Computer_Science__Notes_O_Level-31
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newman mapfumoComputer_Science__Notes_O_Level-31
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newman mapfumo‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes-ZIMSEC Syllabus
COMPUTER APPLICATION
his chapter deals with the areas where computers are used, what they used for,
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how they are used, the advantages and disadvantages of their usage in such areas.
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD).
his is whereby computers are used in the designing and development o f new
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products in a variety o f applications both at home and o n a commercial/industrial
basis.Modelso finfrastructurelikebridgesaredesignedandtestedfortheirstrength
before building actual structures o n the ground. A model is a computer
representationo farealo bject/process,o fteninvolvingsomeformulathatdetermines
its behaviour, e.g. a bridge, house, etc. CAD is used in fields like:
- Aerospace
- Architecture
- Car/vehicle design
- Construction (e.g. Roads, services, surveying, tunnels, bridges, etc.)
- Consumer goods (e.g. kettles, toasters, etc.)
- Digital circuits
- Factory layouts (e.g. Ergonomics)
- Fashion design
- Heating systems
- Interior designs (houses, offices, etc.)
- Lighting systems (e.g. to get lighting effects at a concert)
- Machinery design
- Plant design (chemical, nuclear, etc.)
- Ship building engineering, architectural design, etc.
AD Requirements
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- considerable processor power
- Input devices like:
- Lightpen:Usedtomakealterationso nthescreentothedrawings.Alsoused
to write directly on the screen. Can be used again to select commands.
- Tracker balls: used to draw designs and to select menus
- Mouse: adjust drawings
- Graphicstablet:provideinterfacefordrawingo nthescreen.Italsolinkswith
the light pen.
- Output Devices like:
- Large high resolution screens
- Graph plotters to draw scale and full size and high quality drawings
- High specification graphics cards
- Some systems support stereoscopic drawings where 3-D spectacles can be worn
and the user sees a 3-D image.
Features of the CAD software which are used in designare:
- Can zoom, rotate, scale, and crop images
- Has a library of geometrical shapes that will be used in drawings
- Has inbuilt library of components and templates.
- Have ability for labelling and adding text
- use 2-D and 3-D modelling
- has library of parts which can be used in new drawings
- use colour fill feature
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- Validation and verification of designs against original specification
- Ability to link withComputer-Aided Manufacture(CAM)
- Facility to calculate the mass of the actual object once built
- Facility to calculate the cost of producing the article
- Simulation of designs without the need to build a prototype
- Import and export to allow the exchange of data with other software packages
- Kinematics (i.e. check moving parts in assemblies don’t interfere with each other)
dvantages of Computer Aided Design
A
- Saves a lot of time spent in drawing and testing objects.
- Saves costs of designing items
- Produces accurate scale diagrams.
- Images are easily manipulated on the screen.
- One can produce drawings in 3-dimensions as in buildings, gardens, bridges, etc.
- Images can be saved on the disk and retrieved at a later date.
- Drawings can be easily scaled up and down.
- It is easier to modify drawings
- A library of parts can be kept for future use
- Ability to do automatic costing of items
- Ability to model the design
- Can do ergonomic study.
B: Ergonomics: the design and functionality o f the computer environment and
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includes furniture setup and how it affect human beings, e.g. ventilation, security,
space, noise, etc.
Disadvantages of Computer Aided Design
- Canleadtodeskilling(skillswhichwerehighlyvaluedaretakentobeuselesso r
o f less value by the introduction o f computers and workers degraded to less
important jobs)
- Involves very high training costs to use the packages
- Can move work overseas
- Can lead to unemployment as o ne CAD o perator can do work o f 5 manual
draftsmen.
VIRTUAL REALITY (VR)
I tisanartificial3-Denvironmentcreatedbyacomputersystem.Itisthecreationo f
simulatedmulti-dimensionalrepresentationo frealthings,e.g.armiesfightingagainst
each o ther. Users wear data goggles, data gloves, etc when interacting with the
system.
equirements for Virtual Reality (VR)
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- Datagoggles/helmets–theseusedisplayscreensando pticalsystemsthatsend
3-D images to the eyes.
- Motion sensors: measure the position and o rientation o f the head; this
informationissentbacktoacomputerwhichenablesittoadjusttheimagebeing
sent to the user.
- Data gloves, suits containing sensors and joysticks are all used to interface
with a virtual reality system depending on the application.
NB. User wears data goggles, data helmet o r data gloves togiveafeelingo f“being
there”.Apartfromfeedingsensoryinputtotheuser,thesedevicesalsomonitoruser
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a ctions e.g. data goggles track eye movement and respond by sending new video
input.
Areas of use for Virtual Reality (VR)
1. Entertainment:
a) Usedinfilms/televisionasspecialeffectswherethestudioaudiencewear
VR helmets in a space simulation.
b) Also used in computer arcade games like Need for Speed.
2. Marketing
a) Used in virtual tours around houses and hotels, kitchen designs,
ergonomics, etc.
3. Training: Areas o f use include: military training, medical/dental training,
teachingpersonnelhowtouseequipmentandingeneralareaswheretrainingis
dangerous and/or expensive e.g. flight simulators, car driving simulators,
o perating devices under water or in outer space, etc.
4. Design: Design o f chemical and nuclear plants, ergonomic studies (e.g. factory
layouts), helping to develop devices for handicapped people, etc.
ow to create virtual reality images for use on a computer system
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When a virtual tour o f a house is shown o n a website, the imagesneedtobefirst
created and then manipulated. The following summarises how this can be done (a
similar method/technique could be used for various applications):
- take photos with, for example, a digital camera
- the photos are taken from a single point (reference point)
- the camera is rotated around the room as a number of photos are taken
- the images are “stitched” together using special imaging software
- photo images are re-sized and re-configured for Internet use
- Usehotspotso nthewebpagetoallowausertomovearoundthehouse(e.g.
from room to room).
- Integrate plans and maps into the image to allow user to navigate the house.
B: A hotspot is an area o f a graphics o bject, o r a section o f text, that activatesa
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function when selected. Hot spots are particularly common in multimedia
applications, where selecting a hot spot can make the application displayapicture,
run a video, or open a new window, etc.
eatures to see on a virtual tour website of a hotel being advertised on the
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internet
- hot spots on web page to allow user to move around the hotel
- plans and maps integrated to allow user to navigate the hotel
- ability to move from room to room to navigate whole hotel
evelopments such as broadband, large computer memories and compression
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software have allowed virtual tours to be o ffered o n the Internet and/or CD/DVD
files.
Advantages of using virtual reality
- it is safer to use than testing real o bjects (if mistakes are made the results
would be harmless; e.g. doing a medical task o n a “virtual” patient is much
safer in case of mistakes)
- Saves costs since there isnoneedo fbuildingtherealthinge.g.testingo uta
real moon rocket o r building a part o f a chemical plant would be very
expensive).
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- I t is possible to do tasks which would normally be impossible (e.g. walking
inside a nuclear reactor, doing a task in outer space, etc.)
- There is a feeling of “being there” which makes the training more realistic
- Allow a number o f very realistic scenarios to be tested o ut e.g. how todeal
with an emergency o n a chemical plant which could be made to be really
realistic.
ROBOTICS
- A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional computer controlled device
designedtoperformmultipletasksinindustries,replacinghumanbeings;e.g.for
spray painting, welding, fixing parts of a car, etc.
- Robotics refers to the scienceo fdevelopingandtheuseo fcomputercontrolled
devices to replace human beings in manufacturing.
- Robots can contain embedded processors or be linked to a computer system.
- They are pre-programmed to do a specific task o r “taught” to remember
instructionsfromahumano peratorcarryingo utthetaskmanuallye.g.teachinga
robot to spray a car with paint.
- Robots rely o n processors and sensors. The sensors gather information so that
the robot knows it is the right time to do the task (e.g.isacarinpositiontobe
sprayed, is there an obstruction to prevent the robot doing its task, etc.)
- They are capable o f doingsomepseudo-intelligenttasks(e.g.differentsizedcars
to be painted)
- Robots are mostly used (suitable) in the following areas:
o In very dangerous areas for human beings to work, e.g. fire fighting,
nuclearpowerstations,undergroundmining,chemical,nuclearfactories,deep
in the ocean, in space, etc.
o In areas where heavy items are to be lifted, e.g. for loading containers in
ships, in production lines, etc.
o In areas where the degree of accuracy is of utmost importance, e.g.
manufacturing of computer chips. Thus producing standardised goods.
o Where work is repeatedly executed andboring,liketrafficcontrolatroad
junctions
eatures (Parts) of a Robot
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Robots have the following features (parts/characteristics):
- Actuator (Manipulator): - A moving part which resembles a moving arm used
for lifting and fitting items.
- Transducer: They convert analogue signals to voltagesignals.
- Sensors: capture information and data from the environmentin analogue form
- Analogue-Digital Converter(ADC):Convert analoguessignals to digital signals
- Microprocessor: Processes data collected from sensors
- Power supply: - Usually electricity through compressorso r stepper motors.
- Controlling Computers: - Connected throughaninterfacetogiveinstructionsto
the robot.
- Have some form o f interface (connection points to power supply, human
interface, etc.)
obots can move from o ne position to another, e.g. when lifting cars into the
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warehouse and when going for recharging their batteries.
They keep a record o f the distance they have travelled and the angles they have
turned through so that they can return to original position
They can sense (using light sensor) and stop if unwanted object gets on their way.
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heyneedinformationandprogrammingforthemtowork.Informationisprovided
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by sensors.
obots can be used for spray painting:
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Problems that Robots may encounter when spray painting and the Solutions
- Problem: Robot may run out of paint
Solution: include sensors in paint reservoir to indicatelow paint levels
- Problem:something gets in path of robot
Solution:include sensors to detect presence of ano bject blocking the robot
- Problem:Item may not be in the correct position
Solution: include sensors to ensure item is in thecorrect position
- Problem:Item is not present
Solution: Include sensors to detect if the item ispresent
dvantages of Using Robots
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- Reduces labour costs as less people will be employed.
- High quality work is produced, which is also of high standard and consistent.
- Reduces cost (price) of goods due to reduced labour costs.
- Increasesproductionvolumeso fgoodssincemoregoodsareproducedinavery
short period of time.
- Ensures high degree of accuracy when producing goods.
- Robots can operate in the dark thereby saving electricity costs.
- Robots do not take breaks and holidays as they do not get tired.
- Robots can work 24 hours a day; they can work non-stop; they don’t need a break
- Robots reduce accidents at traffic lights.
- Robots improve traffic flow.
- Robots can work in dangerous conditions.
- Create employment as the robots need to be serviced and installed.
- Eliminates human errors involved in the production process.
- Removes the need to do boring, very repetitive tasks leaving humansfreetodo
the more skilled work such as quality control.
B:However errors still exists due to:
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- Loss of power to the robot.
- Fault in the software (wrongly programmed).
- Occurrences of hardware break down.
- Some robot components can be missing or misplaced.
isadvantages of Using Robots
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- Leads to unemployment as humans are replaced by robots
- Electricity expenses are very high.
- theycanfinditdifficulttodealwith“unusual”circumstancese.g.adoorismissing
from a car waiting on the paint spraying line
- leads to de-skilling since many tasks are taken over by robots
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
rtificialIntelligence(AI)isthescienceo fdevelopingcomputersystemsthathave
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theabilitytolearnfromexperienceandmimichumanreasoninginspecificareas,as
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in medical diagnosis, mineral prospecting, etc. Expert systems are a branch o f
Artificial Intelligence
XPERT SYSTEMS
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These are computersystemsdevelopedtomimichumanreasoningandworkatthe
levelo fanexpertinaparticularfield,e.g.inmedicaldiagnosis.Agoodexampleo fan
expert system is MYCINthatdiagnosebacterialblooddiseaseandthenrecommend
appropriate antibiotic therapy for patients.
Expert systems are used in the following fields:
- o il or minerals prospecting,
- diagnosing a person’s illness,
- Diagnostics (e.g. finding faults in a car engine, etc.),
- tax and financial calculations,
- complex “thinking” tasks such aschess,
- weather forecasting,
- criminology/forensic science,
- career choices,etc
omponents (Elements) of an Expert System
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- The diagram below shows some of the components:
- nowledge Base: a representation o f facts (data) in a particular field (e.g.
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diseases, symptoms, treatments, etc. as in medical diagnosis)
- Inferenceprocedure(engine):containsreasoningmethodsusedtoarriveata
conclusion using information in the knowledge base. It contains interrogation
technique/questions and answers.
- User interfaces: these enablepeopletoformqueries,provideinformation,and
interact with the system.
- Explanation facilities (system): enable the systems to explain o r justify their
conclusions, and they also enable developers to check o n the o peration o f the
system themselves.
- Rule Base: This is found in the Working Store. It contains inferencerulesand
the inference engine uses these to draw its conclusions.
he system uses a rule base and an inference engine together to simulate human
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reasoningwhenanalysingaproblemandarrivingataconclusion.Tosimulatehuman
processes it is necessary to have a vast amount o f information stored in the
knowledge base and the reasoning set out as a set of rules in the rule base.
teps Followed When Producing an Expert System
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- Gather information from experts in the field.
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- esign the knowledge base.
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- Input data into knowledge base.
- Design the rule base.
- Design inference engine
- Design display of results
- Design appropriate user interface
ays of Improving Expert Systems
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- Frequently carrying out researches and making updates.
- Quickly inputting new data into the knowledge base.
- Assigning its control to a number o f highly experienced personnel who will
monitor and make updates as soon as possible.
dvantages of Expert Systems
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- Provides consistent answers
- Fast identification of solutions to problems by quickly analysing data.
- They produce reliable and accurate results.
- Thereisnoneedforanexperttobepresentsincetheycanactasaprompttoan
expert.
- They can deal with complex situations much faster than humans.
- They could be used in hazardous areas (e.g. Oil prospecting).
- They are less likely to make errors.
- They do not forget as humans do.
- Many copies can be made at a low cost.
- Knowledge of several experts is combined.
- Save costs on wages and salaries for staff.
isadvantages of Expert Systems
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- They lack creativity.
- They are unable to learn outside the system.
- They lack sensory experience.
- They take time and are difficult to develop.
- Theyneedtobeconstantlyupdatedtokeeppacewithrecentdevelopmentsinthe
field they are applied.
- This may be difficult and time consuming to use.
- Data is entered byhumanswhomaymakemistakesindoingso.Thiscanleadto
incorrect decisions being made
- lacks common sense in some of the decision making processes
- cannot adapt tochangingenvironmentsunlesstheknowledgebaseiscontinually
updated
- expensive system to develop and set up in the first place
- needs considerable training to ensure system used correctly by operators
Mineral and Oil Prospecting (Using expert systems)
nExpertSystemcalledprospectoraskstheusertoentergeologicalformationso fa
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particular area such as rock and soil type and then gives advice o n the possible
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ineral deposits thatcanbefoundinthatarea.Aninteractiveuserscreenappears.
