INTRODUCTION TO REINFORCED CONCRETE

Notations and Symbol

𝐴𝑏 = area of bar, 𝑚𝑚2

𝐷 = Dead Load
𝑑𝑎𝑔𝑔 = diameter of aggregates, 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑏 = diameter of bar, 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑠 = diameter of stirrups, 𝑚𝑚
𝐸 = Earthquake Load
𝐸𝑐 = modulus of elasticity of concrete, 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐸𝑠 = modulus of elasticity of steel = 200, 000 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑓′𝑐 = specified compressive stress of concrete, 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑓𝑦 = specified yield strength of steel, 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐿 = Live Load
𝑊 = Wind Load

CONCRETE AND REINFORCED CONCRETE COMPONENTS

CONCRETE – is a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock, or other aggregates held together in a rocklike mass with a paste
of cement and water. Sometimes one or more admixtures are added to change certain characteristics of concrete such as
workability, durability, and time of hardening. As with most rocklike substances, concrete has a high compressive strength
and very low tensile strength.
REINFORCED CONCRETE – is a combination of concrete and steel wherein the steel reinforcement provides the tensile
strength lacking in the concrete. Steel reinforcing is also capable of resisting compression forces and is used in columns as
well as in other situations.
AGGREGATES – The aggregates used in concrete occupy about three-fourths of the concrete volume. Since they are less
expensive than the cement, it is desirable to use as much of them as possible. Both fine aggregates (usually sand) and coarse
aggregates (usually gravel or crushed stone) are used. Any aggregate that passes a No. 4 sieve (about 6 mm in sieze) is said
to be fine aggregates. Material of a larger size is coarse aggregate.
WATER – Water used in mixing concrete shall be clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts, organic
materials, or other substances that may be deleterious to concrete or reinforcement. Non-potable (non-drinkable) water shall
not be used in concrete unless selection of concrete proportions shall be based on concrete mixes using water from the same
sources and mortar test cubes made with non-potable mixing water shall have 7-day and 28-day strength equal to at least
90% of strength of similar specimens made with potable water.
REINFORCING STEEL BARS – Reinforcement used for concrete structures maybe in the form of bars or welded wire
fabric. Reinforcing bars are referred to a plane or deformed bars. The deformed bars ribbed projections rolled into their
surfaces to provide better bonding between the concrete and steel. Plane bars are not used very often except for wrapping
around longitudinal bars primarily in columns. Reinforcing steel bars are commercially available in lengths of 6m, 7.5m,
9m, 10.5m and even longer lengths. 6m bars are always available, 7.5m bars are sometimes readily available, but longer
lengths, when needed may be ordered.
STEEL REINFORCEMENT INFORMATION
ASTM STANDARD PHILIPPINE STANDARD (SI)
Nominal Nominal
Bar Size Nominal Diameter Nominal Area Nominal Mass Bar Size
Area Mass
Designation Designation
𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉 𝒎𝒎 𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝟐 𝒍𝒃/𝒇𝒕 𝒌𝒈/𝒎 𝒎𝒎𝟐 𝒌𝒈/𝒎
3 0.375 9.5 0.11 71 0.376 0.560 10 79 0.618
4 0.500 12.7 0.20 129 0.668 0.994 12 113 0.890
5 0.625 15.9 0.31 199 1.043 1.552 16 201 1.580
6 0.750 19.1 0.44 294 1.502 2.235 20 314 2.465
7 0.875 22.22 0.60 387 2.044 3.042 N.A. N.A. N.A.
8 1.000 25.4 0.79 510 2.670 3.973 25 491 3.851
9 1.128 28.7 1.00 645 3.400 5.060 28 616 4.831
10 1.270 32.3 1.27 819 4.303 6.404 32 804 6.310
11 1.410 35.8 1.57 1006 5.313 7.907 36 1019 7.986
14 1.693 43.0 2.25 1452 7.650 11.382 40 1257 10.861
18 2.257 57.3 4.00 2581 13.60 20.240 58 2642 20.729
ADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE AS STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
Reinforced concrete may be dominant structural available for construction in every country. It is used in one form or another
for almost all structures such as buildings, bridges, dams and so on.
Some of the numerous advantages of reinforced concrete are the following:
1. Concrete is strong in compression compared with most other materials.
2. Concrete building has a great resistance to the actions of fire and water.
3. Reinforced concrete structures are very rigid.
4. It requires less maintenance than a structural steel or timber.
5. It has a very long service life as compared to other materials. Under proper conditions, reinforced concrete structures
can be used indefinitely without reduction of their load-carrying abilities.
6. Concrete material is very widely available and the reinforcing steel can be transported easily to the construction site
than a structural steel. In most remote areas, reinforced concrete is the preferred construction materials.
7. Concrete has its ability to be cast into any variety of shapes and dimensions of desired structures.

DISADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

Some of the factors that may cause to select a material other than reinforced concrete are the following:
a. Concrete has a very low tensile strength requiring the use of tension steel reinforcement.
b. The construction of cast-in-place structures requires forms and shoring to hold the concrete in place and support
its weight until its strength is adequate.
c. It has a relatively low strength per unit weight or volume. It means concrete members require a larger volume and
a greater weight of materials which has a great effect on bending moments.
d. The properties of concrete vary widely because of variations in its proportioning and mixing.

DESIGN CODES AND SPECIFICATIONS

THE NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE PF THE PHILIPPINES 2015
Design and construction of buildings are regulated by building codes to protect the public’s health and safety nationwide.
The latest design specifications for the reinforced concrete buildings in the Philippines is THE NATIONAL STRUCTURAL
CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES (NSCP 2015) by the Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP) as
adopted in ACI 318-14M “Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary” generally referred to as
the ACI Code. Minimum design requirements for various types of reinforced concrete members are presented in the code.
Frequent references are made in this text and section members are provided. It should be realized that codes provide only a
general guide for design.
NSCP 2015 Code allowed design of concrete structures either by strength design or by working stress design.

(a) (b)
Fig: Book cover page, (a) NSCP 2015 (ASEP, 2015) & (b) ACI 318-14M (ACI, 2015)
CONCRETE DESIGN PROPERTIES (NSCP 2015 SECTION 419.2)
SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (NSCP 2015 SECTION 419.2.1)

• 419.2.1.1 The value of 𝒇′𝒄 shall be specified in construction documents and shall be in accordance with (a) through
(c):
a. Limits in Table 419.2.1.1;
b. Durability requirements in Table 419.3.2.1;
c. Structural strength requirements
Table 419.2.1.1
Limits for 𝒇′𝒄
Application Concrete Minimum 𝒇′𝒄 , 𝑴𝑷𝒂 Maximum 𝒇′𝒄 , 𝑴𝑷𝒂
Normal weight and Light
General 17 None
weight
Special moment frames Normal weight 21 None
and special structural
walls Light weight 21 35[1]
[1] The limit is permitted to be exceeded where demonstrated by experimental evidence that members made with lightweight concrete provide strength
and toughness equal to or exceeding those of comparable members made with normal weight concrete of the same strength.

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (NSCP 2015 SECTION 419.2.2)

It is the ratio of the normal stress to corresponding strain for tensile or compressive stresses below the proportional limit of
the material. Concrete has a modulus of elasticity which varies with the different concrete strength, concrete age, type of
loading and the proportions of cement and aggregates.

• 419.2.2.1 Modulus of Elasticity, 𝑬𝒄 , for concrete shall be permitted to be calculated as (a) or (b):
a. For values of 𝒘𝒄 , between 1440 and 2560 kg/m3

𝑬𝒄 = 𝒘𝒄 𝟏.𝟓 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟑√𝒇′𝒄 (in MPa)

b. For normal weight concrete

𝑬𝒄 = 𝟒𝟕𝟎𝟎√𝒇′𝒄 (in MPa)

MINIMUM SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT (NSCP 2015 SECTION 425.2)

• 425.2.1 For parallel non-prestressed reinforcement in a horizontal layer, clear spacing shall be at least the greater
of 25 mm, db, and (4/3) dagg.

• 425.2.2 For parallel non-prestressed reinforcement placed in two or more horizontal layers shall be placed directly
above reinforcement in the bottom layer with a clear spacing between layers of at least 25 mm.

• 425.2.3 For longitudinal reinforcement in columns, pedestals, struts, and boundary elements in walls, clear spacing
between bars shall be at least greatest of 40 mm, 1.5db, and (4/3) dagg.

BUNDLED REINFORCEMENT (NSCP 2015 SECTION 425.6)

• 425.6.1 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement

• 425.6.1.1 Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall be limited to four in any one
bundle.

• 425.6.1.2 Bundled bars shall be enclosed within transverse reinforcement. Bundled bars in compression members
shall be enclosed by transverse reinforcement at least 12 mm ø in size.

• 425.6.1.3 Bars larger than 36 mm shall not be bundled in beams.

• 425.6.1.4 Individual bars within a bundle terminated within a span of flexural members shall terminate at different
points with at least 40 db stagger.

• 425.6.1.5 Development length for individual bars within a bundle, in tension or compression, shall be that of the
individual bar, increased 20 percent for a three-bar bundle, and 33 percent for a four-bar bundle.
 • 425.6.1.6 A unit bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar with an area equivalent to that of the bundle and a
centroid coinciding with that of the bundle. The diameter of equivalent bars shall be used for db in (a) through (e):

a. Spacing limitations based on db;

b. Cover requirements based on db;
c. Spacing and cover values in Section 425.4.2.2;
d. Confinement term in Section 425.4.2.3;
e. 𝚿𝒆 factor in Section 425.4.4.

