Engineering Mathematics NQF Level 4

City & Guilds Diploma in Mechanical Engineering (9209-01)

These tutorials on Complex Numbers covers learning outcome 4 for Unit 401

In order to succeed in outcome 4 you must be to apply complex numbers and complex
analysis to solve engineering problems

Assessment criteria

The learner can:

4.1 evaluate complex equations using rectangular and polar forms of complex numbers
4.2 use complex function analysis to obtain solutions to engineering problems.

Range
Complex numbers
Imaginary number; j = √-1; real and imaginary parts of a complex number; complex
conjugate; arithmetic of complex numbers; Argand diagram; polar form of complex
numbers (modulus and argument); exponential form of complex numbers; Euler’s
formula; de Moivre’s theorem

Complex function analysis

Solve complex equations involving complex variables; find roots of complex numbers;
phasors; complex impedances; analyse simple ac electrical circuits and measurement
and control systems using complex numbers

Tutorial 1 – Complex Numbers

Contents

1. Roots of Negative Numbers

2. Complex Number
3. Further Properties of the Operator J
4. Argand Diagram and Polar Form
5. Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers
6. Multiplying Complex Numbers
. 7. Conjugate Numbers
8. The complex Exponential
9. Euler’s Formula
10. de Moivre’s Theorem
11. Division of Complex Numbers
12. Phasor Diagrams
13. Representing Impedance as a Complex Number

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1. Roots of Negative Numbers

Ordinary numbers can be added, subtracted and multiplied and are good enough for everyday
use.

In engineering, we come across problems that cannot be solved with ordinary numbers and
one of these problems is how to handle the square root of a negative number. You should
already know that:

1 x 1 = 1 and that -1 x -1 = 1

It follows that 1 is either 1 or -1 but what is -1 ?

There is no number that can be multiplied by its self to give -1. To get around this problem in
the first instance, we simply designate -1 by the letter j or i. j is more likely in engineering
than pure maths.

-1 = j and j2 = -1

When we wish to express the root of a negative number we simply multiply by. For example:

(j3)2 = j2 x 32 = -1 x 9 = -9

-9 = j3
2. Complex Number
Consider the number given as P  A   B2

If we use the j operator this becomes

Putting j = -1we get P = A + jB and this is the form of a complex number.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 1

Find the solution of P  4   9 and express the answer as a complex number.

SOLUTION

P  4   9  4  j3

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 1

1. Write down the solution to the following.

x2 = -4 x=
x2 = -25 x=
x2 = -10 x=

(Answer j2, j5 and j√10)

2. Express the following as complex numbers.

P  3  16
P  2   81
P  5   12

Answers (3 + j4), (2 – j 9) and (-5 –j √12)

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3. Further Properties of the Operator J

Consider a point A on a Cartesian plane situated at

coordinates 4, 0 as shown. If we multiply by j2 we get
Point C at j24, 0 or -4, 0

In effect this has rotated the line 0 – A by 180o

We might deduce that multiplying by j rotates the line 90 o

to point B and designate point B as 0, j4

If we multiply by j3 we get point D and this is:

0, j34 or 0, -j4
Figure 1

This work was produced by a French mathematician called Argand. We may simplify matters
by labelling the vertical axis ‘j’. Numbers on the horizontal axis are called Real Numbers and
on the vertical axis are called Imaginary Numbers. This leads us to understand that a vector
may be represented by real and imaginary components and expressed as a complex number.

4. Argand Diagram and Polar Form

A complex number A + jB can be shown as two numbers A

and B on a Cartesian plane with A on the real axis and B on
the imaginary axis. Adding them together as though they were
vectors would give a point P as shown and this is how we
represent a complex number. The diagram is now called an
Argand Diagram.

Figure 2

If we draw a line from the origin to the point P it forms a vector and in some applications it is
called a Phasor. The length of the line is called the Modulus and the angle formed with the
real axis is called the Argument. The complex number can hence be expressed in polar form
as:
│OP│θ

This the Polar Form of the complex number

expressed as a radius and angle Rθ

Consider four vectors on the Argand diagram, one in

each quadrant as shown.