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Questionsareaskedaboutgeologicalprofiles.Answerstoquestionsaretypedin.The
inference engine searches the knowledge base using the rule base.
Inputs
Geological data such as rock and soil type
Processing
Draws conclusions from rules and facts using geological data entered and the
mineral data stored in the knowledge base. E.g
- suggest the probability of finding oil as an output
- indicates the probable depth of deposits
- predicts geological deposits above the soil
- produces contour maps showing concentration of minerals, rocks, etc
Output
- Possible mineral deposits that can be found in that area
- Geological maps
DATA LOGGING
he process o f automatically collecting data from source at set intervals, over a
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periodo ftime,foruseatalaterstage.Adevicethatautomaticallycollectsdatafrom
source at set intervals for use at a later stage is called adata logger.
Features of Data Loggers:
● They contain processor inside them.
● HaveInterface:Devicesthatactasconnectionpointbetweendataloggersand
the computer.
● They have own storage facility: For storage of datacollected from sensors
● They contain o r are connected to sensors that are used forcollectingdatain
analogueform.Allphysicalpropertiescanbemeasuredwithsensorse.g.light,
heat, sound, pressure, acidity and humidity.
Sensor type Purpose
Mercury Tilt switch Detects if device is tilted, e.g. a vending machine
Light sensor Detects the intensity o f light (light level),e.g.soastoturn
o no ro ffstreetlights.Usedalsoingreenhouses,automatic
door, traffic control, etc
Can detect light reflected from a barcode
Push switch Used to turno no ro ffinteriorlight,e.ginsideafridgeifa
door is opened or closed
Temperature sensor Detects temperature levels in central heating systems,
chemical plants, etc
Infra-red sensor Used in burglar alarms, counting people, detecting heat
sources
Sound sensor Records sound levels from beer halls, houses, etc
Proximity sensor Detects how close to each o ther are two parts, e.g if a
window is o pened; an alarm is raised because the
proximity between the window and the sensor is changed.
Position sensor Sensestheangleo fano bjectfromacertainpoint,e.gfrom
a robot
Pressure/motion senseswhensomeonehaswalkedoverano bjecte.g.used
sensor in burglar alarm systems, automatic doors, counting
vehicles, etc
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Acoustic sensor istening to foot steps (in burglar alarms), sound from
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broken glass, etc
pH sensor Measurestheacidityo ralkalinityo fo bjectse.g.o fsoiland
water, in pollution monitoring, chemical process control,
etc
Humidity(moisture) Measures humidity (moisture) levels in air, greenhouses,
sensor irrigation systems, etc
Distance sensor Measure the distance from one point to another
(could be proximity)
Oxygen sensor Used to monitor pollution levels
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● hey can be connected to small keyboards or other special reading devices.
● TheyareconnectedtoanAnaloguetoDigitalConverter(ADC),whichconverts
data signals incontinuouslyvaryingform(analogue)collectedbysensorsinto
discrete (digital) values that can be accepted by the computer.
ypes of Data Loggers
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a. Data loggers with permanent computer connection
● These take readings and send them to the computer in o ffices through
connection cables or through wireless connections.
● Thetimeintervals(timebetweeneachreading)andtheperiodoverwhichthe
logging takes place can vary
● The computer may process the readings instantly and produce graphs
● The readings may also be stored on the disk for processing at a later date
● These are suitable for experiments in laboratories
b. Data loggers with temporary connections
● These are not always connected to the computer, but are connected when
necessary
● Theyaremostlyusedinmonitoringenvironmentalconditionsoveraperiodo f
time
● Thetimeintervals(timebetweeneachreading)andtheperiodoverwhichthe
logging takes place can vary. The time interval for data logging is the time
between readings. The logging period is the total length o f time over which
readings are taken.
● Reading are storedbythedataloggerandloadedintothecomputeratalater
date for processing
● They can be used in remote areas (not directly connected to the computer):
remote data logging.
erforming the data logging process
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This can be illustrated by the diagram below:
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- onnect sensor to the interface
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- Connect interface to the computer
- Load data logging software (if not loaded already)
- Enter time interval (e.g. 30 seconds)
- Specify total reading time
- Display results as a list on the screen
- Produce graphs for analysis of data. Other graphs can be plotted automatically
- Save data on disk for use at a later date
- Export data to other applications like spread sheet
Benefits of computerised data logging
- Data loggers are a very fast method of data collection than manual methods.
- Data can be processed immediately (real-time)
- Data loggers are very accurate than humans in collecting data.
- Dataloggersenablecollectiono fdatao neventsthathappentooquicklythan
human beings could do.
- They can also record data o n events that happen too slowly andboringfor
human beings to carry
- Data loggers stored data for a very long period of time.
- Dataloggerscanwork24hoursaday,thusensuringcontinuousdatalogging
process.
MONITORING AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
ONITORING SYSTEM:
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A computer program that keeps track and verifies the o perations o f a
data-processing system and warn the user if an anomaly o ccurs, e.g. patient
monitoring in hospital, monitoring key parameters in chemical and nuclear plants,
monitoringforintrudersinhousesusingburglaralarms,etc.Inmonitoring,thereis
human intervention. In a monitoring system:
- computer system takes information from the sensors
- data from sensors is converted to digital form using the ADC
- processor compares the data from sensors with stored values (parameters)
- system informs the user of status either by read outs
- if values are within acceptable parameters, nothing is done and monitoring
continues
- if values are o utside acceptable parameters, the system warns o r alarms if
values are outside set parameters.
- can update files but no changes to the process are done during monitoring
Examples of monitoring systems include:
- Patient monitoring in hospitals
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- M onitoring scientific experiments in laboratories
- A burglar alarm system
- Environmental monitoring (oxygen or pollution level in river)
Monitoring Oxygen Levels in a River (Environmental Monitoring)
- S ensors read data from the river (Oxygen level, acidity level, using the pH
sensor)
- Data from sensors is converted to digital form
- Computer stores received data
- Oxygenandaciditylevelsfromsensorsarecomparedwithhistoricallystored
(pre-set values/parameters)
- Either data can be transferred to CD/DVD/Memory stick for later analysis OR
- Dataissendtothemonitoringstationdirectlythroughmobilephonenetwork
o r through cables.
- Redcolourisdisplayedo nscreenifvaluesareo utsideacceptablelevelo ran
alarm is sound.
Monitoring of Patient’s Vital Signs in Hospital
- Sensors read key vital signs (e.g. pulse/heart rate, temperature, blood
pressure, respiration, etc.)
- The data from sensors is converted to digital form using ADC
- The data is stored in computer memory
- The computer compares data from sensors with pre-set parameters
- The results are output on the screen in form of graphs or digital read outs.
- An alarm is activated if any of the data is outside acceptable parameters
- The system continues to monitor the patient until the computer is tuned off.
hese systems are designed to monitor critically ill patients o r premature babies.
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Somebiosensorsconnectedtothecomputerareattachedtothepatientfortracking
and recording vital signs such as heart beat,bloodpressureandbrainactivity.The
biosensors will transmit readings to the central computer should the situation go
beyond a critical warning level and:
- issue a warning on the computer display for nurses on standby
- sound a warning siren, beep or sound to alert medical staff
- flash a light to draw attention of medical staff
atientsinintensivecarearemonitoredthroughsensors.Thesensorsmeasureand
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give feedback pertaining to: blood pressure, temperature level, weight, pulse rate, etc.
The computer is pre-set with normal range o f values. It compares these with
feedback from sensors.
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omputers record patients’ medical data over some time for later analysis. Data
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recorded includes:
- Takingmeasurementso npatients,forinstance:bloodpressure,temperature
level, weight, pulse rate etc. This relieves nurses o f some duties that will be
boring, making them faster and more reliable.
- There are however some hospital tasks that are more suitable for human
beings to perform than computers. These include dressing patients, bathing
patients, etc.
In hospitals, computers also perform the following:
- Used tohold datafor children‘s immunisation processes.
- Monitoring o f patients during surgery as they control body scanners and
sensors.
- For Stock control :For hospital blood stocks, foodstocks, drug stocks, etc
- For patient Booking system : For o ut-patients and in-patients to see the
doctor
- For keepingPersonnelrecords:Forkeepingandmanagemento femployee
records
Surveillance Systems for House Breakers
he interaction between sensors and microprocessor inasurveillancesystemisas
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follows:
- sensors around the house would gather information
- e.g. has a light beam been broken
- has pressure pad detected excess pressure
- has infra-red beam detected excess heat
- has acoustic sensor detected any noise such as breaking glass
- data translated into digital using an ADC (analogue to digital converter)
- microprocessor/computer will compare signal from sensor with stored
information
- e.g. signal that light beam is broken
pressure > stored “normal” value
heat level > stored “normal” value
acoustic level > “stored” normal value
- if any values are o utside normal range, microprocessor/computer sends a
signal to an alarm and/or flashing light
- system also automatically sends signal to police/security company
- since the house is large, sensors will be in zones; therefore computer will
indicate on a control panel the zone where intruder broke in
ONTROL SYSTEM
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- It is asysteminwhicho neo rmorecomputersareusedtomonitorandregulate
the operations of non-computer equipment like in oil refineries.
- Controlsystemsinvolvemonitoringandloggingo fphysicalquantities,providean
analysis of performance and allows some user interaction.
- Feedback is an essential element as well as timing.
- Most control systems are real-time systems, e.g. in o il refining, chemical
processing, traffic lights (controlling the sequence o f lights to maintaino ptimum
traffic flow), chemical and nuclear plants (opening and closing valves, safety
systems, etc.), etc.
- In computer control:
✔ computer system takes information from the sensors
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✔
c ompares the data with stored values
✔ Takes action to try to get values within acceptable ranges bysending
signalstodevicestoo pen/close,o n/offetc.Devicesthatreceivesignals
include valves, motors, windows, tapes, etc.
✔ o utput from system can affect next input (feedback)
Examples of control systems include:
- controlling a nuclear reactor
- controlling a chemical process
- controlling a greenhouse environment
- controlling central heating system
- controlling a set of traffic lights
Components of Computer Control
-Acomputer(or microprocessor).
-Sensors to enable the computer to detect quantities such as temperature o r
pressure.
-Motor: Devices which actually turns o n o r o ff o ther devices, e.g power supply,
windows, vents, water pipes
-Devicesfor the computer to turn on and off.
-Aninterfaceto connect the sensors and devices tothe computer.
-softwareto read data from the sensors and turn thedevices on and off
How control is done
- Sensors gather information from the environment in analogue form.
- The ADC translates the analogue data into digital form
- Themicroprocessorcomparestheincomingdatawiththedatavaluesalready
stored in memory.
- If values areo utsidesetparameters,thecomputersendsasignaltoadevice
toswitcho no ro ff(e.g.ifcontrollingacentralheatingsystem,iftemperature
>settemperatureaheaterwillbeswitchedo ffand/oracoolingfanswitched
o n;ifthetemperatureisbelowthesetpointthentheheatingwillbeswitched
o n and/or a cooling fan switched off).
- The digital signal will be converted to analogueformusingaDAC(Digitalto
Analogue Converter). Actuators are usuallyemployedtoo peratedeviceslike
valves, heaters, etc.
- The computer/microprocessor system will continually monitor the data
coming from the sensors
B: In chemical andnuclearplants,thereiso ftenacombinationo fmonitoringand
N
controltakingplace.Informationfromsensorsiso ftendisplayedo nacontrolpanel
where o perators can seekeyvaluesandalarmconditions(e.g.ifasystemmonitors
temperatures and 1100C is the normal temperature and 1200C
is the alarm
temperature, the control panel will show normal, present and alarm values in the
formo freado uts–eitherthecomputerwillautomaticallytakeactionifnecessaryo r
the operator will take action (override the system if necessary)
Chemical Process Control
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onsider the following situation:
C
A chemical process o nly works if temperature is above 70oC and less than 100oC
,
and the pH (acidity) level is between 3.5 and 8.5. The heater is used to warm the
reactorandvalvesareusedtoaddacidwhennecessarytomaintaintheacidity.The
following is a description of how the sensors and the computer in this system works:
- Temperatureandc hemical sensorsread data from thechemical process
- Data from these sensors isconverted to digital formusing ADC
- Computer compares values from sensors with pre-set data in computer
memory
■ If temperature is too low, a signal is send to switch on heaters
■ If temperature is too high, a signal is send to switch off heaters
■ If temperature is within acceptable range, no action is taken
■ If pH is too high, signal is send to open valve and acid is added
■ If pH is too low, signal is send to close valve
■ If pH is within acceptable levels, no action is taken
■ Signals are changed from digital to analogue so as tocontrolheaters
and valves
- This continues as long as the computer is activated.
Control in Greenhouses
- T he environment must be kept constant if plants are to grow successfully in
greenhouses.
- Temperature and humidity in the air needs to be controlled so that it is kept
constant
- Sensors are used to record humidity and temperature levels in analogue form.
The analogue signals are sent to the computer
- The computer willhavestored(pre-set)valueso fminimumacceptableleveland
maximum acceptable level for both temperature and humidity
- If the sensor records humidity level below the minimum acceptable level, the
computerwillsendsignaltotheactuatortoclosethewindowsandswitcho nthe
pumpforacertainperiodo ftime,whichwillspraywaterasafinemistinsidethe
greenhouse.
- Too much humidity will cause the processor to send signals to the actuator to
o pen windows to assist ventilation and drying out air.
- In case o f temperature, if the greenhouse becomes too hot, the windows are
o pened and heater turned o ff. If it becomes too cold, windows are closed and
heater switched on.
I nputs:
Humidity/moisture (collected from humidity/moisture sensor),
Temperature (all in analogue form; collected from temperature sensor)
Processing:
- detecting temperature/humidity level
- Processorscomparespre-setvaluesinthecomputerwithdatacollectedfrom
sensors
- Processor instructs actuator to take action if values exceed o r are lessthan
minimum/maximum pre-set values
Outputs:
- Windows open or closed (digital form)
- Heater on or off (digital)
- Pump for water supply on or off (digital)
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Computerised Traffic Control System
Input:
- Data is read from sensors(light sensor, motion/pressure sensor, weight
sensor, sound sensor, etc)
- Data is read from camera images
Processing:
- Computers analyse data from sensors.
- Computers calculate average traffic flow and speed.
- Computer sends signals to actuators to adjust change of lights and timing
Output:
- Change of lights at junction.
- change timing plan
dvantages of using computerised traffic control systems
A
- Ensures improved traffic flow control.
- Reduces traffic accidents.
- Keeps delays to a minimum.
- Reduces pollution. cars use less fuel
I n c aseofanemergency,thecomputerisedtrafficsystemmayperformanyone
of the following:
- Give uninterrupted path through the system of linked traffic lights.
- Give green link – wave for all traffic to pass.
- Turn all lights to red.
- Activate emergency generator.
- Sound an alarm.
Microprocessor-Controlled Streetlights
Input:
- Pre-set values of Sunset time and Sunrise time
- Light level (Lightsensorsendsmeasuremento flighttomicroprocessor,ADC
converts this to digital)
Processing:
- Processor compares sunrise time, sunset time and current time.
