂ φ r ∂t 

1  ∂ ∂ Ar 
Hφ =  (r Aθ) –  ...(3.5)
µ0 r  ∂ t ∂t 

Here Aθ = – Az sin θ
µ0 I d l cos ω (t – r ⁄ υ0)
=– sin θ ...(3.6)
4π r
Ar = Az cos θ
µ0 I d l cos ω (t – r ⁄ υ0)
=– cos θ ...(3.7)
4π r
Substituting Equations (3.6) and (3.7) in Equation (3.5) and simplifying, we
get

 – ω sin ω  t – r  
÷ cos ω  t –
r 
÷
 υ0 υ
    0
I d l sin θ  
Hφ =  –  ...(3.8)
4π  r υ0 r 2 
 
From Maxwell’s f irst equation, we have
. .
∇ × H = D = ∈0 E
1
or E=
∈0 ∫ (∇ × H) dt ...(3.9)

From Equations (3.6) and (3.9), we get Er , Eθ and Eφ

But Eφ = 0 [as H = Hφ aφ]
On simplif ication of Equation (3.9), we get

I d l sin θ  ω sin ω td cos ω td sin ω td 

Eθ = – + +  ...(3.10)
4 π ∈0  
 r υ20 r 2 υ0 ωr3 
 

2I d l cos θ  cos ω td sin ω td 

and Er =  +  ...(3.11)
4 π ∈0  2 
 r υ0 ωr3 
 
where td = (t – r ⁄ υ0) ...(3.12)
146 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

The resultant field components of an alternating current element are

I d l sin θ  ω sin ω td cos ω td 

Hφ = – + 
4π  r υ0 r2 

I d l sin θ  ω sin ω td cos ω td sin ω td 

Eθ = – + +  ...(3.13)
4 π ∈0  
 r υ20 r 2 υ0 ωr3 
 

2I d l  cos ω td sin ω td 
Er = cos θ  + 
4 π ∈0  2 
 r υ0 ωr3 
 
Hr = 0, Hθ = 0, Eφ = 0.

3.10 RADIATED POWER AND RADIATION RESISTANCE OF CURRENT

ELEMENT
The derivation of expression for radiated power consists of the following steps:
• Obtain f ield components as in the Section (3.8).
• Obtain expression for radiated power using Poynting vector.
• Obtain average radiated power.
• ∫ Pav ds.
Obtain total power radiated from PT = o
S
• Identify expression for radiation resistance.
Poynting vector is

P = E × H watts ⁄ m2
That is, Pθ = – Er Hφ ...(3.14)
From Equations (3.13) and (3.14), we have
 2I d l cos θ  cos ω td sin ω td 
Pθ = –   + ÷ ×
 2 ÷
 4 π ∈0  r υ0 ωr3 ÷
  

 I d l sin θ  ω sin ω td cos ω td  

 – + ÷  ...(3.15)
 4π  r υ0 r2  

 2 2
2I 2 dl 2 cos θ sin θ  sin ω td cos ω td
=  4 – –
16 π2 ∈0  r υ0 r 4 υ0

sin ω td cos ω td ω sin ω td cos ω td 
+  ...(3.16)

ωr5 r 3 υ0 

 RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 147

2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2 θ 


sin 2 ω td 
But sin ω td cos ω td =  ...(3.17)
2 
sin2 ω td – cos2 ω td = cos 2ω td 

Using these identities, Equation (3.16) becomes

I 2 d l 2 sin 2θ  cos 2 ω td sin 2 ω td ω sin 2 ω td 


Pθ = – – +  ...(3.18)
16 π2 ∈0  r 4 υ0 2 ωr5 2r 3 υ20 
 

Pθ in Equation (3.17) represents instantaneous power f low in θ-direction. But

the average value of cos 2 ω td or sin 2 ω td over a cycle is zero. Hence, (Pθ)av = 0 at
any value of r. This means that power in θ-direction surges back and forth.
Similarly, Pr = Eθ Hφ ...(3.19)
From Equations (3.13) and (3.18), we get
 2
I 2 d l 2 sin2 θ  sin ω td cos ω td cos ω td ω sin ω td cos ω td
Pr =  + –
16 π2 ∈0  ωr5 r 4 υ0 r 3 υ20

sin2 ω td ω sin ω td cos ω td ω2 sin2 ω td 
– – +  ...(3.20)
r 4 υ0 r 3 υ20 r 2 υ30 

Using identities of Equation (3.17), we get
 2 2 
I 2 d l 2 sin2 θ  sin ω td cos 2 ω td ω sin 2 ω td ω (1 – cos 2ω td) 
Pr =  + – +  ...(3.21)
16 π2 ∈0  2 ω r 5 r 4 υ0 r 3 υ20 2r 2 υ30 
 

It is obvious from Equation (3.21), that the average value of Pr is

ω2 I 2 d l 2 sin2 θ
Pr (av) =
32 π2 r 2 ∈0 υ30
2
η0  ω I d l sin θ  2
or Pr (av) =  ÷ watt ⁄ m ...(3.22)
2  4 π r υ0 

µ0
where η0 = ∈
√ 0
= 120 π Ω

The total power radiated

PT = o∫ Pr (av) d s ...(3.23)
surface
148 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

Pr (av) is independent of φ and hence the element of area d s on the spherical

shell is given by

d s = 2 π r 2 sin θ dθ ...(3.24)
Here, θ varies between 0 and π.
Now Equation (3.24) becomes
π
η0  ω I d l sin θ 
PT = ∫ 2 π r 2 sin θ d θ
2  4 π r v0 
0

π
η0 ωr I r d l r
=
16 π v0 r ∫ sin3 θ d θ
0
π π
 1  4
But ∫ sin3 θ d θ =  – cos θ + cos3 θ ÷ =
 3 0 3
0

η0 ω2 I 2 d l 2
So PT = ...(3.25)
12 π υ20
Here I is the peak value of current.
As I=√2 Ieff
I 2 = 2Ieff
2

Thus Equation (3.25) becomes

η0 ω2 I 2 d l 2 Ieff
2
PT =
6 π υ20
2
 dl  2
or PT = 80 π2  ÷ Ieff watts ...(3.26)
 λ 

This is in the form of P = I 2 R. Hence the coeff icient of Ieff

2
has the dimensions
of resistance and it is called Radiation Resistance.
Radiation Resistance of Hertzian dipole
2
 dl 
2
Rr = 80 π  ÷ Ω. ...(3.27)
 λ 