Consider the vector labelled No. 1. The horizontal

component is 5 and the vertical component is 8 so
the vector may be written as P = 5 + j8.

The angle of the vector to the real axis is:

tan-1 (8/5) = tan-1 (1.6) = 58o
Figure 3
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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 2

1. Write down the other three vectors in the form A + jB and calculate their angles.

2 _______________________________________________

3 _______________________________________________

4 _______________________________________________

5. Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers

This is simply adding vectors together. If we have complex numbers:

P1 = A1 + jB1
P2 = A2 + jB2
P3 = A3 + jB3

Then adding we have P = (A1 + A2+ A3) + j (B1 + B2 + B3)

Subtracting, simply put a minus instead of a +.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 2

Add the complex numbers 3 + j2, 6 - j4, and -4 + j7

SOLUTION

P = (3 + 6 - 4) + j(2 – 4 + 7)
P = 5 + j5

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 3

1. Two A.C. voltages are represented by the phasors

V1 = 20 + j5 and V2 = 10 - j3

What is the resulting voltage phasor?

2. Two forces acting on a mass represented by the phasors

F1 = 60 + j8 and F2 = 20 - j11

What is the resulting force?

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6. Multiplying Complex Numbers

Using Polar Co-Ordinates

A complex number may be expressed in polar
co-ordinates as follows. Let the Modulus be R
and the argument . Consider the two shown.
We have R1 1 and R2 2

We should not confuse the multiplication of

vectors with the multiplication of complex
numbers. (You would need to study dot and
cross products in the vector tutorials)

Figure 4
The real and imaginary co-ordinates are
A1 = R1 cos1 B1 = R1 sin1
A2 = R2 cos2 B2 = R2 sin2

The complex number for each vector is:

P1  R 1cosθ1  jR 1sin θ1  R 1{cosθ1  jsin θ1}
P2  R 2 cosθ 2  jR 2sin θ 2  R 2 {cosθ 2  jsin θ 2 }
Multiplying them together and treating j as -1 we get the following.

P1 x P2  R 1{cos θ1  jsin θ1} x R 2 {cos θ 2  jsin θ 2 }

P1 x P2  R 1R 2 cos θ1cos θ 2  cos θ1 jsin θ 2  jsin θ1cos θ 2  jsin θ1 jsin θ 2 

P1 x P2  R 1R 2 cos θ1cos θ 2  j(cos θ1sin θ 2  sin θ1cos θ 2 )  j2 sin θ1sin θ 2 
P1 x P2  R 1R 2 cos θ1cos θ 2  sin θ1sin θ 2  j(cos θ1sin θ 2  sin θ1cos θ 2 )
P1 x P2  R 1R 2 cos(θ1  θ 2 )  jsin( θ 2  θ 2 )

This is a vector with a length R1R2 and angle 1+2. The rule for multiplying is:

The Modulus is the product of the other Moduli and the argument is the sum of the angles.
This rule applies for any number of vectors multiplied together.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 3

Find the result of (3 45o) x (2 30o)

SOLUTION

Modulus = 3 x 3 = 6
Argument is 45 + 30 = 75o
The result is hence 675 o

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 4

Find the vector that result for each below.

1. 5 50o x 3 70o

2. 7 80o x 2 30o

Using Complex Form

Consider two vectors or points P1 and P2 with polar coordinates 345o and 230o.
Find the polar coordinates of the vector resulting when they are multipled.