- Ifsunrisetime=currenttimeo rhigher,theprocessorsendsignaltoactuator
so that it switches off lights, else,
- if signal equals sun set time, the processor send signaltoactuatorsothatit
switches on light.
- Also the amount o f light is compared with pre-set value. Ifhigher–nothing
happens, If lower o r equal sends signal to send signal to actuator so thatit
switches on the streetlights.
Output:
Lights switched on or off
Benefits of Monitoring and Control Systems
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- I t is safer to use computer control than human beings, e.g. in monitoring
temperature in a blast furnace, monitoring radiation level in a nuclear reactor,
etc.
- Itisfastertorespondtoproblemsthatmayaffectthesystem,e.g.nuclearreactor
can automatically shut down in response to earthquake
- They don’t get tired, thus computers can work 24/7
- Computersystemsdonotmisskeydatathatmustbeenteredintothesystemas
humans do.
- Computer control is more reliable than human beings as computer does not
forget to take readings
- computers are more accurate and can take more frequent readings (e.g. if
readingsneedtobetakenevery30seconds,humanscanmakemistakeso rmiss
readings or even find it impossible to take readings at such short time intervals)
- datacanbeautomaticallydisplayedandanalysedwithouttheneedtoenterdata
manually (which in itself could introduce errors into the system)
- Data can be automatically stored and used in other programs.
- Theresultso fthesystemcanbeautomaticallystoredinaspread-sheetpackage
o r a database package for future reference.
- Computer’s response time is faster, which is important especially in patient
monitoring
Disadvantages of Monitoring and Control Systems
- High initial costs because computer-controlled devices are more expensive to
buy and to set up.
- Fewer workers will be employed leading to a rise in the numbers o f the
unemployed.
- The software for the control system is very expensive
- If the computer malfunctions the system will not work
- If there is a power cut the system will not work
- The computer can’t react to unexpected events like a human could. It cano nly
respond in the way it has been programmed to.
- It can cause some concern if total control for a system and the decisions are
handed over to a computer.
UTOMATED SYSTEMS
A
- These are control systems that are dedicated to o neparticulartaskandlackthe
ability to collect and analyse data as in digital cameras.
- They donotallowforo racto nuserinteraction,e.g.washingmachines,cameras,
watches.
- Most control systems have embedded computers systems inside them.
B: Embedded Computers:–
N
- Refers to use o f microprocessors in non-computer equipment like in cameras,
washing machines, watches, etc. They do not have mouse, monitor and keyboards.
- Thesearenormallydedicatedforaspecifictasktheyaredesignedfor.Embedded
computers are also found in household items like camera, microwave, washing
machine, videorecorder,fridge,sewingmachine,airconditioning,electronictoys,
rice cooker dish washer, Televisions, alarms, clock, radio, DVD players, etc.
Refrigerators
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Inputs:
- temperature level (from temperature sensor/ o r entered manually through
the number pad),
- Pressure (from pressure sensor/contact switch/push switch) ,
- push switch setting
Processing:
- Analogue data from sensors is converted to digital by the ADC
- Processor controls temperature level by comparing with pre-set values.
- If temperature is higher than pre-set value, the processor sends signal to
motor to switch on compressor
- If not higher, the compressor is switched off by the actuator
- Processor controls the display panel.
- Processorsendssignalstodisplaypanelandtothemotortoswitchlightso n
o r off.
Outputs
- Switch on lights if door is opened and off when closed
- Light emitting diodes indicating current temperature o f the inside o f
refrigerator.
- A warning buzzer (sound) if light is left open.
- Cold temperature
Air Conditioners
Inputs:
- Pre-set temperature level
- Temperature from temperature sensors
- Pressure from pressure sensors: monitors pressure of refrigerant
Processing
- Processor controls temperature.
- Processor sends signal to motor to change fan speed
- Iftemperatureisbelowpre-setvalue,theprocessorgivesmotorsignalsothat
it switches off fans
- Iftemperatureisabovepre-setvalue,theprocessorgivesmotorsignalsothat
it switches on fans
- Processor controls timing and the display panel
Output
- Cool temperatures in the room
- Fans switched off or on depending on the situation
Digital Camera:
Input:
- Light mode( night or day mode)
- Film speed
- Colour setting
Processing:
- Processor sends signal to automatically adjust film speed,
- Processor positions the end of film,
- Processor sends signal to adjust distance from object,
- Processor sends signal to adjusts light.
- Processor sends signal to save image on the memory card
Output
- Sound to indicate that the film/picture has been taken
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- I mage/film captured and stored
- Light flashed to indicate film/picture is taken
Speed Cameras
heseareusedo nroadstotakephotographso fcarswhichhaveexceededthespeed
T
limit. Some o f these cameras use microprocessor controlled chips to store
information.
The advantages of speed c ameras with microprocessor controlled c hips are
that:
- Data and images can be transferred automatically which will be faster.
- Image can be viewed straight away.
- Can store considerably more data and photos.
- Can store other information (apart from photo image) e.g. road conditions.
- Chips can be re-used.
Inputs
- Maximum speed (speed limits)
- Road condition
rocessing:
P
Tasks which would be c arried out by the microprocessor as a speeding c ar
approaches a camera include:
- Sense and record speed of vehicle.
- Compare speed o f vehicle with stored value(s) and decide whether
photograph should be taken.
- Check on value of light intensity.
- Adjust focal length, focus image, adjust shutter speed and set exposure.
Tasks which would be c arriedoutbythemicroprocessorasthephotographis
being taken include:
- Log the time.
- Log the date.
- Log the speed.
- Record the road conditions.
- Operate ―flash.
- Operate shutter.
- Instructs storage of the image.
- Check on value of light intensity.
- Adjust focal length and focus image.
Outputs
- Video/pictures of cars captured
- Alarms of over-speeding cars
Microwave Cookers
unction by switching a microwave unit on for a sufficient time to either defreeze
F
frozenfoodo rcookit.Itisusedtocookfoodquicklybyusingwaves(similartoradio
waves) to heat the food.
Inputs:
Modern cookers have sensors attached to a microprocessor for detecting as inputs:
Weight of food
Temperature of food
Some cookers will also have additional sensors for detecting:
- Amount of steam produced during cooking
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- Amount of alcohol produced
Processing:
- Themicroprocessorcontinuallymonitorssensorreadingsandbyreferringto
a programmed in-built database of food types.
- The microprocessor determinestimeneeded to cooko r defreeze food.
- IF a temperature in thefoodindicatesthefoodiscookedORthetimeseto n
the oven clock is reached THEN microwaves are not produced
Output: Heat for cooking, Light indicating that food is cooked, power turned o ffif
food is cooked.
*NB:-Tasks performedby microprocessorinside someo f the devices include:
- In digital c amera: automatically adjustfilmspeed,positionstheendo ffilm,
adjust distance from object, adjusts light.
- In washing machine: Controls the amount o f water. Adjust and controls
speed o f wash.Controltemperatureo fwaterandthetimetakentowashthe
clothes.
- In fridges: Controls temperature level. Control the display panel. Switch o n
lights if door is opened and off when closed.
- In air conditioners: Controls temperature. Controls timing and the display
panel
Differences between Control and Automated systems
Control Systems Automated Systems
Can have several tasks Dedicated to one task
Can collect and analyse data lack the ability to collect and analyse data
Allows user intervention They do not allow for o r act o n user
intervention
Has an element of feedback Do not involve feedback
eedback: The process in which o utput o f a system can affect its owno utput.Itis
F
wherebyparto ftheo utputo fasystemisreturnedtoitsinputino rdertoregulateits
further output.
SIMULATION AND MODELLING
odelling
M
A model is a representation o f a real-life process/object which consists o f a seto f
equations which describes the behavior the process or object.
Modelingisthecreationo faprogrammedsimulationo fasituation/processino rder
to predict future trends.
It involves the use o f mathematical formulas and calculations to predict what is
likely to happen based on data recorded.
In modeling, we use the computer to solve equations so that we can carry o ut
simulation.
An equation for part of an economic model could be:
Unemployment = people able to work – people working.
Youcandevelopandevaluateyourownmodelso rusethemodelsthathavealready
been set up to simulate a real life situations
3-D Models can be built using CAD, e.g for planning stores.
Advantages of modeling
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- o equipment is damaged
N
- People are not put in any danger
- Expensive prototypes don't need to be built
- Time can be sped up or slowed down
- Models can be run and re-run over and over
- Modifications can easily be made and re-tested quickly
Disadvantages of Modeling
- The results depend o nhowgoodthemodelisandhowmuchdatawasused
to create it in the first place.
- Models and simulations can't ever completely re-create real-life situations.
- Not every possible situation may have been included in the model.
- The equipment and software are expensive to purchase.
- Staff need to be trained how to use the software and equipment.
SIMULATION
S imulationisthestudyo fthebehaviouro fasystemusingmodelsino rdertopredict
futurereallifeevents,likepopulationgrowth,flightsimulator,etc.Itinvolvesfeeding
values into a model to see how the model behaves.
I n simulation, past and present data, as well as models are analysed in o rder to
predict the future. Simulation is used in the following areas:
- Training (e.g. pilots, drivers, medical doctors, etc.)
- running/testing chemical plants and nuclear plants
- trying out equipment to be used under sea or in outer space
- crash testing cars
- financial simulations (e.g. stock market predictions based o n various
scenarios)
- populationgrowth(i.e.predicthowtheworld’spopulationwillincreasebased
o n a number of different scenarios)
- queues (e.g. simulating queues at supermarket checkouts)
- weather forecasting
Advantages of simulation
- saves cost (rather than doing the real thing)
- safer (scenarios tried out on the simulation first before used in reality)
- possible to try out various scenarios in advance
- Some environments make simulations the o nly way to carry o ut a task
beforehand(e.g.o uterspace,undersea,chemicalprocesses,nuclearreactors,
etc.)
- faster (no need to build and test real system, so it is possible to get results
more quickly)
FLIGHT SIMULATOR
- F light simulators are used to train pilots how to fly aircraft.
- They can also be used totestnewaircraftbeforetheyareactuallyflownfor
the first time.
- Flight simulators are expensive to buy but are much cheaper than actual
aircraft.
A landing simulation with ice o n the runway, thick fog and o nly o ne o f the four
engines working would really test the pilot’s ability
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light simulators enable pilots to experience turbulence, snowstorms,
F
thunderstorms, fog, etc, without leaving the ground.
SIMULATION AT ROAD JUNCTION
The following is a series of traffic lights at two busy junctions:
In this simulation it is necessary to consider
- In this simulation it is necessary to consider:
- how and what data is gathered
- how the simulation is done
- how the system would work in real life
- why simulations are done
ow data is gathered
H
Tomakethisasrealisticaspossible,dataneedstobegatheredoveralongperiodo f
time. This can be done by sensorsin/neartheroad,usingcameraso rmanualdata
collection. Data gathered includes:
- number of vehicles passing in all directions at each junction
- number o f vehicles passing in all directions at each junction at a particular
time of the day
- Number of cars build up at a junction before lights change
- is it a week day or weekend or public holiday
- how long it takes to clear vehicles at a junction
- o ther data (e.g. pedestrian crossings)
- time taken for largest/slowest vehicle to pass through a junction
- o ther factors (e.g. filtering of traffic to the right or left)
ow simulation is done
H
The data is entered into the computer and the simulation is run. The following
scenarios may be tried out:
- timing of lights is varied to see how the traffic flow is affected
- buildupnumbero fvehiclesstoppedatajunctionandchangetimingo flights
to see how it affects the traffic flow
- increase/decrease traffic flow in all directions to see how the traffic is affected
- try out the impact of accidents
- consider passage of emergency vehicles
- effect of adding in pedestrian crossings
- o ncethesimulationisrun,thetimingo fthelightsisdeterminedandhowthey
interact so that the maximum traffic flow is achieved;
- fault scenarios (e.g. an accident) and their impact are considered
How the system works in real time
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- S ensors in/near the road gather data (these can be light/infra-red sensors,
induction loops, pressure sensors, etc.)
- the data is usually number of vehicles passing a particular point
- the data is sent to a control box or computer system
- thegathereddataiscomparedtodatastoredinthesystem(thestoreddatais
based o n simulation runs, how the number o f vehicles at a junction at a
particular time of day affects the traffic flow, etc.)
- the control box o r computer “decides” what course o f action to take and
sends signals to the traffic lights to change timing if necessary
- as with any system involving sensors, ADC and DAC interfaces may be needed
SIMULATION IN WEATHER FORECASTING
Another example of simulation is predicting weather (i.e. a weather forecaster).
How and what data is collected
- Super computers are used since they control satellites in orbit.
- sensors measure the following variables in analogue form
o pressure,
o temperature,
o relative humidity,
o wind speed and
o wind direction
- sensors are placed in weather balloons and/or weather stations
- information is also got from satellites
- pilots also send in information regarding weather conditions during long
flights
- The data collected by thedataloggerswillbeinanalogueformandtheADC
device converts this to discrete values (digital) for the computer to accept.
How the simulation is done
- Data and information from the sensors/satellites is sent to computer for
processing
- This data is compared to information stored o n files which contain known
weather patterns from the past
- predictions are made based on these comparisons
- Calculations are made to produce expected minimum and maximum
temperatures, pressure, moisture content, rainfall patterns, etc
- The computer produces weather maps showing isobars, temperatures, etc.
- computer can show graphically how weather (e.g. cloud formations) will
changewithtime(i.e.predictweatherpatterns)–thisiso ftenpresentedasa
computer generated video showing how clouds build up, how temperature
and pressure changes over, for example, the next 7 days, wind speeds etc.
- It is also possible to do statistical analysis and predict the percentage
probability that certain weather conditions will occur.
How future environment/climate changes can be predicted
- Weather forecasting uses the concept o f simulation and modelling i.e.
predicting the weather by studying a mathematical weather model.
- The measurements are then entered into a mathematical weather model
which then makes complex calculations to come up with the weather reports.
- based o n changes in weatherpatterns,theprocessorcarrieso utastatistical
prediction
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- m odel is able to change parameters to see how future climate can be affected
- thereisneedtoreviewaloto fpreviousdataoveranumbero fyearstocheck
ifchangesaregenuine,forexample20years,predictionscomparedtoactual
climate conditions to validate/further refine the model
- can make use o f spread sheets and statistical software packages for o ther
calculations
Output:
- Information o btained is displayed o n the computer screen ready for
presentation on televisions
- Information can be printed documents.
- Tables and graphs are produced
- Rainfall maps and isobars are produced.
- Expected minimum and maximum temperatures are produced
- Areaso fpressurechangewithtimesoitispossibletopredictrainfall,strong
winds, etc. in advance
- Showhowthecloudspatternswillchangewithtimesoitispossibletopredict
rainfall
dvantages of this automatic weather forecasting system include:
A
- Computer can take readings during weekends and public holidays without the
presence of human beings.
- Computer readings are more accurate.
- Readings can be taken more frequently.
- Readings can be taken any time of day or night.