3.11 RADIATION, INDUCTION AND ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS

The f ield components of current elements from Equation (3.13) are

I d l sin θ  ω sin ω td cos ω td 

Hφ = – + 
4π  r υ0 r2 
 RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 149

I d l sin θ  ω sin ω td cos ω td sin ω td 

Eθ = – + +  ...(3.28)
4 π ∈0  
 r υ20 r 2 υ0 ωr3 
 

2I d l  cos ω td sin ω td 
Er =  + 
4 π ∈0  2 
 r υ0 ωr3 
 
1 1 1 1
Hφ f ield consists of and 2 terms. 2 term dominates over term at points
r r r r
1
close to the current element. When r is small, 2 term is called Induction Field.
r
1 1 1
On the other hand, term dominates over 2 terms when r is large. Here
r r r
term is called Radiation Field or distant f ield or far-f ield.
1 1 1
The expression for Eθ consists of three terms: , 2 , 3 , and the expression
r r r
1 1 1
for Er consists of 2 and 3 terms. These 3 term is called Electrostatic Field.
r r r
1
term in E and H fields is called Radiation Field
r
1
term is called Induction Field
r2
1
term is called Electrostatic Field.
r3
If the induction and radiation fields have equal amplitudes, then from
Equation (3.28), we have
I d l ω sin θ I d l sin θ
=
4 π r υ0 4 πr 2
ω 1 υ0 λ λ
or = 2 or r = = ≈ ...(3.29)
r υ0 r ω 2 π 6.0
λ ,
At a distance of r = induction and radiation fields have equal amplitudes.
2π

3.12 HERTZIAN DIPOLE

150 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

As Hertzian dipole and alternating current elements virtually mean the same,
the radiated power and radiation resistance are given by
2
 dl  2
PT = 80 π2  ÷ Ieff watts
 λ 
2
 dl 
Rr = 80 π2  ÷ Ω. ...(3.30)
 λ 

3.13 DIFFERENT CURRENT DISTRIBUTIONS IN LINEAR ANTENNAS

The possible current distributions are:
1. Constant current along its length—valid in Hertzian dipole.
2. Triangular current distribution—valid in short dipole and monopole.
For a triangular current distributions
2
 λ  l 
Rr  short dipole, l < ÷ ≈ 20 π2  ÷ Ω
 4 λ ...(3.31)
2
 λ  l 
Rr  short monopole, l < ÷ ≈ 10 π2  ÷ Ω
 8  λ

3. Sinusoidal current distribution—valid in half-wave dipole.

4. Exact current distribution—This can be determined using the method of
moment technique. However, this method is beyond the scope of this book.

3.14 RADIATION FROM HALF-WAVE DIPOLE

2
Radiated power by half-wave dipole, PT = 73.0Ieff
Radiation resistance of half-wave dipole, Rr = 73 Ω.
Proof Proof consists of the following steps:
• Write expressions for the assumed current distribution in the element.
• Obtain expression for vector magnetic potential, A.
• Obtain H from A.
E
• Obtain E from  ÷ = η0.
H
• Obtain average radiated power Pav.
• Obtain total power radiated.
• Obtain the value of radiation resistance.
The sinusoidal current distribution is represented by Fig. 3.7.
I = Im sin β (H – Z ) for z > 0
= Im sin β (H + Z ) for z < 0
Here Im = current maximum.
 RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 151

Fig. 3.7 Dipole

The vector potential at a point P due to the current element I d z is given by,

µ0 I e– j β d d z
d A = d Az az = az ...(3.32)
4π d
Here d is the distance from the current element to the point P. The total vector
potential at P due to all current elements is given by
H
µ0 Ie– j β d
Az =
4π ∫ d
dz ...(3.33)
–H
0 H
µ0 Im sin β (h + z) – j β d µ Im sin β (h – z) – j β d
=
4π ∫ d
e dz +
4π ∫ d
e dz
–H 0
...(3.34)
It is of interest here to consider radiation f ields. d in the denominator can be
approximated to r. But in the numerator, d is in the phase term and it is given by
d = r – z cos θ
Now Equation (3.34) becomes
0
µ0 Im sin β (h + z) – j β (r – z cos θ)
Az =
4π ∫ r
e dz
–H
H
µ0 Im sin β (h – z) – j β (r – z cos θ)
+
4π ∫ r
e dz
0

µ0 Im e– j β r  0 H 
 j β z cos θ j β z cos θ 
=
4 πr 

∫ sin β (h + z) e d z + ∫ sin β (h – z) e d z 

 –H 0 
...(3.35)
152 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

λ
For a half-wave dipole, h =
4
But, sin β (h + z ) = sin β h cos β z + cos β h sin β z
sin β (h – z) = sin β h cos β z – cos β h sin β z
2π , 2π λ
As β= sin β h = sin × = 1,
λ λ 4
π
cos β h = cos = 0
2
So sin β (h + z) = sin β (h – z) = cos β z ...(3.36)
Putting Equation (3.36) in Equation (3.35), we get

µ0 Im e– j β r  0 H 
 + j β z cos θ 
Az =  ∫ cos β ze + ∫ cos β ze+ j β z cos θ d z 
4πr  
 –H 0 
...(3.37)
0 H
+ j β z cos θ
But ∫ cos β ze d z = ∫ cos β ze– j β z cos θ d z
–H 0

Im µ0 – j β r  λ⁄4 
 
Az = e  ∫ cos β z (e j β z cos θ + e– j β z cos θ) d z 
4πr  
 0 

Im µ0 – j β r  λ⁄4 
 
=
4πr
e 

∫ cos {β z (1 + cos θ)} + cos {β z (1 – cos θ)}  d z

 0 
λ⁄4
Im µ0 – j β r  sin {β z (1 + cos θ)} sin {β z (1 – cos θ)} 
= e  + 
4πr  β (1 + cos θ) β (1 – cos θ) 0

 (1 – cos θ) cos  π cos θ ÷ + (1 + cos θ) cos  π cos θ ÷ 

 2  2 
µ0 Im – j β r  
= e  
4 πβ r 2
sin θ
 
 π 
µ0 Im – j β r  cos 2 cos θ 
Az = e  sin2 θ  ...(3.38)
2 πβ r
 
But we have
1  ∂ ∂ 
µ0 Hφ =  (r Aθ) – A 
r  ∂r ∂θ r 

1  ∂ ∂ 
=  r (– Az sin θ) – (Az cos θ) 
r  ∂r ∂θ 
 RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 153