Figure 5

To do this as complex numbers is more difficult as we shall now see. Calculate the real and
imaginary components of each vector and represent them in the form A + j B

P1 has coordinates A1 = 3 cos 45 = 2.121 and B1 = 3 sin 45 = 2.121

P2 has coordinates A2 = 2 cos 30 = 1.732 and B2 = 2 sin 30 = 1.0

P1 = 2.121 + j 2.121 and P2 = 1.732 + j1

Multiply as follows:

P = P1 x P2 = (2.121 + j 2.121) x (1.732 + j1)

P = P1 x P2 = (2.121 x 1.732) + (2.121 x j1) + (j 2.121 x 1.732) +

(j2.121 x j)
P = P1 x P2 = 3.673 + j2.121 + j3.673 + 2.121j2
P = P1 x V2 = 3.673 + j5.794 – 2.121
P = P1 x P2 = 1.5221 + j5.794

This is shown on the diagram from which we deduce the following.

R = (1.52212 + 5.7942) = 6
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 = tan-1(5.794/1.5221) = 75o
V = 675o

Hence we have arrived at the same solution but in a more difficult way. (Worked example
No. 3)

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 4

Find the result of multiplying the following complex numbers.

P = (4 + j2) x (2 + j3)

SOLUTION

P = (4 + j2) x (2 + j3) = 8 + j12 +j4 + 6j2 = 8 + j16 – 6 = 2 + j16

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 5

Find the result of multiplying the following complex numbers.

1. (3 + j3) x (5 – j2) Answer (21 + 9j )

2. (12 + j2) x ( 2 – j3) Answer (30 - 32j )

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7. Conjugate Numbers

The conjugate of a complex number has the opposite sign for the j part.

The conjugate of A + jB is A – jB

If a complex number is multiplied by its conjugate the result is a real number.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 5

Find the result of multiplying (2 + j3) by its conjugate.

SOLUTION

The conjugate is (2 - j3)

(2 + j3) x (2- j3) = 4 - 6j +6j -9j2 = 4 –(-9) = 13

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 6

Find the result of multiplying the following by their conjugate.

1. (5 – j2) (Answer 29)

2. (-4 – j4) (Answer 32)
3. (7 + j6) (Answer 85)

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8. Complex Exponential

The complex exponential is often used to simplify trigonometrical problems. In order

understand the derivation of the following result requires that you understand series
expansions which is not covered in this syllabus.

The power of an exponential can be a complex number:

The complex term ejB is the one we need to examine.

9. Euler’s Formula

This is a formula that shows a fundamental link between trigonometrical functions and the
complex exponential. It can be shown that cosθ and sinθ are both a series:

It can also be shown that the exponential is a series:

If we substitute x = jθ

10. de Moivre’s Theorem

This is a theorem that can be useful solving some types of problems such as obtaining the
relationship between trigonometric functions of multiple angles and powers of trigonometric
functions. It is also used to obtain complex roots of polynomial equations. Without proof this
theorem states:

This can be useful when dealing with complex number so long as n is a whole number
(integer).

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 6

Show that de Moivre’s theorem is correct for n = 2 and = 30o

SOLUTION

n = 2 and = 30o

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 7

If z = (cosθ + j sinθ ) show that:

Solution
z = (cos + j sin ).
By de Moivre’s theorem

and

Note from work on trigonometry that cos(-n ) = cos(n ) and sin(-n ) = -sin(n )
Hence

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 SELF ASSESSMENT No. 7

1. If z = (cosθ + j sinθ ) using de Moivre’s Theorem show that:

2. Evaluate using de Moivre’s Theorem

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11. Division of Complex Numbers

Suppose V = 8 + j8 and I = 4 - j8 and we wish to find V/I. (This is Ohms Law for complex
impedance). This is done by multiplying the top and bottom by the conjugate of the bottom
number as follows.

WORKED EXAMPLE No. 8

If A = 8 + j8 and B = 4 – j8 find the result of dividing A by B.

SOLUTION

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 8

Find the following results.

1.

(Answer 0.7 – 0.1j)

2.

(Answer 0.1 + 1.2j)

3.

(Answer -1.3 - 0.6j)

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12. Phasor Diagrams

A phasor is used to represent harmonic quantities such as alternating electricity and

oscillating mechanical systems.