- Graphs can be produced more easily.
- Readings can be taken more reliably.
- Humans can be more productive if not collecting data.
SIMULATING QUEUING IN A SUPERMARKET
Collecting data for the model:
- Sensorscountnumbero fpeopleatcheckoutspointsateachtimeofdayand
eachday of the week
- count how many people build upatthecheckoutso neitherisitaweekday,
weekendo rbank holiday
- determine how long it take to serve a customer
Carrying out the simulation
- number of checkouts opened and see how flow of people affected
- Buildupnumbero fcustomersatcheckout,o penextracheckoutsandseehow
it affects time to be served, etc.
- Increase/decrease number of customers and observe the affect
- Once simulation is run, number o f checkouts needed is determined and
interaction with customers is determined so that o ptimum throughput is
achieved
- Look at fault scenarios (breakdown of equipment etc.)
EMBEDDED WEB TECHNOLOGY (EWT)
- T
hisisanewtechnologythatusestheInternetinrealtimetocontrol/interactwith
a device which contains an embedded microprocessor.
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- T he user needs to be authorised to do this and can control a device anywhere
using a web browser (e.g. from a computer o r even a mobile phone which is
web-enabled).
- Example: An oven contains an embedded processor. The owner can use a web
ready mobile phone anywhere to control the oven remotely.
- By accessing a web site one is able to send instructions to control the oven.
- It is possible to control any device in this way if it contains an embedded
processor e.g. television, DVD player/recorder, washing machine, scientific
experiments in remote areas such as outer space
GLOBAL POSITIONING SATELLITES (GPS)
PS-Anavigationalsysteminvolvingsatellitesandcomputersthatcandeterminethe
G
latitude and longitude (position) o f a receiver o n earth by computing the time
difference for signals from different satellites to reach the receiver.
- G PS systems are used to determine the exact location o f a car, airplane, shipo r
any form of transport which travels from one place to another.
- In vehicles these systems are called Satellite Navigation Systems (sat nav).
- Satellites in outer space transmit signals to the Earth.
- Computers in vehicles (e.g. car, airplane o r ship) receive and interpret these
signals.
- Positioning dependso nveryaccuratetiming–atomicclocksareusedbecauseo f
their accuracy to within a fraction of a second per day.
- Each satellite transmits data indicating its position and time.
- Thecomputerinthevehiclecalculatesitslocationbasedo ntheinformationfrom
at least three satellites as shown below:
- I n motor vehicles the system is called satellite navigation (sat nav).
- The on board computer contains pre-stored road maps.
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- T
he vehicle’s exact location, based o n satellite positioning, can be shown o n the
map; the driver can then be given verbal directions e.g. “turn left into Josiah
Tongogara Road”ORa screen output showing the vehiclemoving on the map
How satellite navigation systems can be used to calculate a vehicle’s position
- satellites in outer space transmit signals to the Earth
- computers in the bus receive and interpret these signals
- the satellite relies on very accurate timing (atomic clocks)
- each satellite transmits data indicating position and time
- computer in bus calculates its position based on received satellite data
- at least three satellites are used to give the vehicle’s exact position
How the drivers uses the satellite navigation system:
- the computer has a number of pre-stored maps
- bus location shown on appropriate map
- directions are given verbally or on-screen output (on a map)
dvantages
A
- It is far safer since a driver o f a vehicle doesn’t have to consult maps whilst
driving.
- it also removes error (e.g. going the wrong way down a one-way street).
- Sat nav systems can also give additional information such as position o f speed
cameras, estimate time of arrival, etc.
- GPS can monitor a vehicle’s position if it has broken down o r has been stolen
(vehicle tracking system).
- In airplanes GPS can pinpoint its exact location in case o f an accident which
enables search teams to quickly respond to the incident.
isadvantages
D
- mapsmaynotuptodatethereforeinstructedtoturnintoaroadwhichnolonger
exists
- road closures due to accidents o r road works may cause problems to a satnav
system
- signal loss can cause problems with GPS systems
- potential interferences from external sources (major problem on aircraft)
- incorrect start and end point entered into system can cause problems
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THE INTERNET
I nternet stands for INTERnational NETwork and it is a global (world-wide)
connection o f computer networks for information sharing. On the internet, o ne is
able to access data stored o n a server in any part o f the world as long as it is
connected to the internet itself. The internet can be accessed from anywhere. It is
also available to anyone. No o ne controls the internet as computers in different
countriesareconnectedyetthecountrieshavedifferentlaws.However,eachcountry
may regulate internet usage in its own territory.
efinition of Terms
D
InformationSuperhighway(ISH):Aglobalnetworko fcomputersformovinghuge
amountso finformationviasatelliteandcableconnection.Informationfoundo nISH
includes homeshopping,entertainment,news,softwaredownloadsandhelp,o nline
banking, stock market dealing, jobs, (vacancies), university placements, etc.
Information Technology(IT):-Theuseo fcomputersininformationhandlingand
communication.
Information Age: A period beginning in the last quartero fthe20thcenturywhen
information became easily accessible through publications and through the
manipulation of information by computers and computer networks.
Global Village: the use o f the internet to access information from any part o f the
world.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT): The use o f computers and
related method as a tool for information communication, for instance through
e-mails, cell phones, etc.
Web page: an HTML document o r page o n the internet that contains information
about an organisation.
Website:-acollectiono fHTMLdocumentsatthesamedomain,o ftenwithacommon
nameandmaintainedandprovideinformationo fasingleo rganisationandisfound
o n the internet.ItisanHTMLpage/pageso ntheinternetthatcontainsinformation
about an organisation
Hyperlink :- an area o f a web page, usually text o r image, that contains a links to
another web page. It is usually underlined o r hasadifferentcolourtoshowthatit
can link the user to another site.
Home page: A web page that loads first (by default) when o ne logs o n to the
internet.Itthenprovideslinkstoo thersiteso ntheinternet.Itisalsoawebpagethat
appears first when you log on to a website.
RL: Uniform Resource Locator: This is a unique address that identifies a
U
website/page o n the internet, e.g. http://www.econet.co.zw. This o nly identifies o ne
(unique)webpageforEconetWirelesswhichisfoundinZimbabwe(.zw).ThusaURL
is a unique address for each web page. A typical URL looks like:
http://www.google.co.zw/computing/student.html.
This address has some a number of parts:
- http:// - protocol
- www. - host computer
- google.co.zw – Domain name and country
- computing – folder
- student. – Document name
- .html – document type (HTML type of document in this case)
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- " http" (HyperText Transfer Protocol) and a domain name (such as ."co.uk").
Other domain names are as follows:
- .zw Zimbabwe
- .za South Africa
- .zm Zambia
- .bw Botswana, etc
ardware Requirements for an Internet Connection
H
- Modem (MOdulator DEModulator):- a device that converts analogue data to
digital form and vice versa, o ften for internet connection using atelephoneline.
Alternatively one may acquire a GPRS (general packet radio service) modem.
- Communication link: Acts as a transmission media fordata,e.g.telephoneline,
satellite transmission, etc.
- Network c ards for each computer:- a device that identifies computers to the
network, has an interface where network cables are plugged on the computer
oftware Requirements for an Internet Connection
S
These are: Communication Software, web browser and Network operating system
(a)CommunicationSoftwarelikeTCP/IP–TransmissionControlProtocolInternet
Protocol. Allows devices to connect to the internet even if they have different
manufacturer standards by use of pre-set rules or international standards.
(b)WebBrowser:referstosoftwareusedforo peningwebpageso ntheinternet,for
example Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, etc.
- Web browsers areused view web pages from the WorldWide Web (www).
- Awebpageisasite(HTMLdocument)o ntheinternetthatprovidesinformation
about an organisation.
- The World WideWeb(www)isavastrepositoryo fdatastoredo nwebsiteso n
the internet.
- Web pages can be created using any of the following software:
● HTML (editor),
● word processing package,
● desktop publishing software,
● web publishing software,
● Presentation software.
Web Developing Software Features:
- Feature for changing the background colour or background image on a page.
- Feature for formatting text (size, font, colour, bold, italic, underline etc.) o r
frames.
- Able to work with tables.
- Features for inserting graphics/pictures/sound clip/video clip/animations.
- Features for working with links/creating buttons/list box.
- Features for switching to a browser to check the appearance of a page.
- Use templates.
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ebsite features
W
The following are the general features of a good website
- shopping basket
- o ffer security when using credit/debit cards
- search facility for artist, tile, item, etc
- drop down boxes to choose categories
- help facilities
- currency converters for international customers
- date/sales confirmation by automatic email
- saved customer details/customised pages
- ability to track status of orders
- ability to listen to/view/see video/see product, etc
- recognise customer as soon as they log on
- buttons to navigate to other web pages
hendesigningwebpagesitisnecessarytosupplythecorrectspacingforcustomer
W
information(and/orusedropdownmenus),buttonstonavigatetoo therwebpages,
etc
( c)Networkoperatingsystem:managesthenetworkando fferssecuritytointernet
users.
B: internet account: a unique personal identifier given by the Internet Service
N
Provider(ISP).AnISPisano rganisationthatlinksuserstotheinternet,forexample,
Mweb, Ecoweb, Africaonline, Yahoo, Google Inc, etc.
Advantages of the Internet as a Source of Information
- Can be accessed from anywhere in the world.
- Information on the internet is up-to-date.
- Multimedia can be used.
- Hugeamountso finformationcanbeaccessed;e.g.,magazines,encyclopaedia,
dictionaries, newspapers, textbooks, etc.
- Search engines are available to assist in finding information.
- Using emails you can access experts from all over the world o n certain
subjects.
Disadvantages of the Internet as a Source of Information
- Equipment andconnectionsneededareveryexpensive(computers,modems
(ISDN adapters) ISP, telephone).
- One needs knowledge to perform searches effectively.
- Problem of hackers.
- Breaches of copyrights are very common.
- Rampant spread of rumours on the internet.
- Spread of pornography to young people.
- Leads to loss of privacy.
- Some people become internet addicted and tend to interact with computers
more than with human beings.
- Credit card fraud is rampant.
- Cultural erosion and replacement of local culture by a global culture
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Searching information from the internet
- Search Engines: These are programs used to search data, information and
o ther websites fromtheinternet,e.g.Google,Yahoo,etc.however,itrequires
good skill from the user to efficiently use search engines in searching data
from the internet.
- Hits: these are many irrelevant (unwanted) results that canbedisplayedby
the search engine if the search engine is not used efficiently.
- Toavoidhitswhenasearchconditionisentered,inclusiono fstatementssuch
as AND (+) and OR will help narrow down the search. E.g.ZIMSEC+syllabus.
Internet and Security
S ecurity is concerned with protection o f data from unauthorised access and from
deliberate or accidental loss.
Belowaresomeo fthesecurityconcernsandsomesuggestionso nhowtheycanbe
rectified / prevented.
ecurity
S Solutions / safeguards
Problem
Hacking - Use of passwords and (usernames) ids to prevent illegal access to files.
- Locking the computer itself or locking the computer room.
- Encryption stops the information from being read even if access has
been gained to a file but won’t stop hacking!!
- Installing firewalls
Viruses - Use ant-virus software like AVG, Avast, Esat NOD32, etc,
- Use firewalls to prevent viruses from entering a computer.
- Do not open emails/attachments from “unknown” sources;
- Only load software from disks/CDs which are originals
Corruption/Loss of Data due to the following ways:
- viruses Prevention of viruses is as given above
- hackers - Prevention of hackers is as given above
- accidental - A ccidental damage todatacanbepreventedby:keepingback-up
damage to data files or use the Grandfather-Father-Son (GFS) method;
- useo fpasswordsandidscanalsohelpbyrestrictingaccessinthe
first place
- protection against hardware faults could be through keeping
- hardware faults back-ups or use Grandfather-Father-Son;
- use of UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply), in case of power loss
- Running parallel systems also help
- software faults - Software faults can be solved by keeping back-up files or
- incorrect - Can also be solved by using Grandfather-Father-Son would help
computer - Incorrect computer o peration can be solved by: backingupfiles
o peration wouldguardagainstproblemscausedbyincorrectshuttingdown
o f the system
efinition of terms (from the table above)
D
Hacking: Obtainingunauthorisedaccesstoprotectedandsecurecomputersystems
o r network, usually using intelligent methods like cracking the password.
Hacker:Apersonwhogainsunauthorisedaccesstoprotectedandsecurecomputer
systems or network, usually using intelligent methods like cracking the password
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irus: A computer virus is a program which replicates itself, damages o r corrupts
V
files and memory o f the computer, for example, the LoveBugviruswhichattacked
computers in 2000.
Anti-Virus: These are programs that detect and remove (clean) computer viruses
and reduce the risk o f computers being attacked by viruses, e.g. Norton Antivirus,
MacAfee, Avira, Avast, AVG, etc.
Encryption: data encryption is the scrambling o f data before sending, forsecurity
reasons, so that it is not readable unless it is decrypted using. However, some
government do not allow encryption in theircountriesforsecurityreasonsagainst
terrorism.
Back-up file: A duplicate (copy) o f the o riginal file that is created and stored at
different location with the original file, for security reason.
Grandfather-Father-Son files:Alsocalledfilegenerations:thesearethreeversions
o ffilesthatarekeptatano rganisationandarecreatedasaresulto fsequentialfile
updating and are used for data recovery when the current master file is lost.
UPS: Uninterruptible Power Supply (A device with rechargeable batteries that
provide continuous supply o f electricity to computers for a given period o f time if
there is power cut.
Parallelsystems:Referstotherunningo ftwodifferentsystemsbutdoingthesame
job in the same organisation. Each system will have its own files.
Password:Apasswordisasecretgroupo falphanumericcharactersusedtoprotect
a document or file from unauthorised access
PIN: Personal Identification Number- a secret number used by individual account
holders to access bank account and get service at the ATM, phone, Point o f Sale
terminal (POS) using debit cards, etc.
Firewall: Hardware and associated software used to protect networked private
computersystemsfromunauthorisedaccessbypreventingo utsidedata/usersfrom
enteringthesystemwhileatthesametimepreventinginternaldatafromleavingthe
system.
Other internet threats include:
- Phishing is a way o f fooling someone intohandingoverthesecuritydetails
for their bank account. The phisher sends an email that looks asifitcomes
from the recipient’s bank and contains a link to a website controlled bythe
phisher. It can be prevented by not clicking o n the linkandinsteadgoingto
the bank’s website directly.
- Spam is unwanted email, o ften advertising products o r services. It can be
preventedbyusingananti-spamfilter,whichiso ftenprovidedautomatically
by an ISP.
- Pharming is an attack by hacking. It intercepts a browser request and
redirects it to another website o n which the attacker attempts to steal
authentication credentials o r debit o r credit card details, as in a phishing
attack.Itcanbediscouragedbychangingthepasswordo narouter(especially
a wireless router) so that the hacker cannot redirect the DNS information.
NB: Note
- Virusesdonoto nlyinfectcomputers,theycanalsoaffectmobilephones,MP3
playersetc.–anydevicewhichcandownloadfilesfromasourcesuchasthe
internet is potentially at risk.