∂ Az
µ0 Hφ = – sin θ ...(3.39)
∂r
From Equations (3.38) and (3.39), we have

 π 
 cos  cos θ ÷ ÷
–jβr 2 
∂  j µ0 I m e ÷
µ0 Hφ = – ÷ sin θ
∂ r  2πβr 2
sin θ 
π 
cos  cos θ ÷
–jβr 2 
j Im e
Hφ = ...(3.40)
2π r sin θ
We also know that Eθ = η0 Hφ , η0 = 120 π Ω
 
 cos  π cos θ ÷ 
  2  
j 120 π Im e j β r 
Eθ =  
2πr  sin θ 
 
 cos  π cos θ ÷ 
 2  
j 60 Im e– j β r 
=   ...(3.41)
r  sin θ 
The magnitude of E for the radiation f ield is
 
 cos  π cos θ ÷ 
  2  
60Im 
Eθ =   V⁄m ...(3.42)
r  sin θ 
Eθ and Hφ are in time phase. Hence the maximum value of Poynting vector is
Pmax = (Eθ)max (Hφ)max
  π 
 cos  π cos θ ÷   cos  cos θ ÷ ÷
 2   2 ÷
60Im   Im 
=   ×  ÷
r  sin θ  2πr  sin θ 
 
 cos2  π cos θ ÷ 
2  2 
30Im  
=   ...(3.43)
πr2 
2
sin θ 
The average value of Poynting vector is one half of the peak value.
 cos2  π cos θ ÷ 
2  2 
15 Im  
So Pav = 2  2 
πr  sin θ 
154 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

 
 cos2  π cos θ ÷ 
2   2 
η0 Im  
or Pav =   ...(3.44)
8 π2 r 2 
2
sin θ 
Therefore, total power radiated through a spherical surface by half wave
dipole is
π 
cos2  cos θ ÷
2 π  2 
η0 Im
PT = o∫ Pav d s = ∫ 2 π r 2 sin θ d θ
8 πr 2 0 2
sin θ

π 
cos2  cos θ ÷
2 π 2 
η0 Im
=
4π ∫ sin θ
dθ ...(3.45)
0

π 
π
cos2  cos θ ÷
2 
But the numerical evaluation of the integral ∫ sin θ
d θ by Simp-
0
son’s or the Trapezoidal rule gives a value of 1.218.
2
η0 Im
So PT =
4π
2
120 π Im 2
= × 1.218 = 36.54Im ...(3.46)
4π
As Im = √
2Ieff , Equation (3.46) becomes
2
PT = 36.54 × 2 × Ieff
2
or PT = 73.08 Ω Ieff, watts ...(3.47)
2
The coeff icient of Ieff is the radiation resistance. That is,

Rr = 73.08 Ω. ...(3.48)

3.15 RADIATION FROM QUARTER-WAVE MONOPOLE

2
Radiated power of quarter-wave monopole, PT = 36.5Ieff watts Radiation
resistance, Rr = 36.5 Ω.

Proof Consider Fig. 3.8 in which monopole with current distribution is

shown.
Obtain Pav exactly as described in half-wave dipole. That is, from
Equation (3.44), we have
 RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 155

 2π 
2  cos
η0 Im cos θ 
Pav = 2 2  
2
 ...(3.49)
8π r  sin2 θ 

Fig. 3.8 Monopole with current distribution

As the monopole is fed with a perfectly conducting plane at one end, it radiates
only through a hemi-spherical surface. Therefore, the total radiated power is
PT = o∫ Pav d s

π 
π⁄2
cos2  cos θ ÷
2
η0 Im 2 
=
8π r2
∫ sin2 θ
2 π r 2 sin θ d θ
0

π 
cos2  cos θ ÷
2 π⁄2  2 
η0 Im
=
4π ∫ sin2 θ
dθ
0
π 
π⁄2
cos2  cos θ ÷
2 
Numerical evaluation of the integral ∫ sin θ
d θ by Simpson’s or
0
the Trapezoidal rule gives a value of 0.609.
2
η0 Im
So PT = × 0.609
4π
2
= 18.27Im
As Im = √
2 Ieff
2 ...(3.50)
PT = 36.54Ieff watts

The Radiation resistance, Rr = 36.54 Ω ...(3.51)

156 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

3.16 RADIATION CHARACTERISTICS OF DIPOLES

Electric f ield as a function θ in free space for a dipole of length of 2H is given by

j 60Im e– j β r  cos (β H cos θ) – cos β H 

Eθ =   ...(3.52)
r  sin θ 
The amplitude of Eθ is
60Im  cos (β H cos θ) – cos β H 
| Eθ | =  
r  sin θ 

Fig. 3.9 Radiation patterns of dipole

 RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 157

The normalised (Eθ) is

60Im  cos (β H cos θ) – cos β H 
 
r  sin θ 
| Eθ |n =
60Im
r

 cos (β H cos θ) – cos β H 

So | Eθ |n =   ...(3.53)
 sin θ 
The radiation patterns are the variation of | Eθ |n with θ. These patterns for
different lengths of dipole are shown in Fig. 3.9.

r2 E2
1. Radiation intensity, R I = watts ⁄ unit solid angle.
η0
4 π × (R I )
2. Directive gain, gd = ×
wr
3. Directivity, D = (gd)max .
4 π × (RI )
4. Power gain, gp = ×
wt
gp
5. Antenna eff iciency, η = ×
gd

λ2 received power
6. Effective area, Ae = gd or Ae = ×
4π power flow of incident waves
1
7. Far-f ield is represented by f ield term.
r
1
8. Induction f ield is represented by f ield term.
r2
2
 dl 
9. Radiation resistance of Hertzian dipole is 80 π2  ÷ Ω.
 λ 
1
10. Electrostatic f ield is represented by ×
r3
λ
11. The far-f ield and induction f ield have equal magnitudes at r = ×
2π
12. Radiation resistance of half-wave dipole is 73 Ω.
158 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

13. Radiation resistance of quarter-wave monopole is 36.5 Ω.

14. Horizontal pattern of vertical dipole is a circle.
15. Radiated power f low of a vertical dipole is in the radial direction.