The phasor is a rotating vector with a constant length and the speed of rotation is the same as
the angular frequency of the quantity (always anticlockwise). Projecting a rotating vector
onto the vertical scale of a graph with angle plotted horizontally will generate a sinusoidal
waveform. If the vector represents voltage or current it is called a Phasor. The rotation is
anti-clockwise.

Figure 7

Suppose we wish to represent a sinusoidal voltage by a phasor. The maximum voltage is V

and the voltage at any moment in time is v. The phasor is drawn with a length V and angle 
as shown.

The angle is given by  = t where t is the time and  is the angular frequency in radian/s.

The voltage at any moment in time is the vertical projection such that v = V sin (t)

Since there is no necessity to start plotting the graph at the moment  = 0 a more general
equation is v = V sin (t+ ) where is the starting angle and is often referred to as the phase
angle. A phasor may also be given in polar form as V(+ )

If the phasor is drawn on an Argand diagram, the vertical component is the imaginary part
and the horizontal component is the real part. It follows that a harmonic quantity can be
represented as a complex number. An Argand diagram may be used to show a phasor at a
particular moment in time. It might show more than one phasor. For example when the
voltage across an inductor is shown together with the current through it, the current is ¼ cycle
behind the current so at a given moment in time the relationship might be like this.

Figure 8

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 WORKED EXAMPLE No. 9

A sinusoidal voltage has a peak value of 200 V and a phase angle of 20 o. Represent it as
a polar vector and a complex number.
Sketch the phasor when  = 50o.

SOLUTION

The polar form is v = 200 + 20o

The vertical component is v = 200 sin(+20o)
The horizontal component is 200 cos(+20o)
The complex number is hence v = 200 cos(+20o) + {200 sin(+20o)}j
Putting  = 50o this becomes v = 68.4 + 187.9 j
The angle is tan-1(187.9/68.4) = 70o as expected.

Figure 9

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 9

1. Two A.C. voltages are represented by the phasors:

V1 = 20 + j5 and V2 = 10 - j3

What is the resulting voltage phasor?

Solution (20 +j5) + (10 - j3) = 30 + j2

2. Two forces acting on a mass represented by the phasors:

F1 = 60 + j8 and F2 = 20 - j11

What is the resulting force?

Solution (60 + j8) + (20 - j11) = 80 - j3

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13. Representing Impedance as a Complex Number

When an electric circuit with alternating current contains resistance, inductance and
capacitance, the current and voltage will not vary in time together but one will lead the other.
The impedance of an electric circuit is defined as Z = V/I and in order to divide V by I we
must represent the phasor as a complex number.

Suppose V = 8 + j8 and I = 4 - j8 (as in worked example No. 8)

Multiply the top and bottom by 4 + j8

The Impedance is Z = –(32/80) + j (96/80)

On an Argand diagram for the voltage and current are like this.

Figure 10

Impedance is also a phasor and looks like this.

The real part is called the Resistance part (R) and

the imaginary part is called the reactive part X. It
follows that.

Figure 11

It follows that complex impedance may be written in the form Z = R + jX and impedances
may be added or subtracted.

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 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No. 10

1. An electric circuit has a complex impedance of;

Z = 300 + j40.

What is the resistance of the circuit and what is the reactance? (300  and 40)

What is the phase angle? (7.6o)

2. Two electric circuits are connected in series. The complex impedance of the first is:

Z = 50 +j3 and the second is Z = -20 + j2.

What is the combined impedance? (Add them). (30 +5j)

What is the resistance and reactance of the combined circuit? (30 and 5)

What is the phase angle? (9.5o)

3. The current in an electric circuit is represented by:

I = 5 + j2 and the voltage is V = 100 + j5.

Determine the impedance as a complex number. (17.6 + 6j)

Determine the resistance and reactance of the circuit. (17.6 and 6)

Determine the phase angle. (18.8o)

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