- Backing up may allow filesthathavebecomelost/corrupted(duetohacking
o r viruses) to bereinstated;however,thiswouldnotrecoverthesystemnor
would it prevent hacking/viruses affecting a system in the first place.
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- P roblems like spam, pop-ups, cookies, etc. are more o f a nuisance(theycan
alsoslowdowntheo perationo facomputer).Thesecanhoweverbeblocked
(or made inactive) by using suitable software.
When using the Internet, security can be enhanced using encryption.
Credit and debit card transactions can also be protected by a special type o f
password control.
Forexample,ifauserchoosesthepasswordCOMPUTE34toprotecttheircreditcard,
when they buy something over the internet the card issuer will ask the user an
additional question such as: “Please type in the 2 , 4 and 7 character o f your
password in the following boxes:
□□□“
The user will then type in O P E and the card purchase will be authorised. This
additional protection is used as well as encryption.
Someo fthenewsystemsallowsuserslotsthecardintothesideo fthekeyboardand
is required to type in a PIN before the Internet can be accessed. This gives an
additional level o f security since it is necessary to have the card, know the PIN
associated with the card AND also know the user’s log in id and password!!!
eople’s fear of the Internet
P
People’s worries about the risks when using the Internet include:
- Encountering o ffensive websites while searching for goods o r services, e.g
pornographic sites, sites with hate language, etc.
- downloading viruses during a transaction
- being deceived by a bogus website and paying for counterfeit o r non-existent
goods
- interception o f shopping account, card payment o r bankingaccountinformation
making them vulnerable to unauthorised access to their accounts (‘hacking’) o r
fraudulent transactions
- Browser‘cookie’filesidentifyingtheircomputertoawebserver,enablingatrader
to ‘retarget’ them.
- receiving unsolicited email after they have been requiredtosupplyavalidemail
address in order to register for an account
- Erosion of local culture by global culture.
ervices Provided by the Internet
S
1. Electronic Mail (E-Mail): A form o f communication in which written/typed
messages are send electronically over networked computers. In-order to send and
receive e-mails, the following is needed.
(a) An internet connection
(b) An E-mail Address for both the sender and receiver:
- This is a unique identifier of the storage location of a person’s mailbox.
- An e-mail address is made up o f two parts that are separated by the “@”
symbol, for example,[email protected].
- The first part (kapondenit) istheusernameandisusedtoidentifythename
o f the person or organisation that has the mailbox. The username is unique.
- Thesecondpart(gmail)isthedomainnameandisusedtoidentifytheserver
where the person has a mailbox.
- The other part (the one after the dot (.) indicates the domain type e. g
o . com – commercial organisation
o . edu – educational organisation
o . org – non-profit making organisation, etc
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- A n e-mail address should be known by many people so that they willknow
the address where to send the emails.
- Every mailbox is protected from illegal access by use of password.
- A password is a secret group o f alphanumeric characters used toprotecta
document from unauthorised access.
- NB.Whencreatingane-mail,o neisrequestedtoenterthepasswordtwicein
o rder to verify if it is the one you intend to use.
- Mailbox: - An electronic folderusedtostoreelectronicmails.Itcontainsthe
inbox; which contains incoming mails; andtheo utbox;whichisusedtosave
o utgoing messages.
Process of sending e-mail
- the user first logs on to email address,
- the sender composes the message and attaches a file (if required)
- The user then sends it by clicking on the send button.
- The message is transmitted to the sender’s ISP/central host server.
- The message is stored on a central host computer of the sender.
- The mail server examines the address of the message
- The message is transmitted to the recipient’s ISP mail server
- The message is stored in the recipient’s electronic mail box.
- The addressee logs in to a local computer and receives the mail
eading/retrieving the message
R
- the recipient logs on to their mail server
- the message is then retrieved from the inbox and sent to the recipient’s
computer
- the recipient reads own message (can be printed if there is need)
Advantages of e-mails as compared to ordinary mails
● Itisveryfastinsendingmessages(canbedeliveredpromptlywhileo rdinary
mails can take days to reach their destination).
● It isverycheaptosende-mailssincethereisnoneedforenvelopes,stamps,
paper and pen, which are needed in conventional mail.
● They are reliable since e-mails rarely get lost.
● E-mails are time independent as they can besendanytimeo fthedayo ther
than conventional mails which can be send during the normal working hours.
● E-mails allow multipleaddressing,thatis,o nee-mailmessagecanbesendto
several recipients simultaneously without having to retype it.
● E-mails can be saved for future use or reference.
● E-mails are more convenient to use as there isnoneedtotraveltothepost
o ffice or to shops to buy stamps and envelopes.
● In e-mails, attachments in form o f reports,scanneddocuments,picturesand
curriculum vitae can easily be attached to the e-mail.
● there are no language problems (systems can translate messages sent)
● -itispossibletoreademailswheneveryouwant–therearenoissueso ftime
differences as would be the case with video conferencing. Ifsomedelegates
livedintheUSAandtheo therslivedinIndia,forexample,thetimedifference
is 10 to 14 hours which could be a problem)
Disadvantages of e-mail
● Not everyone has equipment to send e-mails.
● Junk mail (spam) is a problem.
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● ou waste a lot of time looking through mails that are just adverts.
Y
● E-mails are not as secure as traditional mails.
● The system relies on people checking their mails regularly.
● Old people feel left out as they consider themselves too old to learn.
● Equipmentusedtosendandreceivee-mailsisveryexpensiveascomparedto
traditional methods.
owever,despitetheincreaseintheuseo fe-mail,therehasbeenasharpincreasein
H
the amount of paper used. This is because:
● People print copies for meetings and then destroy them afterwards, but if
needed again, print out another copy.
● Some people find it difficult reading large amounts of text on the screen.
● Peopleo ftene-mailcolleaguesratherthanusethephonewhothenprinto ut
the document.
. Teleconferencing: A method o f conducting discussion with several people in
2
different locations using the telephone.
. Video conferencing: Conducting meetings with several people in different
3
locations and seeing each o ther o n the screen o f networked computers. Video
images and audioareseen/heardinrealtimeo nlargemonitors/throughspeakers.
Delegates do not need to leave their homes o r work places o r conference rooms.
Video conferencing requires the following:
● Acomputerwithacodec(whichconvertsandcompressesanaloguedatainto
digital data for sending down digital lines.)
● Video cameras or Webcam to take video images
● Microphone to speak through.
● Loud Speakers for delegates’ voices to be heard.
● Large and high resolution monitor.
● Internet/WAN/modem to transmit data
● An integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) line withahighbandwidthto
transmit video data at fast speed.
● Sound card.
● Video card
● Compression software to compress video and sound
● which converts and compresses analogue data into digital data for sending
down digital lines
● requirement for echo cancellation software (this allows talking in real time
and keeps communications synchronised)
How the video conferencing is done
- delegates, while in different locations, speak into central microphone
- webcam takes video images in real time
- delegates hear speech through loud speaker system
- system uses internet/WAN/broadband modem to transmit data
- uses of compression software/CODEC
- use echo cancellation software
Advantages of tele and video conferencing
● It cuts transport cost incurred in travelling to the venue of the meeting.
● Reduces costs involving paying hotel bills and meals for the delegates.
● Saves time spend in travelling to the venue of the meeting.
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● I t becomes safer for employees since no travelling is done (no travelling
accidents).
● There is no need for delegates to leave home/office.
● It becomes easier for several delegates to take part simultaneously.
● communicationlinksarenowmuchfasterthereforeimages,soundqualityetc.
are now far better
● safety reasons (increase in world-wide terrorist activity, frequent travelling,
etc. are all risks to company employees if they have to travel to meetings)
● improvements to the work/general environment (employees can work from
home,
● Less travel means less stress to employees but also means less pollution,
disabled employees are no longer disadvantaged, etc.
● more economical to have short notice meetings
Disadvantages of video and tele-conferencing
● Communication expenses are very high.
● Hardware and software requirements are expensive.
● People will lack personal contact and will socialize less.
● The hardware and software needed to run video conferencing is very
sophisticated and expensive.
● Confidentialdocumentsmayneedtobeseenintheiro riginalform,whichmay
be difficult in this situation
● There is no direct eye contact, which plays a large role in group discussions.
● The quality of video or audio may be low, depending on the bandwidth.
● There may be interruptions due to breakdowns in transmission
● Power cuts may prevent the conference from continuing.
.Viewdata(videotext)systems:Theseareinteractivesystemso nwhichusers
4
view data whentheyaccessspecializeddatabaseslikePrestel.Therequirements
include:
● the telephone line or cable TV,
● specialized keyboard and
● A Television set.
I nformationo nthedatabaseisprovidedbycompaniesthatadvertisetheirproducts
like news, weather reports, and so o n. View data systems have the following
advantages:
● they are interactive and
● service is provided for free to the public.
However, its requirements are expensive.
. Teletext: It is a broadcast service that comes as a television transmission. It is
5
cheaper than the internet service. However, it is non-interactive.
. Facsimile (Fax): A method whereby o utput from a scanned document is send
6
over telephone line and reproduce o n a fax machine o n the receiving end. Fax
method has the following advantages:
● It is very cheap to send messages.
● It is very easy to use.
● It is a very fast method of sending messages.
However, it has the following disadvantages:
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I ts requirements are expensive (fax machine).
●
● There must be a person at the receiving end to attend to the fax when
receiving messages.
B: The use o f fax, e-mail, view data, teletext, teleconferencing and video
N
conferencing in an office brings about an electronic (paperless) office.
- Anelectronico fficeisano fficeinwhichthestorageandprocessingo fdataaswell
as communication are done electronically.
- An electronic office is efficient because:
● Communication is easier and faster.
● Less paperwork is involved.
● Current and up-to-date information is provided.
● Ensures a clean office environment.
owever, it is very expensive to setup and maintainan electronic office.
H
*NB- The use o f computers to perform all clerical and o ffice duties is called Office
Automation.
- T ele and video conferencing as well as networking bringabouttele-commuting
(tele-working). Tele-commuting is carrying out work without leaving home.
- Communication is done through networked computers.
- Requirementsfortelecommutingincludes:modem,veryfastcommunicationlinks
(for example telephone line), computers, internet services, etc.
Benefits of telecommuting
- Easier to concentrate on work in a quiet environment than in a noisy office.
- It saves time spent in travelling to the work place thereby increasing
productivity.
- It cut costs involved in travelling to work place.
- The employer saves costs o f o ffice space and overheads like water and
electricity.
- People can be recruited from a wide geographical area.
- People with disabilities like the handicapped can be employed.
- People in different locations can work as a team.
Disadvantages of tele-commuting
- Workforce not in office is difficult to control.
- Workers would not understand corporate goals and will not be loyal tothe
o rganisation.
- Employees feel isolated and miss the environment o f an o ffice full o f
colleagues.
- People may find it difficult to work in teams.
- It is difficult to separate work from home duties while at home.
- Unions find it difficult to mobilise workers for demonstrations and strike.
.FileTransfer:allowsuserstotransferfilesfromhostcomputerso ntheinternet
7
to their personal computers.
. News groups: a global electronic bulletinboardsysteminwhichusersexchange
8
information on different topics.
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.Entertainment:theinternetprovidesano ptionforuserstodownloadandlisten
9
to music, newspapers, radio stations, etc.
0. Internet Shopping: (Internet buying, electronic commerce, o nline shopping):
1
Theinternetprovidesafacilityforcustomerstopurchaseproductsfromtheinternet
without visiting shops. Credit cards are used in internet buying.
dvantages of buying from the internet
A
To the customers
- Programs are available to search for the cheapest products on offer.
- Customers have more time to choose.
- Shopping is done any time of the day, thus providing a 24 hour service.
- A wide choice of products is available.
- Shopping can be done by setting up a file.
- It is very convenient to use as customers do not leave their homes for
shopping.
- It cut travelling costs to the shops.
- Customers do shopping without being jostled by crowds.
- There are less cases of impulse buying.
- Product reviews are obtainable before purchase.
- Goods and services usually cheaper on the internet.
- Customer need not to go to shop and therefore save travelling time.
To businesses/shop managers
- Business is carried o ut any time o f the day (provides a 24 hour shopping
service).
- Increases sales due to greater number of customers from all over the world.
- No wastage space for goods is involved.
- Ensures huge saving on overheads like rent, warehousing, employee facilities.
- More goods can be made available.
- It is cheaper to use as there are no leaflets, pamphlets, etc.
- Can reduce the number of shops on the streets.
- Organisations can employ fewer workers thereby cutting labour costs.
- No need to travel to the shop as business can be run from home.
isadvantages of buying from the internet
D
To customers
- There are chances of losing money through credit card fraud and hacking.
- Customers lack interaction with others.
- Customers fear of rogue companies (customers may not receive the goods).
- Customers cannot physically see the goods before purchasing.
- Not everyone has a computer and is connected to the internet.
- Not everyone has credit cards.
- Problemo fspam(Unwantede-mail,usuallyo facommercialnaturesento utin
bulk).
- Customers cannot have the goods immediately.
To businesses
- Increase in cases of industrial espionage.
Industrial espionage involves selling o f company secrets by employees to rival
companies and the use o f destructive methods by competitors to destroy o ther
o rganisations.
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Effects of E-Commerce and E-banking To the Community
Positive effects Negative effects
Shops and banks are open 24/7 Close down of shops/banks in city centres
Access to shops and banks is worldwide Increased risk of fraud/hacking
Less pollution since less travelling Less personal service/more impersonal
Disabled people are not disadvantaged Loss of jobs due to closures of
(no need to travel) shops/banks
Busy people can shop/bank when they Less social interaction between people –
want and where they want just sit at home using computer
If you live in a remote area, it is much Less activity for people – leads to a less
easier to access shops/banks healthy/overweight population
Less expensive (cost savings to shop/ Less environmentally friendly since more
bank + more competition – savings are goods sent out by post – waste from
passed on to the customer) packaging significantly increases
Less money is spent in travelling The gap between the rich and the poor
widensastherichgetsavingsfromshopping
o n-line.
Increase in small businesses. Lower profits for companies that do not
engage in e-commerce.
Declineinleisureshoppingasgoodsare deskilling o f the work force (e.g CAD has
bought on-line. takenoverdraftsmanskills,wordprocessors
have taken over many o ffice-based duties,
etc.)
lot o f money is wasted by the need to re-train the workforce in the use o f new
A
software/computers
omputer systems haveallowedcompaniestosetupcallcentresino thercountries
C
where potential cost savings can be made. This,o fcourse,canleadtojoblossesin
the host country.
Advantage to companies adopting call centres overseas includes:
- if strikes o r o ther problems o ccur in o ne country it is possible to transfer
work elsewhere
- reduced costs in countries where labour costs are lower
- reducedcostsduetoincentives/grantsbycountrieskeentosetupcallcentre
o ffices
- roundtheclockcustomersupport(oneo ftheadvantageso ftimedifferences
is the possibility of 24/7 cover)
Disadvantages to having call centres overseas:
- language and culture problems
- animosity (hatred/enmity) to overseas call centres (leading to loss o f
customers)
- need for extensive re-training which is time consuming and expensive
- time differences (can lead to health problems in call centre workforcewho
need to work unsocial hours to target key markets)
- Technology differences between different countries (does the infrastructure
exist to service high tech equipment?)