λ , λ , λ
Problem 3.1 Find the radiation resistance of a Hertzian dipole of length ×
40 60 80
Solution The radiation resistance of Hertzian dipole of length d l is
 dl  2
Rr = 80 π2  ÷ Ω
 λ 

λ  λ 1 2
If d l = Rr = 80 π2  × ÷
40  40 λ 

or Rr = 0.493 Ω

λ 1
If d l = Rr = 80 π2
60 602
or Rr = 0.219 Ω

λ 1
If d l = Rr = 80 π2
80 802
or Rr = 0.123 Ω.

Problem 3.2 Find the directivity of a current element, I d l.

Solution From Equation (3.10), the amplitude of electric far-field is
I d l sin θ ω
E= × 2
4 π ∈0 r υ0
ω I d l sin θ
=
4 π ∈0 r υ20
2 π f I d l sin θ  1 
=  as ω = 2 π f , υ0 = 
1 
√ µ0 ∈ 0 
4 π ∈0 r 
µ0 ∈0

I d l sin θ 
√ µ0 ∈0
= ×f √
µ0 ∈0 ×
2r ∈0

But η0 = √∈µ0
0
, λ=
υ0
f
 RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 159

1 f
or = =f √

µ0 ∈0
λ υ0
60I d l sin θ
So E=
λr
Maximum radiation occurs at
π
θ=
2
60I d l
or Emax = ...(3.54)
λr
The radiated power of current element is
2
 dl 
Pr = 80 π2  ÷ I 2 watts
 λ 
If Pr is assumed to be 1 watt, then
λ
I= amp ...(3.55)
80
√  π dl
From Equations (3.54) and (3.55), we get
60
E(max) = V⁄m ...(3.56)
r√
80

The maximum radiation intensity is given by
2
r E(max)
RI =
η0

r2 602
=
120 π r 2 × 80

3
or RI =
8π
The maximum directive gain, gd (max)
4 π (RI )
gd (max) = [as Pr = 1 watt]
Pr
4 π (RI )
As Pr = 1 watt =
Pr
3
= 4π ×
8π
3
= = 1.5
2
160 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

The directivity of current element

D = gd (max) = 1.5
or Din dB = 10 log10 1.5 = 1.76 dB.

Problem 3.3 Find the directivity of a half-wave dipole.

Solution For a half-wave dipole, from Equation (3.42)
60I
E(max) =
r

But Pr = 73I 2 watts

For Pr = 1 w
1
I=
73
√ 
60 1
or E(max) = ×
r √ 73

4 π (RI)
gd (max) =
Pr

= 4 π (RI) [as Pr = 1 watt]

 2
r2 E2 2 E
= 4π ×  as RI = r 
η0  η0 

4 π × r 2 602 1
=
η0 r 2 73
4 π × 60 × 60 1
=
120 π 73
120
= = 1.644
73

So gd (max) = D = 1.644.

Problem 3.4 An antenna whose radiation resistance is 300 Ω operates at a frequency of 1 GHz and
with a current of 3 amperes. Find the radiated power.
Solution Radiated power,
P r = I 2 Rr
= 32 × 300
= 9 × 300
So Pr = 2700 watts.
 RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 161

Problem 3.5 What is the effective area of a half-wave dipole operating at 500 MHz?
Solution The effective area of an antenna is

λ2
Ae = g
4π d
As f = 500 MHz

3 × 108
λ=
500 × 106
3
= = 0.6 m
5
Directivity of a half-wave dipole is
(gd)max = D = 1.644

0.62
So Ae = × 1.644
4π

or Ae = 0.047 m2.

Problem 3.6 Find the effective area of a Hertzian dipole operating at 100 MHz.

3 × 108
Solution As f = 100 MHz, λ= =3m
100 × 106
Directivity of Hertzian dipole, D = 1.5
Ae = effective area

λ2 32 × 1.5
= = = 1.07 m2
4π 4π

or Ae = 1.07 m2.

1. An antenna is a transducer. (Yes/No)

2. An antenna is a sensor of EM waves. (Yes/No)
3. An antenna acts as an impedance matching device. (Yes/No)
4. Effective length of a wire antenna is always greater than the actual length. (Yes/No)
5. Directive gain = Power gain for an antenna. (Yes/No)
6. The units of radiation intensity are _______________.
7. Directivity is _______________.
8. Eff iciency of an antenna is _______________.
162 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

9. Eff iciency of an antenna in terms of directive and power gains is _______________.

10. Effective area is _______________.
11. The radiation f ields are nothing but far-f ields. (Yes/No)
12. The far-f ield is indicated by the presence of _______________.
13. The induction f ield is indicated by the presence of _______________.
14. The electrostatic f ield is indicated by the presence of _______________.
15. The radiation resistance of an isolated half-wave dipole is _______________.
16. The radiation resistance of a quarter-wave monopole is _______________.
17. The current distribution in a half-wave dipole is _______________.
18. The current distribution in an alternating current element is _______________.
19. The current distribution in very short dipoles is _______________.
20. The radiation pattern of vertical and horizontal dipoles are identical. (Yes/No)
21. The directivity of current element is _______________.
22. The directivity of half-wave dipole is _______________.
23. The patterns of half-wave dipole and quarter-wave monopole are identical. (Yes/No)
24. If a current element is x-directed, vector magnetic potential is _______________.
25. Radiation resistance of short monopole is _______________.
26. Radiation resistance of short dipole is _______________.
27. The radiated f ields of z-directed half-wave dipole consists of Eθ, Er , Hθ, terms. (Yes/No)

28. The radiated f ields of z-directed dipole consists of only Eθ, Er and Hφ. (Yes/No)

29. At LF and VLF, polarisation often used is_______________.

30. dBi means _______________.