Fig. Bundled-bar Arrangement Fig. Equivalent Diameter, D

SPECIFIED CONCRETE COVER REQUIREMENTS (NSCP 2015 SECTION 420.6.1.3)

• 420.6.1.3.1 Non-prestressed cast-in-place concrete members shall have specified concrete cover for reinforcement
at least that given in Table 420.6.1.3.1

Table 420.6.1.3.1
Specified Concrete Cover for the Cast-in-Place
Non-Prestressed Concrete Members
Concrete Exposure Member Reinforcement Specified cover, mm
Cast against and
permanently in contact All All 75
with ground
20 mm ø through 58 mm ø bars 50
Exposed to weather or in
All 16 mm ø bar, MW200 or
contact with ground 40
MD200 wire, and smaller
40 mm ø and 58 mm ø bars 40
Slabs, joists, and walls
36 mm ø bar and smaller 20
Not exposed to weather or
Beams, columns,
in contact with ground Primary reinforcement, stirrups,
pedestals, and tension 40
ties, spirals, and hoops
wires

• 420.6.1.3.2 Cast-in-place prestressed concrete members shall have specified concrete cover for reinforcement, ducts
and end fittings at least that given in Table 420.6.1.3.2.
Table 420.6.1.3.2
Specified Concrete Cover for the Cast-in-Place
Prestressed Concrete Members
Concrete Exposure Member Reinforcement Specified cover, mm
Cast against and
permanently in contact All All 75
with ground
Exposed to weather or in Slabs, joists, and walls All 25
contact with ground All others All 40
Slabs, joists, and walls All 20
Not exposed to weather or Primary reinforcement 40
Beams, columns, pedestals,
in contact with ground Stirrups, ties, spirals, and
and tension wires 25
hoops

• 420.6.1.3.4 For bundled bars, specified concrete cover shall be at least the smaller of (a) and (b):
a. The equivalent diameter of the bundle
b. 50 mm
and for concrete cast against and permanently in contact with ground, the specified cover shall be 75 mm.

STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS (NSCP 2015 SECTION 421.2)

• 421.2.1 Strength reduction factor ø shall be in accordance with Table 421.2.1 except as modified by Sections
421.2.2, 421.2.3, and 421.2.4.
 Table 421.2.1
Strength Reduction Factor ø
Action or Structural Element ø Exceptions
Near ends of pretensioned
members where strands are
Moment, axial force, or combined 0.65 to 0.90 in accordance with
(a) not fully developed, ø shall
moment and axial force Section 421.2.2
be in accordance with
Section 421.2.3
Additional requirements
are given in Section
(b) Shear 0.75 421.2.4 for structures
designed to resist
earthquake effects.
(c) Torsion 0.75 -
(d) Bearing 0.65 -
(e) Post-tensioned and anchorage zones 0.85 -
(f) Brackets and Corbels 0.75 -
Struts, ties, nodal zones, and bearing areas
(g) designed in accordance with strut-and-tie 0.75 -
method in Section 423
Components of connections of precast
(h) members controlled by yielding of steel 0.90 -
elements in tension
(i) Plain concrete elements 0.60 -
0.45 to 0.75 in accordance with
(j) Anchors in concrete elements -
Section 417

• 421.2.2 Strength reduction factor for moment, axial force, or combined moment and axial force shall be in
accordance with Table 421.2.2
Table 421.2.2
Strength Reduction Factors, ø, for Moment, Axial Force, or Combined Moment and Axial Force
ø
Net Tensile Strain Type of Transverse Reinforcement
Classification
𝜺𝒕 Spirals conforming to
Other
Section 425.7.3
Compression
𝜺𝒕 ≤ 𝜺𝒕𝒚 0.75 (a) 0.65 (b)
controlled
(𝜺𝒕 − 𝜺𝒕𝒚 ) (𝜺𝒕 − 𝜺𝒕𝒚 )
𝜺𝒕𝒚 < 𝜺𝒕 < 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 Transition [1] 0.75 + 0.15 € 0.65 + 0.25 (d)
(0.005 − 𝜺𝒕𝒚 ) (0.005 − 𝜺𝒕𝒚 )
Tension
𝜺𝒕 > 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 0.90 € 0.90 (f)
controlled
[1] For section classified as transition, it shall be permitted to use ø corresponding to compression-controlled sections.

• 421.2.2.1 For deformed reinforcement, 𝜺𝒕𝒚 shall be 𝒇𝒚 /𝜺𝒔 . For Grade 280 deformed reinforcement, it shall be
permitted to take 𝜺𝒕𝒚 equal to 0.002.

LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS

Perhaps the most important and most difficult task faced by the structural designer is the accurate estimation of the loads
that may be applied to a structure during its life. No loads that may reasonably be expected to occur may be overlooked.
After loads are estimated, the next problem is to decide the worst possible combinations of these loads that might occur at
one time. Loads are classified as being dead, live, or environmental.

• DEAD LOADS - are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position. They include the weight of the
structure under consideration as well as any fixtures that are permanently attached to it. For a reinforced concrete
building, some dead loads are frames, wall, floors, ceilings, stairways, roofs, and plumbing. Unit weight of concrete
= 23.54 kN/m3
• LIVE LOADS - are loads that can change in magnitude and position. They include occupancy loads, warehouse
materials, construction loads, overhead service cranes, equipment operating loads, and many others. In general, they
are induced by gravity.
• ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS - are loads caused by the environment where the structure is located. For buildings,
they are caused by rain, wind, temperature change, and earthquake. In fact, these are also live loads, but they are
 the result of environment where the structure is located. Although they do vary with time, they are not all caused
by gravity or operating conditions, as is typical with other live loads.
NSCP 2015 SECTION 203.3 presents the load factors and combinations that are to be used in design of reinforced concrete
structures using Strength Design Method. The required strength must at least equal to the largest value obtained by
substituting into NSCP Equations 203-1 to 203-7. On the other hand, NSCP 2015 SECTION 203.4 presents the load factors
and combinations using Working Stress Design and must at least equal to the largest value obtained by substituting into
NSCP Equations 203-8 to 203-12.

LOAD COMBINATIONS USING STRENGTH DESIGN OR LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN
(NSCP 2015 SECTION 203.3)

• 203.3.1 Where strength design or load and resistance factor design is used, structures and all portions thereof shall
resist the most critical effects from the following combinations of factored loads:
1.4(D + F) (203 – 1)
1.2 (D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or R) (203 – 2)
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + f1L or 0.5W) (203 – 3)
1.2D + 1.0W + f1L + 0.5(Lr or R) (203 – 4)
1.2D + 1.0E + f1L (203 – 5)
0.9D + 1.0W +1.6H (203 – 6)
0.9D + 1.0E +1.6H (203 – 7)
where;
D = Dead Load
L = Live Load
W = Wind Load
E = Earthquake Load
Lr = Roof Live Load
T = Temperature Load
F = Fluid Load

LOAD COMBINATIONS USING ALLOWABLE STRESS OR ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN (NSCP

2015 SECTION 203.4)

• 203.4.1 Where allowable stress or allowable strength design is used, structures and all portions thereof shall resist
the most critical effects from the following combinations of loads:
D+F (203 – 8)
D+H+F+L+T (203 – 9)
D + H + F + (Lr or R) (203 – 10)
D + H + F + 0.75[L + T + (Lr or R)] (203 – 11)
D + H + F + (0.6W or E/1.4) (203 – 12)

ARRANGEMENT OF REINFORCING BARS FOR MOST EFFICIENT RECTANGULAR BEAM SECTION

For rectangular beam to be most efficient, reinforcing bars should be arranged in such a way that the effective depth of the
reinforcement is the maximum. Minimum cover, which for beams not exposed to weather or in contact with the ground is
40 mm, and minimum spacing between parallel bars which is the greater between 25 mm or diameter of bar, must be
followed.
The minimum width of a rectangular beam, bmin:

𝒃𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟐𝒄𝒄 + 𝟐𝒅𝒔 + 𝒏𝒅𝒃 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒔𝒄

where:
cc = concrete cover
ds = diameter of stirrup
db = diameter of bar
sc = clear spacing between the longitudinal bars
n = number of longitudinal bars

PROBLEMS
Problem 1: Draw the details of the most efficient beam in terms of flexure if the beam is cast-in-place, non; prestressed and
not exposed to weather or in contact with the ground. Beam section: 250 mm x 360 mm reinforced with 10 mm ø stirrups
and 6 – 16 mm ø longitudinal bottom bars.
Problem 2: Draw the details of the most efficient beam in terms of flexure if the beam is cast-in-place, non-prestressed and
not exposed to weather or in contact with the ground. Beam section: 300 mm x 450 mm reinforced with 12 mm ø stirrups
and 6 – 32 mm ø longitudinal top bars.
Problem 3: Draw the details of the most efficient beam in terms of flexure if the beam is cast-in-place, non-prestressed and
not exposed to weather or in contact with the ground. Beam section: 280 mm x 480 mm reinforced with 10 mm ø stirrups,
area of required steel reinforcement, As = 3122 mm2. Bending moment is negative. Use 20 mm ø longitudinal bars. Vertical
spacing between the layers of bars should be 25 mm minimum.