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THE CASHLESS SOCIETY
hisreferstothepayingforgoodsandserviceswithouttheuseo fnotesandcoins.It
T
is the use o f electronic commerce therebyreducinghandlingo fhardcashamongst
individuals. However, it seems impossible to completely have a complete cashless
society. Services that contribute towards a cashless society include:
- EDI(ElectronicDataInterchange)-isanelectroniccommunicationsystemthat
provides standards for exchanging data via any electronic means, e.g.
purchase orders, invoices, shipping notices, etc.
- Mobile banking
- Mobile money transfers-Ecocash, Telecash, OneWallet, etc
- Internet banking
- Electronic commerce/internet buying
- EFTPOS-Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale.
- Credits cards/debit cards, coupons, etc
Benefits of A cashless society
- More convenient to pay bills, mortgage loans, gas, phone and electricity bills
since these are paid automatically.
- Customersnolongerneedtocarrylargesumso fmoneytherebyreducingcases
o f robbery.
- Customers no longer need to queue on banks to get cash.
Problems of a Cashless Society:
- Creditisnormallygiveno nlytothosewhoareworkingandhaveasteadysource
o f income.
- People will spend more than they can afford thereby getting into debt.
- Wrong information about individuals iskeptasmoreinformationaboutpeople
is kept in computers for their credit rating.
- It is difficult for individuals to track how much they spent.
INTRANET
- I ntranet stands for INTernal Restricted Access NETwork, which is a restricted
privateo rganisation’snetworkthatusesinternettechnologiesforthebenefitso f
such an organisation.
- Anintranetisacomputernetworkbasedo ninternettechnologythatisdesigned
to meet the internal needs for sharing information within a single
o rganisation/company
- Intranet requires password entry.
- Intranet is protected by a firewall.
- Intranet only gives local information relevant to the company/organisation
- It is possible to block access to certain sites using the intranet, e.g Facebook.
- it is not always necessary to have external modems when using intranets
- information for use on intranets is stored on local servers
Many companies use intranets as well as the internet for the following reasons:
- it is safer since there is less chance of external hacking or viruses
- it is possible to prevent employees from accessing unwanted web sites
- companiescanensurethattheinformationavailableisspecifictotheirneeds
o nly
- it is easier to keep “sensitive” messages to remain within the company only
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Differences between internet and Intranet
Internet Intranet
the INTERNET is INTERnational NETwork a n INTRANET isINTernalRestrictedAccess
NETwork
Internetgivesallinformationincludingthat the intranet o nly gives local information
which is not relevant to the organisation relevant to the company/organisation
Always need external modems forinternet it is not always necessary to have external
connections modems when using intranets
Information o n internet saved in different information for use o n intranets is stored
computers o n local servers
the internet can be accessed from Intranet isaccessedwithintherangeo fthe
anywhere o rganisation’s network
the internet is available to anyone without whereas the intranet requires password
password restriction entry
xtranet: It isanintranetmadeavailableo ff-sitetomemberso rbusinesspartners
E
o f an o rganisation. It is an extension o f the intranet giving authorized o utsiders
controlled access to the intranet.
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY (WIFI) AND BROADBAND
roadband: a communications network that provides for high quality and high
B
speed voice, data and video transmission usually over o ne channel in wireless
networks or over high bandwidth media like fiber optics and satellites.
ireless Communication:
W
This is a method o f networking (linking) computers and computer deviceswithout
the use o f cabling(wires),e.g.usingBluetooth,radio,satellite,infra-red,microwave,
etc. The devices that can be used in wireless technology include:
- Mobile phones /cell phone/remote key pad/remote control/ remote keyboard.
- Infra-red mouse.
- Multimedia mobile handsets and notebooks.
- GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) modems.
- Wireless LAN(or Wi-Fi –Wireless Fidelity: A local area network that uses high
frequency radio signals to transmit and receive data over distances o f a few
hundred feet; uses Ethernet protocol).
- PDAs (personal digital assistants).
Advantages of wireless communication
- Cheaper as no wires are needed for networking.
- Ensures fast wireless Internet access.
- Wireless LAN is faster than a modem or mobile.
- Wireless LAN enables working at home.
- Userscancreateandsendmultimediamessagestomobileso re-mailwhilein
transit.
- Users can send greetings from mobiles to mobiles/PCs.
- Ensures instant transmission.
- Users can download e-mail and file attachments while o n mobile. Users can
watch live web cast on mobile.
- Users can listen to streaming video on mobile.
- Users can watch news, weather, sport, games while travelling.
- Users can access information from mobile anytime.
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- U sers can send, receive, delete e-mail while travelling.
- Users can view business appointments while out of office on mobile.
- Userscansendcorporatee-mailwhileo uto fo ffice-evenbehindafirewallo n
mobile.
- Users can use wireless internet connection from chat roomsfordiscussions
with colleagues while travelling.
ost areas intheworldnowo fferbroadbandratherthandialupforconnectingto
M
the internet. The advantages of broadband over dial up include:
- the system is always “on”-no need to dial into ISP every time you want access
- the connection rate/data transfer rate is much higher (forexamplebroadband
o perates at 11 000 kbps compared to the dial up rate of 60 kbps)
- there is a flat monthly rate with broadband (dial up is charged per hour o f
usage)
- it is possible to use the telephone at the same as the internet with
broadband/the line isn’t tied up
- broadband permits other facilities such as “skype”
- Wireless technology (WiFi) allows connection o f a computer to the Internet
without the need for connecting cables. A router (containing a modem and
external aerial) is connected to a telephone line and it is thenpossibleforany
computerwithinrangetocommunicatewiththerouterandallowInternetaccess
– the link between computer and router is completely wireless.. The main
advantage o f doing this is clearly the portability (i.e. can go anywhere within
range since no wires are needed).
isadvantages of Wireless Technology
D
- Wireless LAN speeds are slower than Net access at work due to narrow
bandwidth.
- AnyonewithintheWirelessLANnodesrangewithanappropriatedevicecanuse
your Wireless LAN and broad band link.
- Anyonewhowalkspastyourhouseo rWLANlinkedintoacorporatesystemcan
access sensitive information like credit card details.
- 3G phones are not compatible with 2G phones.
- Signals can be blocked, distorted or will be weak.
- Can lead to health problems from microwaves
- the range can be very limited, e.g. using Bluetooth.
- possible interference from nearby electronic devices
- security issues (i.e. tapping illegally into WiFi networks) is very common
- access speed/transfer rate is often slower using wireless systems
I t isn’t just computers that can be linked without wires, various peripheraldevices
can be linked to a computer system without the need for a physical, wired
connection.
For example:
- Printers
- Keyboards
- Mouse
- Digital cameras
COMPUTERS IN ENTERTAINMENT
Music
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omputersarenowusedforplayingandcomposingmusic.Computerhardwareand
C
software advances have changed how music is generated and produced. Software
used includes Fruit Loops, Virtual DJ, etc.
Musical instruments can be connected to a MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital
Interface).
MIDI is a type o f serial interface built intoapieceo felectricalequipmentsothatit
can communicate with the computer. It also converts o utput signals from the
instrument, e.g. guitar, into digital form.
Someo fthekeyreasonsforthewidespreaddevelopmento fmusicusingcomputers
are:
- the recording process for music is faster
- there is no need for tapes during the recording process
- It is easier to remove or add sounds to a track.
- Sampling of sounds is very easy
- actual musical notes can be generated from the music itself by software
- musicsamplersandmixersgiveanalmostlimitlessabilitytoaltertheo riginal
tracks recorded in a studio
- don’t need to understand music notation to write a musical score
- electricinstruments(suchasguitarsando rgans)playbackthroughelectronic
machines
- synthesisers combine simple wave forms to produce more complex sounds
- electric o rgans can now mimic almost any instrument (including a full
o rchestra)
- automatic rhythm
- music notes automatically printed out in the correct format
- Therearemanyo thersoftwareandhardwaredevelopments;theaboveisjust
a summary of the more common elements.
- A performance can be directly recorded o nto the computer and stored ina
MIDI file, which can be edited later.
- Synthesisers are also used to generate notes and desired sounds from
pre-recorded electrical signals. These signals can be combined with signals
from conventional instruments and recorded to produce songs.
Music can be compressed to produce MP3 (motion picture expert) format.
Music can be played using software likeMicrosoftWindowsMediaPlayer,JetAudio,
Nero Show Time, Real Player, etc.
ANIMATION/CARTOONS IN FILMS AND VIDEO/TELEVISION
omputer Graphics
C
These are computer generated images designed by graphic artists for producing
logos, news inserts, cartoons, animations, etc. The artists use graphic software like
Microsoft Paint. 3-D images can also be produced using graphics packages.
I mage processing: The images can be darkened, sharpened, changed colour,
cropped, etc.
nimation
A
- Animation consists o f displaying a rapid succession o f 2-D o r 3-D graphics
arrangementstocreatetheillusiono fmovement.Itisusedforwebpresentations
and advertisements and for film.
- Computeranimationisthearto fcreatingmovingimagesviacomputerhardware
and software.
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- F or 3-D animation, o bjects are designed o n a computer and a 3-D skeleton is
produced.
- Thelimbs,mouth,eyes,etc.aremovedbytheanimatorusingkeyframes.Aframe
can just be a picture/graphic image.
- A start and end of frame is produced.
- Software is used to produce animation between the different frames automatically.
- Thedifferencesinappearancebetweenkeyframesareautomaticallycalculatedby
the computer – this is called TWEENING o r MORPHING. The animation isfinally
RENDERED (i.e. turned into a realistic image).
- Computer animation uses a technique called avars (animation variable) which
control all movement of the animated character.
- Finally,surfacesareaddedrequiringaprocesscalledrendering(i.e.turnedintoa
realistic image).
- avarscanbesetmanuallyusingajoystick.Softwareproducesalevelo fqualityfor
movie animation that would take many years to produce by hand and would
employ several cartoonists/animators.
- This all saves considerable time and money to the film and television producers.
- A vatars are another example o f animation. These are o ften used to represent
peopleeitherin3-D(asusedincomputergames)andin2-D(asusedininternet
message boards).
- Some avatars are animated consisting o f a sequence o f images played o neafter
the other.
- Ultimately, animators want to create a human image which moves and interacts
withitsbackgroundinsuchawaythattheviewerscan’ttellifaparticularsceneis
computer generated o r produced by real actions in front o f an actual movie
camera.
- Sounds can be added to the animation toproduceadvertisements,cartoonsand
films.
- Computers with large hard disk and powerful processorsareneeded,aswellas
high resolution monitors
- Special effects in many modern films (televisions) all usecomputeranimationto
produce fantasy worlds.
COMPUTER BASED TRAINING (CBT)
- C BT makes use of a computer system to train people in a number of applications.
- Itmakesuseo fmultimediaandself-assessmentwithminimuminputneededfrom
a human trainer.
- The advantages of training people using computer systems (such as CBT) include:
● trainees can work at their own speed
● trainees can learn when they want
● it is possible to re-run sections of the training program if necessary
● possible to come back at any time/pause training program at any point
● user gets immediate assessment of performance
● possible to include multi-media elements in the training package
● noneedtohaveateacher/classroom–potentialcostsavingstherefore
possible
● it is easier to keep up to date/amend
AUTOMATIC STOCK CONTROL SYSTEM IN A SUPERMARKET
At the POS terminal, the hardware required includes:
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(a)Input Hardware:
- barcode reader (automatically enter details o f goods purchased into the
computer by scanning them),
- keyboard (manually typing in product codeifthebarcodereaderfailstodo
so),
- mouse (selecting item by clicking)
- touch screen: for selecting menu and entering datainto the computer
- swiping machine: for entering PIN and swiping debitcards
(b)Output Devices:
- printer(producing receipts),
- monitor (VDU) -displays item details and itemsthatarebeingpurchasedby
the client, amount paid and change
(c) Communication devices
- NetworkCables:connectingtheVDUtothemaincomputerinthemanager’s
o ffice
- Telephone line/high distance communication link: for o nline linkage o f
the POS terminal and the bank.
rocedure of automatic stock control
P
- barcodesareattachedtoallgoods/itemssoldbythesupermarketasameans
o f identification
- each bar code is associated with a stock file on a computer database
- the customer takes their basket/trolley to the POS terminal
- the bar code o n the product is scanned at the point o f sale (POS) terminal
using the barcode reader
- if the bar code can’t be read, the POS o perator has to key in the bar code
number manually using a keyboard/key pad
- the bar code is searched from the database
- o nce the bar code is identified/found, the appropriate file/record is accessed
- the price of the good/item is found and sent back to the POS
- the stock level of the item is reduced by 1
- if the stock level is less than o r equal to the re-order/minimum stock level
then the system automatically re-orders goods/items from the suppliers
- thisprocedureisrepeateduntilalltheitemsinthecustomer’sbasket/trolley
have scanned
- when all items/goods have been scanned, the customer isgivenanitemised
bill showing a list (with prices) of everything they have bought
- the computer also updates the files containing the daily takings
- if the customer has a loyalty card, the system automatically updates their
points total
- when new goods arrive, the bar codes are used to update the stock files
- some newer supermarkets now allow customers to scan their own
basket/trolley and pay for the items/goods using credit card o r cash
(essentially the stock control system is the same for both methods)
he POS terminals can also be connected to the main server in banks like CABS,
T
Barclays, etc. This enables customers to purchase goods electronically without the
burden o f carrying casharound.ThisiscalledElectronicFundsTransferatPoint
of Sale (EFTPOS). Customers can also be given cash back at the EFTPOS after
purchasing goods using debit cards.
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fterpurchasingthegoods,areceiptisproduced.Thereceiptwillhavethefollowing
A
details:
- date of purchase,
- time purchased,
- shop attendant,
- item (s) bought,
- quantity bought,
- unit price,
- total price,
- amount tendered,
- change,
- cashier name
- etc.
Advantages of Electronic POS terminal to supermarket workers
- no need to remember (memorise) price of goods
- their work load is reduced
- ensures accurate calculation of customer change
- ensures better working environment which means less stress
- fast means of entering data which is less manual
Advantages of Electronic POS terminal to customers
- customers are served quickly
- customers are assured that their change is correctly calculated
- customers can get cash back if the POS is linked to banks
- no need for customers to carry cash around o nce the system is linked to
banks thereby reduces theft of their cash
Advantages of Electronic POS terminal to supermarket managers
- It is automatic and more accurate to control stock.
- Automatic updating of stock file is ensured.
- Automatic reordering of stock items is involved.
- Less staff and wages needed.
- Sales statistics are always available.
- Faster throughput is ensured.
- Itemised receipts are produced quickly.
- The system records every transaction.
- The system records staff work rates.