31. dBm means power gain in dB _______________

32. If the signal level is 1 mW, power gain is

(a) 0 dBm (b) 1 dBm
(c) 10– 3 dBm (d ) 10 dBm
33. Marconi antenna has a physical length of
(a) λ⁄4 (b) λ⁄2
(c) 3λ ⁄ 2 (d ) λ
 RADIATION AND ANTENNAS 163

34. For a 300 Ω antenna operating with 5 A of current, the radiated power is
(a) 7500 W (b) 750 W
(c) 75 W (d ) 1500 W
35. Effective area of antenna is a function frequency. (Yes/No)
36. Antenna used in mobile communications is _______________.
37. If a current element is z-directed, vector magnetic potential is _______________.
38. If vector magnetic potential has only Az , Eφ is _______________.
39. Radiation resistance of current element is _______________.
40. Radiation resistance of quarter-wave monopole is _______________.
41. Directional pattern of a short dipole in the horizontal plane is a _______________.
42. Directional pattern of a horizontal half-wave centre fed dipole is _______________.
43. Effective length of a dipole is always _______________than the actual length.
44. The directivity in dB of half-wave dipole is _______________.
45. The directivity in dB of current element is _______________.
46. Effective area of a Hertzian dipole operating at 100 MHz is _______________.

1. Yes 2. Yes 3. Yes 4. No 5. No

wr
6. Watts/unit solid angle 7. Maximum directive gain 8. 9. gp ⁄ gd
(wr + wl)

λ2 11. Yes 12.

1
term 13.
1
term 14.
1
term 15. 73 Ω
10. g
4π d r r2 r3
16. 36.5 Ω 17. Sinusoidal 18. Constant 19. Triangular 20. No 21. 1.5

 1 2  1 2
22. 1.64 23. No 24. x-directed 25. 100  ÷ 26. 200  ÷ 27. No
λ λ
28. Yes 29. Vertical
30. Power gain of the antenna in dB relative to isotropic antenna
31. Compared to 1 mW 32. (a) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. Yes
2
 dl 
2
36. Whip antenna 37. z-directed 38. Zero 39. 80 π  ÷ Ω
 λ 
40. 36.5 Ω 41. Circle 42. Figure of eight 43. Less 44. 2.15
45. 1.64 46. 1.07 m2.
164 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

1. The f ield amplitude due to half-wave dipole at 10 km is 0.1 V/m. It operates at 100 MHz. Find
the dipole length and its radiated power.
2. What is the length of a half-wave dipole at frequencies of 10 MHz, 50 MHz and 100 MHz?
3. Find the maximum effective area of an antenna at a frequency of 2 GHz when the directivity
is 100.

4. Obtain the gain of an antenna whose area is 12 m2 and operating at a frequency of 6 GHz.
5. Find the radiated power of an antenna if a current of 10 amp exists and its radiation resistance
is 32.0 Ω.
6. What is the radiation resistance of an antenna if it radiates a power of 120 W and the current
in it is 10 amp.
7. Find the directivity, eff iciency and effective area of an antenna if its Rr = 80 Ω, Rl = 10 Ω. The
power gain is 10 dB and antenna operates at a frequency of 100 MHz.
8. If the transmitting power is 10 kW, find the power density at distances of 10 km, 50 km and
100 km, assuming that the radiator is isotropic.
9. If the current element is z-directed, f ind the far-f ield components of H.
10. Derive an expression for distant f ield θ-f ield component of E for a dipole of length L.
11. (a) Find the current required to radiate power of 50 W at 60 MHz from a 0.1 λ Hertzian dipole.
(b) Determine the radiation resistance in the element.
12. Find the radiation eff iciency of a Hertzian dipole of length 0.03 λ at a frequency of 100 MHz if
the loss resistance is 0.01 Ω.
166 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The gain of a single antenna element is not suff icient for most applications. Under
these circumstances, use of arrays provides the answer.
Arrays are used to increase the gain just like cascaded amplif iers are used to
increase the gain. Arrays are also used to increase directivity and reduce beam
width.
Antennas are used in both scan and unscan applications. A radiation pattern
or beam can be scanned by a single antenna like a parabolic dish using a motor.
Here, the entire antenna system is rotated to change the direction of the beam. When
such antennas are airborne, there is a considerable amount of aerodynamic drag.
Moreover, even when the antenna is on the ground, it is diff icult to track the target
if it is moving with a very high velocity. This is due to the limited speed of the motor
which in turn limits the scan rate of the antenna. When the antenna directs its beam
in a direction to catch the target, the target will be in a different direction due to its
velocity being greater and it will always be out of sight.
In such situations, array antennas are more useful as it is possible to scan the
beam from the arrays electronically. The electronic scanning can be with either
phase control or frequency control. Here, the antenna is f ixed and only the beam is
rotated. The scan rate can be as high as a fraction of a microsecond with digital phase
shifters.
In view of the above facts, array antennas are extremely useful in both airborne
as well as ground-based applications. There is no aerodynamic drag as there is no
movement of the antennas.
Moreover, arrays provide a greater number of parameters and offer better
f lexibility for the designer. In this chapter, analysis of array antennas is presented
in view of their signif icance.

4.2 DIRECTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DIPOLE ANTENNAS

The directional characteristics are nothing but the radiation patterns of antennas.
They indicate the distribution of radiation power in free space in different angular
regions.
In other words, the radiation pattern of an antenna is a graphical
representation of radiation as a function of direction. The radiation patterns of an
antenna are of two types :
1. Field strength pattern
2. Power pattern.
The power pattern is proportional to the square of the f ield strength pattern.
The patterns are plotted either in polar coordinates or in linear coordinates. The
patterns represent far-f ield variation. They are presented in the form of the variation
of absolute normalised f ield strength in dB as a function of θ.
A three dimensional pattern plotted as a function of θ and φ gives the complete
information. Sometimes, cross-sections of patterns in horizontal and vertical planes
are presented.
Horizontal pattern It is a pattern obtained for θ = 90o.
 ANALYSIS OF LINEAR ARRAYS 167

Vertical pattern It is a pattern obtained for φ = constant.

Sometimes, patterns are shown in E-plane and H-plane.
E-plane It is a plane passing through the antenna in the direction of the
maximum beam and parallel to the E-f ield.
H-plane It is a plane passing through the antenna in the direction of the
maximum beam and parallel to the H-f ield.
Principal planes The E-plane and H-plane are known as the principal
planes.
E and H plane patterns are known as principal plane patterns.
The radiation characteristics are also sometimes shown separately for theta
and phi polarisations.
Theta polarisation It is the same as vertical polarisation. An example is a
vertical dipole.
Phi polarisation It is the same as horizontal polarisation. An example is a
horizontal loop.