- Less pilfering by staff as it is easier to identify pilfering.
- Fewer errors are produced. Faster calculations are made.
- There is no need to remember prices of goods.
- Manager is freed from the task o f manually counting the stock items and
placing some orders.
B. The system updates the master file when an item is sold. It first searches the
N
master file. Usingthebarcodenumber(orproductcode)itdecreasethenumberin
stock and increase the quantity sold
* NB: POS –Point of Sale terminal: the point where customers pay for goods
purchased in shops, either by cash or otherwise.
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ifference between Electronic Point Of Sale (EPOS) and Electronic Funds
D
Transfer at Point Of Sale (EFTPOS).
EPOSterminalo nlyinvolvesscanningo fgoodselectronicallybyuseo fbarcodesand
bykeyboardentry.EFTPOSinvolveselectronicscanningo fgoodsatpointo fsaleby
use o f scanners and barcodes (and use o f keyboard) and has an added featureo f
allowing customers to transfer money from o ne account to another, usually to the
account o f the shop where the goods are being bought. Customers can also get
cash-back at the EFTPOS terminal in shops.
BASIC BINARY OPERATIONS
* NB. Could not compile notes on this as most, if notall, of the concepts are covered
in mathematics. However pupils should be able to perform the following:
(a) Using up to 8 bits
- Convert denary numbers to their binary equivalent
- Convert binary numbers to their denary equivalents
- Adding binary numbers together
- Subtraction of binary numbers
LOGIC GATES
- A logic gate is a device that produces signals o f 1 o r 0 when the input logic
requirements are met and are used in manipulating binary information.
- A logic gate is a device (or electrical circuit) that performs o ne o r more logical
o perations on one or more input signals.
- Its output representBoolean(T or F) or binary values(1 or 0) as voltages.
- Logic gates are the building blocks of digital technology.
- They can be used in applications like:
● Building computer chips
● Programming traffic signals
● Chips for automatic alarm systems
● Chips for automated control systems
- Electronic circuits operate using binary logic gates.
- Logic gates process signals which representTRUEo rFALSE,ONo rOFF,1o r0
Main Logic Gates
The main logic gates are:
( a) OR gate
(b) AND gate
(c)NOT gate
(d) NOR gate
(e)NAND gate
Logic gates are used withtruth tables.
● A truthtableisatablewhichshowshowalogiccircuit'so utputrespondsto
various combinations of the inputs, usinglogic1for true andlogic0for false.
● A truth table is a table that describes the behaviour of a logic gate.
● It lists the value of the output for every possible combination of the inputs
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● T ruth tables contains 1s and 0s and are an integral part o f logic gates
functionality.
● Truth table and logic gates use the following:
- 1 (True, ON, Not False)
- 0 (False, OFF, Not True)
he number o f rows in a truth table shows the numbero fcombinationso fthe
T
inputso faparticularcircuit.Thenumbero frowsforeachgateisfoundusingthe
followingformulae:rows=2n ,nbeingthenumbero finputsinthegateo rcircuit.
For example, a gate o r circuit has the following rows corresponding to the
number of input (excluding column headings):
- 1 input = 21= 2 rows
- 2 inputs = 22= 4 rows
- 3 inputs = 23= 8 rows
- …..
Graphical Representation of Gates and their Truth Tables
achlogicgatehasitsownuniquegraphicalrepresentation,whichcanbeingeneral
E
form or in standard form.
(1)General form
Each logic gate has a circle and the name o f thegatetodifferentiateitfrom
the rest as given below:
The name inside the gate gives us the type of the gate
(2)Standard Representation
In standard form, each logic gate has its own unique diagram. Even if the
name o f the gateisnotwritten,o neknowswhatitstandsforbecauseo fthe
shape. The following are the logic gates and their shapes in standard form.
(a)OR gate
his represents two inputs entering the gate and o ne o utput from the gate.
T
The inputs can be represented by any alphabetic characters, e.g. A and B,
while the output can be X, given as follows:
Logic Gate Diagram Truth table
Standard Form General Form
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- = AORB
X
- The output (X) istrueif theINPUT A OR INPUT Baretrue.
- Thus if any one of the inputs is 1, the output is automatically 1
- Output only becomes 0 if all inputs are 0
(b)AND gate
This is represented as follows:
Logic Gate Diagram Truth table
Standard Form General Form
heo utput(X)iso nlytrueiftheINPUTAANDINPUTBarebothtrue.Ifanyo neo f
T
the inputs is 0, then the output becomes 0 also. Thus X = AANDB.
(c) NOT gate
Logic Gate Diagram Truth table
Standard Form General Form
heNOTgatehasonlyo neinputando neo utput.Theinputisnegated.Thusifinput
T
is 1, output is 0, and vice versa.
The output (X) istruewhen theINPUT AisNOT TRUE.
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The output (X) isFalsewhen theINPUT AisTRUE.
(d) NOR gate
Logic Gate Diagram Truth table
Standard Form General Form
- T his is anORgate with the output X inverted.
- The output (X) istrueifNOT(INPUT A OR INPUT B)aretrue.
- Thus X = NOT (A or B)
(e)NAND gate
Logic Gate Diagram Truth table
Standard Form General Form
his is an AND gatewiththeo utputXinverted.Theo utputistrueifINPUTAAND
T
INPUT BareNOTbothTrue.It translates to NOT (Aand B)
Combinational Logic Gates
combination o f logic gates, which may be different, gives a logic circuit as given
A
below:
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Boolean Expressions
oolean Expressions are equivalent expressions o f the logic state o f gates. For
B
example, the Boolean expression for:
aNOTgate with input A and output C: C =NOTA
ANDandNORgatesareknownasuniversalgatesbecausetheyareinexpensiveto
N
manufacture and any Boolean function (AND, OR, NOT) can be constructed using
o nly NAND o r o nly NOR gates. Even NAND and NOR gates can be used as each
o ther’s alternatives in a circuit.
Expressions and Logic Gates
xpressions using mathematical symbols can be used to represent logic gates.One
E
may be required to draw logic gates using such mathematical expressions Such
symbols and their meaning are as given below:
1. P lus sign (+)
- This means OR, e.g.
- C= A + B
- This is an OR gate, which means C = A OR B.
2. M ultiplication Sign
- This represents an AND gate
- E.g C = AB,
- C = AxB,
- C = A.B
- C= (AB)(AC)
- C = (A.B).(A.C)
- All these are various versions of the AND gate.
3. C omplement sign (‘ or – above an input)
- This represents a NOT gate
- For example: NOT A can be given as any one of the following:
● A’
●
Logic Gate Problems:
Question: Worked Example
steel rolling mill is to be controlled by a logic network made upo fAND,ORand
A
NOTgateso nly.Themillreceivesastopsignal(i.e.S=1)dependingo nthefollowing
input bits:
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A stop signal (S = 1) occurs when:
Either: Length, L > 100 metres and Velocity, V < =10 m/s
Or Temperature, T <=1000 C and Velocity, V >10 m/s
raw a logic network and truth table to show all the possible situations when the
D
stop signal could be received.
Answer
Step 1: Deduce and Write the logic statement
- T he first statement can be re-written as: (L=1ANDV=NOT1)sinceLength>
100 metres corresponds to a binary value o f 1 and Velocity <=10 m/s
corresponds to a binary value of 0 (i.e. NOT 1).
- The second statement can be written as (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1)
- Both these statements are joined together by OR which gives us the logic
statement: if (L = 1 AND V = NOT 1) OR (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1) then S = 1
- The above statement can be written as: S = 1 if (L=1ANDV=NOT1)OR(T=
NOT 1 AND V = 1)
B: the Student should first of all write the following logic statement before
N
comingupwithatruthtableorlogicc ircuitasthishassomemarksawardedto
it., i.e.
S = 1 if (L = 1 AND V = NOT 1) OR (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1)
Step 2: Logic Circuit
- U
sing the logic statement above, o ne can now draw the logic circuit as given
below:
Step 3: Truth Table
- One can now draw the truth table, basing from the logic statement in Step 1.
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Questions
. A computer will o nly o perate if three switches P, S and T are correctly set. An
1
o utputsignal(X=1)willo ccurifRandSarebothONo rifRisOFFandSandTare
ON. Design a logic network and draw the truth table for this network.
2. A traffic signal system will only operate if it receives an output signal (D = 1).
This can only occur if:
Either (a) signal A is red (i.e. A = 0)
Or (b) signal A is green (i.e. A = 1) and signals B and C are both red (i.e. B
and C are both 0)
Design a logic network and draw a truth table for the above system.
.Achemicalplantgiveso utawarningsignal(W=1)whentheprocessgoeswrong.
3
A logic network is used to provide input and to decide whether or not W = 1
A warning signal (W = 1) will be generated if
either : (a) Chemical Rate < 10 m /s
o r (b) Temperature > 87 C and Concentration > 2 moles
o r (c) Chemical rate = 10 m /s and Temperature > 87 C
raw a logic network and truth table to show all the possible situations when the
D
warning signal could be received
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. A power station has a safety system based o n threeinputstoalogicnetwork.A
4
warning signal (S =1)isproducedwhencertainconditionso ccurbasedo nthese3
inputs:
A warning signal (S = 1) will be generated if:
Either : (a) Temperature > 120C and Cooling Water <= 100 l/hr
Or (b)Temperature<=120Cand(Pressure>10baro rCoolingWater<100
l/hr)
raw a logic network and truth table to show all the possible situations when the
D
warning signal could be received.
. Draw a circuit diagram for δ = (xy' + x'y)z
5
6. Device a suitable Boolean expression and truth table for the circuit below:
. Draw circuits for following Boolean statements.
7
a. If A AND B are on AND C AND D are on then output is on.
b. If A OR B are on AND C OR D are on then output is on.
c. If A OR B is on then output is off.
d. If B AND C is off OR A is on then output is on.
e. If A is off AND B OR C is on AND D is off then output is on.
f. If A is on AND B AND C are off AND D is on then output is on.
g. If smoke detector (S) is on OR fire alarm (F) is on then sprinkler (W) is on.
8. a. Simplify the following logic equations by using the rules of Boolean algebra.
a. A • C + A • B • C
b. (A + B) • (B + Ā )
c. A • (Ā + C) + C
. For each o f the previous questions, create a circuit for the Boolean expression
b
before simplification.
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AM(COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURE)
C
This is automated manufacturing process where computers are used to regulate
(control) and monitor the production process in industries.
CAM uses some industrial robots or computer-controlled sensors for detecting:
● Excessive heat
● Faults
● Acceleration forces
CAM works well with CAD systems. Machinery is programmed automatically
A real CAD/CAM system enables any engineering component to be designed and
manufacturedusingnumericallycontrolledmachinetools.Thecomputermakesome
calculations for defining the tool path and generates the instructions necessary to
produce the part.Amachinetoolsuchasalatheiscontrolledbyacomputerwhich
sends it instructions to select tools and to use them to make metal components.
CAMandCADsystemsystemsareintegrated.DatafromCADsystemisconvertedtoa
seto finstructionsfortheprocessorcontrollingtheCAMequipment.Onceaparthas
been designed using the CAD software, the o ther processes are automatic. The
following are involved:
(a) Conversion of data into a set of machine tool instructions;
(b) Operation of the CAM system:
a. Selection of tools, e.g. cutter, drills, etc.
b. Selection of speed e.g. for drills
c. Movement of the tool to machine the part being manufactured.
CLOSED-CIRCUIT TELEVISION (CCTV)
- C losed-circuittelevisionistheuseo fo neo rmorevideocamerastoproducevideo
signalsthatarenotbroadcast,butdisplayedo namonitorscreen.Theimagesmay
be recorded.
- The camera may be remotely controlled by an o perator o r by a computer that
receives data from sensors signalling an event of interest in a particular area.
- Thecomputer’ssoftwarecouldreactbytiltingandzoomingtheCCTVcamerao nto
the area protected by the sensor and starting to record the camera’s video stream.
- Mostlyusedinshopstorecordalltransactions,e.g.capturingvideoo fcustomers.
It can be easy to identify shoplifters and thus reducing theft of goods in shops.
- CCTV is nowbeingusedeventorecordstreetevents.Thishasbeentriggeredby
rise in terrorist activities especially in Western countries and the United States.
COMPUTER NETWORKS
efinition of Terms
D
a. Network: A connection o f computersforthemtosharedata,filesandresources
like a printer.
b. Data communication: The process o f transferring data through networked
computers
dvantages of Networking
A
- Expensive peripherals like printers and scanners can be shared between users.
- Messages can be sent easily and faster between users whether on WAN or LAN.
- Avoids duplication o f information as users can access the same file o n the
network.
- Networksoftwarecanbepurchasedcheaplythanbuyingindividualpackagesfor
each computer.
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- I t is possible to access data or programs from any terminal or workstation.
- Data and programs can be stored centrally making it easier to maintain and
backup.
- Users can be easily prevented from accessing files not intended for them.
- Allows sharing of files, software and data held in computers.
- Allows emails to be send between users.
isadvantages of Networking
D
- Sophisticated equipment is needed, which may be expensive to buy.
- Security of data can be a problem due to hacking.
- Wiring can be expensive both to buy and to install; wiring can be sunk o n the
ground to avoid trailing cables.
- If a server breaks down, the whole network becomes unusable.
- Networks need experienced network managers, who will be highly paid tokeep
the network running.
ypes of Networks
T
- Computer networks are grouped into Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide
Area Networks (WAN).
- However we also have WLAN (Wireless Local Area Networks), MAN
(Metropolitan Area Networks) and PAN(PersonalAreaNetworks);andthese
are described below.
. Local Area Networks (LAN)
1
This is the connection o f computers over a very small geographical area, like in a
singleroom,forusertosharefiles,data,softwareandhardwarelikeprinters.Other
LANs can link different departments (e.g. Sales, Accounts, Warehousing, Despatch,
etc) within an o rganisation’s complex.ALANisusuallyownedbyo neo rganisation.
However, if an o rganisation uses internet service within its restricted privateLocal
Area Network, such a network is called an Intranet (private network).
NB: Intranet is aprivateo rganisation’snetworkthatusesinternettechnologiesfor
the benefits of such an organisation.
Extranet: an extension o f the intranet giving authorized o utsiders
controlled/limited access to the intranet.
equirements for a LAN Connection
R
A. Hardware Requirements
1. Host computer / Server: This is the main computer that control and manage
o ther computers on the network.
2. Terminals: These are computers that are o n the network and are linked to the
host computer. If the terminal has its own processing and storage capabilities, itis
called an intelligent terminal. However, if the terminal does not have its own
processing andstoragefacilitiesandrelieso nthehostcomputerforittowork,itis
called adump terminal.
3. Network c ables: These act as pathway for data from o ne computer to another.
Cables can be coaxial, fibre optics, twisted pair, etc.
4. Hub: a device used as a connection point for devicesandcomputerso naLocal
Area Network. Usually used when connecting computers to a star network.