4.3 RADIATION PATTERN OF ALTERNATING CURRENT ELEMENT

The alternating current element is also called oscillating dipole or elementary
dipole or current element.
The radiation f ield of a z-directed current element is given by
60 π I d L
E= sin θ, V ⁄ m ...(4.1)
λr
where I dL = current element
dL = element length
I = constant current in the element
r = far−f ield distance
λ = operating wavelength
θ = angle between dipole axis and the line of far −f ield point
Let the above f ield be represented by
E = Em sin θ
60 π I d L
where Em =
λr
The normalised f ield
E
En = = sin θ
Em
The horizontal pattern of elementary dipole is shown in Fig. 4.1. This is
obtained for θ = 90o.
It is evident from the above expression that the f ield is independent of φ.
The vertical pattern of vertical current element is shown in Fig. 4.2.
168 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

Fig. 4.1 Horizontal pattern of elementary dipole

Fig. 4.2 Vertical pattern of vertical current element

When the current element is horizontal, the vertical pattern is shown in

Fig. 4.3.

Fig. 4.3 Vertical pattern of horizontal current element

4.4 RADIATION PATTERN EXPRESSIONS OF CENTRE-FED VERTICAL

DIPOLES OF FINITE LENGTH
The magnitude of the radiation f ield of a vertical dipole of length ‘L’ is given by

 cos  β L cos θ ÷ – cos  β L ÷ 

  2   2  
60Im 
E=   ...(4.2)
r  sin θ 

The normalised radiation f ield is

  βL  βL 
 cos  cos θ ÷ – cos 
  2  2 
En = ...(4.3)
sin θ
 ANALYSIS OF LINEAR ARRAYS 169

For half-wave dipole, En is

 λ   λ
cos  β cos θ ÷ – cos  β ÷
 4   4
En =
sin θ

 2π λ   2π λ 
cos  × cos θ ÷ – cos  × ÷
 λ 4   λ 4
=
sin θ

π 
cos  cos θ ÷
 2 
So En =
sin θ

The horizontal pattern of a dipole of any length is represented by

  βL   βL  
 cos  cos θ ÷ – cos  ÷ 
  2   2   
En = 
sin θ  θ = 90o

= constant
The horizontal pattern of a dipole is therefore a circle.

4.5 RADIATION PATTERNS OF CENTRE-FED VERTICAL DIPOLES

The variation of En with θ for different lengths of dipoles gives the vertical patterns.
They are shown in Fig. 4.4.

Fig. 4.4 Vertical patterns of centre-fed dipoles of different lengths

170 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

Fig. 4.4 Vertical patterns of centre-fed dipoles of different lengths

4.6 RADIATION PATTERNS OF CENTRE-FED HORIZONTAL DIPOLES OF

FINITE LENGTH
The radiation pattern for different lengths of centre-fed horizontal dipole are shown
in Fig. 4.5.

Fig. 4.5 Patterns of horizontal dipoles of finite length

 ANALYSIS OF LINEAR ARRAYS 171

4.7 RADIATION PATTERNS OF VERTICAL MONOPOLES

The radiation patterns of vertical monopoles of different lengths are the same as
those of vertical centre-fed dipoles. However, as the monopole is fed with
conducting ground plane, the length of the monopole is just half of the dipole. Here,
the image forms the second half. The patterns of monopoles are shown in Fig. 4.6.

Fig. 4.6 Vertical radiation patterns of monopoles of different lengths

The above patterns of monopoles are obtained from the expression

 
 cos β L – cos  β L cos θ ÷ 
 2  2  
60I 
E = Eθ =   ...(4.4)
r  sin θ 

L
Here = length of the monopole.
2

4.8 TWO-ELEMENT UNIFORM ARRAY

However, in this book we consider only arrays of similar antennas with similar
orientation.
172 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

Expression for resultant radiation pattern of two-element array:

It is given by
 π d cos φ αe 
ER = 2EA cos  + ÷ ...(4.5)
 λ 2 

Here d = spacing between the antennas

φ = angle between the axis of the array and the line of observation
EA = f ield strength due to antenna A alone
λ = operating wavelength
αe = excitation phase.

Proof Let two antennas be placed along a straight line separated by a

distance ‘d ’ meters (Fig. 4.7).

Fig. 4.7 Two-element uniform array

If the point P is far away from the array, Ray A and Ray B can be assumed to
be parallel. Hence in Fig. 4.7, the path difference between the two ray paths is
rA – rB = d cos φ ...(4.6)
or rB = rA – d cos φ ...(4.7)
This exact expression must be used in the phase term of the f ield. But in the
magnitude term of the f ield, we can use the approximation, rA ≈ rB.
Now the resultant phase difference due to spacing of the antennas is given by
Phase difference, αd = wave number × path difference
Phase difference, αd = β × d cos φ
= β d cos φ ...(4.8)
If the excitation phase difference is αe, the total phase difference is
ψ = β d cos φ + αe ...(4.9)
Here, αe is the phase angle by which current, IB in antenna B leads the current
IA in antenna A.
 ANALYSIS OF LINEAR ARRAYS 173

The resultant f ield in phasor form when the two antennas are uniformly
excited is given by
ER = EA (1 + e j ψ) ...(4.10)
The magnitude of total f ield strength, when IA = IB
| ER | = E = | EA (1 + e j ψ) |
= EA (1 + cos ψ + j sin ψ)

= EA √

(1 + cos ψ)2 + sin2ψ

= EA √

1 + cos2 ψ 2 cos ψ + sin2 ψ

= EA √

1 + cos2 ψ + sin2 ψ + 2 cos ψ

= EA √

2 + 2 cos ψ (as cos2 ψ + sin2 ψ = 1)
= EA √

2 (1 + cos ψ)

ψ
But (1 + cos ψ) = 2 cos2 ...(4.11)
2

E = EA √
2 × 2 cos
ψ
2
2

ψ
= 2EA cos
2
 β d cos φ αe 
or E = 2EA cos  + ÷
 2 2 

 π d cos φ αe   2π 
E = 2EA cos  + ÷ ∵ β= ÷ ...(4.12)
 λ 2   λ 

In practical applications, two-element array is rarely used. Mostly, arrays with

more number of elements are used to get high directivity and gain and to have
control over more parameters like spacing, current magnitude, phases and antenna
conf igurations.

4.9 UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAYS

These arrays are suitable for production of narrow radiation beams. These
types of radiation patterns are required for point to point communication at higher
frequencies. These are also used in high angular resolution radars.
174 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

4.10 FIELD STRENGTH OF A UNIFORM LINEAR ARRAY

The normalised field strength of a uniform linear array is
 Nψ 
 sin 
 2 
E=  ...(4.13)
 sin ψ 
 2 
 
Here N = number of elements in the array
ψ = β d cos φ + αe
β = wave number = 2 π ⁄ λ
d = spacing between the elements
φ = angle between the axis of the array and line of observation
αe = excitation phase (progressive phase shift).

Proof Consider a uniform linear array of non-directional elements of

Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.8 Uniform linear array

Assume that N = number of antennas in the array

d = spacing between antenna elements
r1, r2, r3, ..., rN = ray paths of 1, 2, 3, ..., N th antenna to P.
Let P be a point far away, λ be the operating wavelength.
If the f ield of antenna 1 is E1,
the f ield of antenna 2 is E1 e j ψ and
the f ield of antenna 3 is E1 e j 2ψ
Similarly, the f ield of antenna, N is E1 e j (N – 1) ψ.
 ANALYSIS OF LINEAR ARRAYS 175

The total f ield is the vectorial sum of all the f ields.

That is, ER = E1 (1 + e j ψ + e j 2ψ + … + e j (N – 1) ψ) ...(4.14)
where ψ = β d cos φ + αe
αe = progressive phase shift between the antennas.
Equation (4.14) is in geometric progression.
Multiplying both sides of Equation (4.14) by e j ψ, we get
ER e j ψ = E1 (e j ψ + e j 2ψ + … + e j N ψ) ...(4.15)
Subtracting Equation (4.14) from Equation (4.15), we get
ER (e j ψ – 1) = E1 (e j N ψ – 1)

ER (e j N ψ – 1)
or = jψ
E1 (e – 1)
The normalised magnitude of f ield strength
 ER   (e j N ψ – 1) 
  = E =  j ψ 
 ...(4.16)
 E1   (e – 1) 
 
| e j ψ – 1 | = | cos ψ + j sin ψ – 1 |
=√

(cos ψ – 1)2 + sin2ψ
=√

1 + cos2 ψ – 2 cos ψ + sin2 ψ
=√
2 (1 – cos ψ)
=√2 √
(1 – cos ψ)

ψ
or | (e j ψ – 1) | = sin ...(4.17)
2
Nψ
Similarly, | (e j N ψ – 1) | = sin ...(4.18)
2
 Nψ 
 sin 
 2 
E=  ...(4.19)
 sin ψ 
 2 
 

The normalised f ield strength, E is plotted as a function of ψ. A typical

variation is shown in Fig. 4.9 for αe = 0.
Salient features of uniform linear array:
 ER 
1. The maximum value of normalised f ield strength, E =   = N.
 E1 
2. The maximum value occurs at ψ = 0.
3. The maximum value, N at ψ = 0 is called principal maximum of the array.
176 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

Fig. 4.9 Variation of E with φ

Nψ
4. The minimum value of E occurs at = ± K π, K = 1, 2, 3, … These minimas
2
are called Nulls.
5. Secondary maximum occurs approximately between the nulls. These
secondary maximas occur when the numerator of Equation (4.19) becomes
maximum.
That is, secondary maxima occur at
Nψ π
= ± (2m + 1) , m = 1, 2, 3, …
2 2
6. The f irst secondary maximum is called the f irst side lobe level (SLL).
7. The ratio of the f irst secondary maximum to the principal maximum is called
the side lobe ratio (SLR).
8. The angular difference between the f irst nulls on either side of the main beam
is called Null-to-Null beam width.
9. The variation of radiated power P (proportional to E 2) with φ is called power
pattern.
10. The angular width between three dB points of the main beam is called
half-power beam width.
11. The f irst side lobe ratio of uniform linear array is 0.212 (or – 13.47 dB).
2λ
11. The Null-to-Null beam width of broadside array B.W. = ×
Nd

13. The Null-to-Null beam width of end-f ire array B.W. = 2 √Nd
2λ
×

14. The Null-to-Null beam width of end fire array is greater than that of broadside
array.
15. The half power beam width is approximately half of Null-to-Null beam width.
16. As Nd = length of the array, Null-to-Null beam width of broadside array
2λ 2
B.W.F.N. = =
l l⁄λ
where l = length of the array
 ANALYSIS OF LINEAR ARRAYS 177

1 1 114.6 ,
So H.P.B.W. = × B.W.F.N. = = deg.
2 l⁄λ l⁄λ
17. Null-to-Null beam width of end-f ire array

2 √2lλ = 2 √
l 2⁄ λ
or H.P.B.W. =
1
2
× B.W.F.N. = √l 2⁄ λ = 57.3
l⁄λ
deg.

18. The directivity of broadside array, D = 2 (l ⁄ λ).

19. The directivity of end-f ire array, D = 4 (l ⁄ λ).

4.11 FIRST SIDE LOBE RATIO (SLR)

Proof From Equation (4.19), secondary maxima occurs approximately at

the centre between the nulls. That is, they occur at
Nψ π
= ± (2m + 1) , m = 1, 2, 3, … ...(4.20)
2 2
Hence, the f irst side lobe maximum occurs at
Nψ π 3π
= ± (2 + 1) = ...(4.21)
2 2 2
Substituting Equation (4.21) in Equation (4.19), we get

 sin  3 π ÷ 
  2  
  1 
E= = 
  3π     3π  
 sin  ÷   sin  ÷
  2N     2N  
3π
For large values of N, is very small.
2N
 1  1
So  ≈
  3 π    3 π ÷
 sin  ÷
 2N   
 2N 

2N
That is, E=
3π
178 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

 2N 
Therefore, the amplitude of the f irst secondary lobe is  ÷×
 3π 
The amplitude of main lobe or principal maximum is N.
2N
3π
So SLR =
N
2
or SLR = = 0.212
3π

Hence (SLR)dB = 20 log10 (0.212) = – 13.47 dB. ...(4.22)

4.12 BROADSIDE AND END-FIRE ARRAYS

We have ψ = β d cos φ + αe
We know maximum of E occurs at ψ = 0 and for broadside array it occurs at
φ = 90o.
That is, 0 = β d cos (90) + αe

αe = 0 is the condition for broadside array

The Null-to-Null beam width for broadside array is

2λ
B.W. = ...(4.23)
Nd
Proof We have
 Nψ 
 sin 
 2 
E= 
 sin ψ 
 2 
 
From this, it is evident that the nulls appear at
Nψ
= ± K π, K = 1, 2, 3, …
2
First Null occurs at (K = 1)
N ψ1
=±π
2
2π
or ψ1 = ...(4.24)
N
180 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

Proof Consider
 Nψ 
 sin 
 2 
E= 
 sin ψ 
 2 
 
From this, it is evident that Nulls occur at
Nψ
= ± K π, K = 1, 2, 3, …
2
First Null occurs at (K = 1)
Nψ
=±π
2
Consider the negative sign for convenience, that is,
2π
ψ1 = – ...(4.27)
N
The corresponding ψ1 from
ψ = β d cos φ + αe is
ψ1 = β d cos ∆ φ – β d ...(4.28)
This is clear from Fig. 4.11.

Fig. 4.11 Radiation beam of end-fire array

From Equations (4.27) and (4.28), we get

2π
– = β d cos ∆ φ – β d
N
= β d (cos ∆ φ – 1) ...(4.29)

∆ φ2 ∆ φ4
But cos ∆ φ = 1 – + +…
2! 4!
For small ∆ φ,

∆ φ2
cos ∆ φ ≈ 1 – ...(4.30)
2
 ANALYSIS OF LINEAR ARRAYS 181

From Equations (4.29) and (4.30), we get

2π  ∆ φ2 
– = βd  1 – –1
N  2 

∆ φ2
=– βd
2
4π 4π 2λ
or ∆ φ2 = = =
βdN 2 π Nd
Nd
λ

That is, ∆φ = √Nd

2λ

B.W = 2 ∆ φ = 2 √Nd
2λ
× ...(4.31)

4.13 PATTERNS OF ARRAY OF NON-ISOTROPIC RADIATORS

As mentioned in the preceding sections, true isotropic nature of radiators does not
exist. Almost all the practical elements are non-isotropic. In view of this, it is
required to know the radiation pattern of non-isotropic elements.
Consider Fig. 4.12 in which an array of two non-isotropic radiators are shown.

Fig. 4.12 Two-element array of short dipoles

The f ield pattern of an isolated short dipole

E1 = E0 sin φ ...(4.32)
As derived in the preceding Section (4.7) the f ield of a two element array is
E = 2E1 cos ψ ⁄ 2 ...(4.33)
Here ψ = β d cos φ + αe
From Equations (4.32) and (4.33), we have
E = 2E0 sin φ cos ψ ⁄ 2 ...(4.34)
The maximum value of E is 2E0
or (E )max = Em = 2E0
182 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

The normalised value of E is

E E ψ
= = sin φ cos ...(4.35)
Em 2E0 2

or En = sin φ cos ψ ⁄ 2 ...(4.36)

That is, En = pattern of individual element × pattern of

array of two elements
The element pattern of an isotropic radiator is unity.

4.14 MULTIPLICATION OF PATTERNS

Principle of pattern multiplication states that the radiation pattern of an array is
the product of the pattern of the individual antenna with the array pattern. The
array pattern is a function of the location of the antennas in the array and their
relative complex excitation amplitudes.

Advantage of method of multiplication. It helps to sketch the radiation pattern

of array antennas rapidly from the simple product of element pattern and array
pattern.
Disadvantage The principle is applicable only for arrays containing
identical elements.
Example 4.1 Consider an array of four elements (isotropic or
non-directional) of Fig. 4.13.

Fig. 4.13 Array of four elements

The elements are spaced at λ ⁄ 2. The elements 1 and 2 are considered as one
unit, 3 and 4 are considered as one unit as in Fig. 4.13. Since the elements are
identical, both the units have the same radiation pattern.
The unit pattern is the pattern of two elements spaced at λ ⁄2. This is given in
Fig. 4.14.

Fig. 4.14 Pattern of two isotropic elements spaced λ ⁄ 2 and excitation phase αe = 0
 ANALYSIS OF LINEAR ARRAYS 183

The units represented by A and B are separated by λ. These two units are
considered to be one unit whose radiation pattern is shown in Fig. 4.15.

Fig. 4.15 Pattern of two elements separated by λ and excitation phase, αe = 0o

The resultant pattern is given by the product of unit pattern (λ ⁄ 2 spacing) of

1 and 2 elements or 3 and 4 elements and a group pattern (λ spacing) of A and B.
That is, the product of Fig. 4.14 and Fig. 4.15 as shown in Fig. 4.16.

Fig. 4.16 Resultant pattern of four isotropic elements spaced at λ ⁄ 2

Example 4.2 Consider an array of eight elements spaced at λ ⁄ 2 (Fig. 4.17).

Fig. 4.17 Array of eight elements

Centre of the f irst four elements and last four elements are marked as A and
B. The unit pattern is pattern of four elements and group pattern is the pattern of
two elements spaced at 2 λ. The resultant pattern is again the product of unit pattern
and group pattern (Fig. 4.18).
184 ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

Fig. 4.18 Resultant pattern of eight-element array

The resultant pattern of eight element array is also obtained analytically. That
is,
E = E0 (1 + e j ψ + … + e j (n – 1) ψ)
N
= E0 ∑ e j (n – 1) ψ ...(4.37)
n= 1
8
or E = E0 ∑ e j (n – 1) ψ ...(4.38)
n= 1
Here ψ = β d cos φ + αe
αe = 0, d = 2 λ, β = 2π ⁄ λ, ψ = 4π cos φ
8
So E = E0 ∑ e j (n – 1) 4 π cos φ. ...(4.39)
n= 1

4.15 GENERALISED EXPRESSION OF PRINCIPLE OF PATTERN

MULTIPLICATION
The resultant pattern of an array of non-isotropic identical radiators is given by
E = f (θ, φ) F (θ, φ)× ( fP (θ, φ) + FP (θ, φ)
where f (θ, φ) = element field pattern
fP (θ, φ) = element phase pattern
F (θ, φ) = array factor of isotropic elements
FP (θ, φ) = phase pattern of array of isotropic elements.

4.16 RADIATION PATTERN CHARACTERISTICS

The radiation pattern of any general antenna is bi-directional or multi-directional.
It contains a main lobe and adjacent minor or side lobes. The presence of side lobes
is undesirable and they create electromagnetic interference (EMI) in the radar
receivers.
The EMI creates false targets in the radar display. The presence of EMI is also
prone to jamming. The width of the main lobe is required to be small. But the general