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. Network c ards for each computer/terminal: -adevicethatidentifiescomputers
5
to the network, where network cables are plugged on the computer
B:AbridgecanalsobeconnectedtolinkaLocalAreaNetworktoanothernetwork
N
and isan optionalrequirement.
owever, some networks are now using wireless technology and these are called
H
WirelessLocalAreaNetworks(WLAN).WLANusesradiosignalsandthereforeno
cabling is required.
The diagram below shows thestructureo faLANthatcanbeconnectedtoanother
network.
oftware Requirements for A LAN Connection
S
a. Communication softwarelikeTCP/IP–TransmissionControlProtocolInternet
Protocol. A protocol is a set o f rules followed by devices when they are
communicating.
b. Network operating system: manages the network andnetwork devices
. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
2
AnetworksimilartoaLAN,butusuallyextendstoalargergeographicalarea,usually
thewholecityandisownedbyaconsortiumo fusers.Thenetworkiso nlyaccessed
by a group o f users as defined by the o rganisation, e.g students o f a certain
university. It enables users to do researches, share files, libraries, local email and
video conferencing.
. Wide Area Network (WAN)
3
Refers to the connection o f computersoveralargegeographicalarea,o ftenover1
km, e.g. covering the whole district, province o r differentcountries.Internetisalso
part of WAN. WANs can also be wireless.
ardware Requirements for a WAN
H
a. Modem (Modulator Demodulator):- a devicethatconvertsanaloguedatafrom
the telephone line to digital data that can beunderstoodbythecomputerandvice
versa; o ften for internet connection using a telephone line. They can be used as
gateway for connecting LAN to a WAN
b. Communication link: Acts as a transmission media fordata,e.g.telephoneline,
satellite transmission, etc.
c . Network c ards for each computer:- a device that identifies computers to the
network, where network cables are plugged on the computer
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oftware Requirements for a WAN
S
i. Communication Software like TCP/IP –TransmissionControlProtocolInternet
Protocol.
ii.WebBrowser:referstosoftwareusedforo peningwebpageso ntheinternet,for
example Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla Firefox, etc. it is
used by users to hook to the internet.
iii. Network operating system: manages the networkand network devices.
. PAN (Personal Area Network)
4
This a very much limited network, usually used by o ne person. This can also be
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN), for example connection through
Bluetooth. Bluetooth connects different devices, usually over a short distance.
PAN enables user to transfer files from a laptop to a PDA, camera o r Personal
A
Computer.
etwork Topology (Configuration)
N
This referstotheshape/configurationo fthenetwork.Commonnetworktopologies
are Ring, bus, star and mesh network topologies.
. Ring Network:
1
- Computers are connected together to form a circle and uses a token when
transferring data.
- Data/information travels in one direction only.
- Information moves around the ring in sequence from its source to its destination.
- Asdatapassesfromo necomputertoanotherinthering,eachcomputerremoves
any data relevant to itself and adds any data it wishes to send.
- The diagram below illustrates the physical configuration of a ring network:
dvantages of Ring Network
A
- Data processing is faster as each computer processes its own processor.
- Has very high data transfer rates.
- Uses a token to avoid data collision or loss
- it is possible to create large networks using this topology
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- If o ne computer breaks down, o therswillremainworkingastheyhavetheirown
processors and storage facilities.
- Performs better than star network when traffic is very heavy.
isadvantages of Ring Network
D
- If one computer breaks down, the whole network is disrupted.
- a faulty connection between two stations can cause network failure
- Itsrequirementsareexpensive,thatisbuyingseveralcomputerswithprocessors
and storage facilities.
- It is difficult to link the computers together.
- Difficult to add another computer without disrupting the networking.
- Onlythecomputerwiththetokenisallowedtosenddataatagiventime.Onemay
not send data when another node (computer) is still sending its own data.
- Systemislesssecureastokentogetherwithdatahastopassthrougho thernodes
that do not concern it.
. Star Network:
2
Computers form a star shape with host computer at the centre.
The Server (host computer) manages all other computers/terminals on the network.
If the terminals are not intelligent, they have to rely o n the host computer for
everything.
This network is as shown below:
dvantages of Star Network
A
- If one terminal breaks down, the network is not disrupted.
- It is cheap in terms o f requirements since o nly the host computer can have a
processor and storage facility.
- It is very easy to install.
- Management of data is easier as this is done centrally.
- It is very fast to process data.
- Easier to add new workstation without disrupting the network.
- No problem o f collision o f data since each terminal hasitsowncabletothehost
computer.
- Gives consistent performance even when the network is heavily utilised.
- More secure than other network topologies
- it is easier to identify faults using this type of topology
- It is easy to expand this type of network
- If one terminal breaks down, others will remain working.
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isadvantages of a Star Network
D
- If the host computer breaks down, the whole network will be disrupted.
- Ifthehostcomputerisdown,alltheterminalswillnotworkastheydependo nthe
host for processing and storage.
- It requires a lot of cabling, which might be expensive.
- Can be slower if overloaded
. Mesh Network
3
- A network in which each computer serves as a relay point for directly sending
information to any other computer on the network.
- Nocentraldeviceoverseesameshnetwork,andnosetrouteisusedtopassdata
back and forth between computers.
- Thus, if any o ne computer isdamagedo rtemporarilyunavailable,informationis
dynamically rerouted to other computers—a process known asself-healing
dvantages of Mesh Network
A
- If one computer breaks down, others will remain functional.
- If one computer breaks down, the network is not disturbed.
- Computers have their own storage and processing capabilities.
isadvantages of Mesh Network
D
- Expensive to buy computers with their storage and processing facilities.
- Too much cabling is involved, which may be expensive.
. Bus (Linear/Multi-drop) Network:
4
Computers are connected together through o ne main cable and all computers all
signals transmitted by any computer connected to the network
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efinition of Terms
D
(a)Bus/Backbone:thededicatedandmaincablethatconnectsallworkstationsand
o ther computer devices like printers.
(b)Nodes: these are connection points for workstationsand the bus.
(c) Terminator: devices that prevent data in the bus from bouncing back, causing
noise and prevents data from getting lost.
dvantages of Bus network
A
- If one workstation breaks down, others will remain functional.
- If one workstation breaks down, the network remains working.
- All computers have processing and storage capabilities.
- It is cheap to install due to less cabling.
- Easy to add workstation without disrupting the network.
- Requires less cabling than astarnetwork.
- Less expensive network than the other systems
Disadvantages of Bus Network
- Computers cannot send data at the same time nor while there is data being
transferred in the bus.
- Can cause collision of data during transmission.
- It is slow in transferring data.
- Itsrequirementsareexpensive,thatiscomputerswiththeirownprocessorsand
storage facilities.
- The system will be down if the main cable (bus) is disrupted at any point.
- Less secure.
- Performance worsens as new stations added
B:Point–to-PointConnection:Point-to-pointtopologyisthesimplestconnection,
N
consisting of two connected computers.
PEER T0 PEER NETWORKS
- A peer-to-peer network is the one which does not have a server.
- All computers have an equal status.
- Each workstation can use resources from any o ther workstation and
communicate directly with every o thernodeo nthenetworkwithoutusinga
server.
- Used when users do their own work and share data.
- Storage facilities are distributed throughout the network
- It can be difficult to remember which files are located in which computer
- Each computer has its own software
- Less expensive
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- Less difficult to administer
- Appropriate for small businesses
- Security is not centralised
- Backup is a responsibility of individual computer user
- Cheap to use
- No need for special network operating system
iagram:
D
Server based Networks
-
ETWORK PROTOCOLS
N
A protocol is a set o f rules that governs how communication between twodevices
will occur. Such devices might be computers themselves, between modems.
A network communication protocol: a standard method for transmitting data from
o necomputertoanotheracrossanetwork.Someo ftheprotocolsthatwearegoing
to look at are:
i. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol)
TCP: It ensures that data is transmitted accurately
IP: It ensures that data is transmitted to its correct address (IP address).
Every device o n the internet has its IP address. It also ensures that packets
are rearranged to the original message on arrival of their destination.
ii. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
This is a protocol that defines the process o f identifying, requesting and
transferring multimedia web pages over the internet. It is used for
transferringdataacrosstheinternet,usuallybetweenserversandcomputers
o ntheinternet.Itisbasedo ntheclient–serverrelationship.ItusesTCP/IPto
transmit data and messages
iii. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
itisaprotocolusedtotransferdatafromo necomputertoanother.Itiso ften
usedtodownloadsoftwarefromtheinternet,anditusestheTCP/IPprotocol
in doing this. However, FTP has no security to data as the data is not
encrypted prior to its transmission.
iv. TELNET
This is a network protocol that allows a computer user to gain access to
anothercomputeranduseitssoftwareanddata,usuallyo naLANando nthe
Internet.Itallowsuserstoaccessdatastoredo nserversfromtheirterminals.
Telnet allows computers toconnecttoeacho therandallowssharingo fdata
and files. Telnet has security problems especially on the internet.
v. VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)
It is a method o f using the internet to make o rdinary voice telephone calls.
Thusitisawayo fhavingphoneconversationsusingtheinternetasawayo f
communication.ByVoIP,internationalandlongdistancecallsareo fthesame
priceaslocalcallsandsometimesareforfree.However,thesystemdoesnot
o ffer emergency calls. An example of VoIP is Skype.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
S ystems Analysis is the detailed investigating the current system to determine is
problems, requirements and the best way of solving the problems.
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ystem: A groupso felementsworkingtogethertoachieveacommongoal.Systems
S
are of two types:
Physical system: refers to tangible systems like schools,firm, shop, etc
Conceptualsystems:theseexistinmindo rpaperandcannotbetouched.Theyjust
represent a physical system.
This chapter is concerned with the development and maintenance o f system like
stock control, patient monitoring, banking and payroll which are part o f physical
systems.
he systems analyst
T
Thisisapersonwhoidentifiesproblemso ftheexistingsystemandrecommendsthe
best solution to such a problem. The duties of a systems analyst are:
● Identifies the problems of the current system.
● Liaises with system users and determine their requirements.
● Finds out facts important to the design of the new system.
● Determines the human and computer procedures that will make up the
system.
● Participates in the process of system implementation.
By performing such duties the systems analyst acts as:
i. A consultant: can be called or hired to identify problemsin a system
ii. A supporting expert: draws together professional expertise concerning
computer hardware and software and their uses in business.
iii.An agent of change: bring new ideas into the organisation
Qualities of a systems analyst
● Must have good o ral and written communication skills for all managerial
levels of an organisation.
● Must be able to work as a team.
● Must be well educated, with at least a degree.
● Must be well experienced in computers and at top managerial levels.
● Must have good managerial skills.
● Must be a problem solver and see problems as challenges.
● Must be self-motivated. Must be well disciplined.
● Must be able to work under pressure and meet deadlines.
I nitiation (Origination) Of Systems Analysis
Changes to a system can be triggered by many factors, some of which are:
i. System users:theymaybedissatisfiedwiththecurrentsystemsincetheyarethe
o nes who o perate it. They will the sent requests to have a new system o r some
modification to the existing one.
ii.Topmanagement:theymayissuedirectivesino rdertomeetnewo rganisational
o bjectives. It can also be due to change in management (new manager), new
requirements, etc.
iii.Theneedforimprovedoperatingefficiency:Errorsintheexistingsystemsmay
be intolerable, especially to customers.
iv. Changes intechnology:newhardwareandsoftwaremayforceo rganisationsto
change their ways of operation.
v. Change of government policies: new government laws and policies can force
o rganisations to change their systems
vi. The user can change his mind
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ystems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
S
Thisreferstothestagesthroughwhichasystemdevelopsfrom‘birth’to‘death’,i.e.
from the moment the system is incepteduntilitismodifiedo rreplacedwithanew
o ne.
Can also be referred to as the Waterfall Model
The stages, in their order, include:
● Problem identification,
● Fact Finding
● feasibility study,
● analysis,
● design,
● Development and testing
● Documentation and user training
● implementation,
● Evaluation/review/maintenance.
Below is a diagram that indicates the SDLC stages
Below is an explanation of each of the stages listed above:
. Problem identification/Recognition/Definition/Realisation:
1
This is where the problems of the current system are stated.
These might have beenrealisedbysystemuserso rbymanagers.Thesystemmight
be producing wrong results.
This includes the general statement o f the problems being experienced by the
system.
2. Fact Finding/Data Collection/Investigation
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his isthestagewherebytheanalystcollectsdatafromusers,managementandthe
T
stakeholders, about the current system. Each data collection procedure is
appropriate for a given situation, not in all cases. A number o f data collection
techniques are employed, including the following: Questionnaire, interview, Record
inspection and Observation.
Some automatic data collection procedures may be used also.
ata Collection Procedures
D
Terms used in data gathering include:
a. Interviewer: The person who asks questions in orderto solicit information
b.Interviewee(respondent):intervieweeisapersonwhoisaskedquestionsandis
expected to give information to the interviewer.
c . Population: The averagenumbero fpeopleinanareawherearesearchistobe
carried out.
d. Sample: Fraction of the population who actuallytake part in the research.
i . Interview:
Thisreferstotheface-to-facecommunicationbetweentwoo rmorepeopleino rder
to o btain information. Interviews can also be done over the phone but the most
common o nes are face to face. Interviews are done when you want to collect
information from a very small population sample.
Advantages of Interviews
● The researcher can ask for clarification on some points that may not be clear.
● Encourages good rapport between the researcher and the respondent.
● Non-verbal gestures like facial expressions can help the researcher to
determine if the respondent is telling the truth.
● Information can be collected even from the illiterate since the respondent’s
language could be used.
● First-hand information is collected.
● The researcher can probe to get more information.
Disadvantages of Interviews
● It is impossible to remain anonymous on the part of the interviewee.
● It is expensive since the researcher has to travel to the interview venue.
● It is time consuming as more time is spent travelling and carrying o ut the
interview.
● Good interview techniques are required as failure may lead to
disappointments.
● Biased information can be given since the respondent may not tell the truth.
ii. Record/Document inspection:
● A factfindingmethodwhichinvolvesscrutinisingsystemdocumentsino rder
to solicit information.
Record inspection has the following advantages:
● Accurate information is collected from system records.
● First-hand information is obtained
Disadvantages of record inspection
● It is time consuming to go through all system records.
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● M anual files can be tiresome to go through and some o f the data may be
illegible.
● Confidential files are not given to the researcher
i ii. Questionnaire:
A document with carefully crafted questions to be answered by therespondentby
filling o n the spaces provided.Questionnairesareusedwhencollectinginformation
fromawidelyspacedpopulationsampleandwhencollectinginformationfrommany
people. A questionnaire contains o pen-ended and closed questions. Open-ended
questions are gap filling questions which require the respondent to expresshiso r
her own view. Closed questions are guided questions where the respondent just
chooses Yes o r No, True o r False, o r by just putting a tick o n given o ptions.
Questionnaires can be distributed personally or by post.
Advantages of questionnaires
● Questions are very simple and faster to answer.
● It saves time as questionnaires can be distributes and then collected later.
● Respondents can fill questionnaires at their own pace.
● Giveguaranteesconfidentialo finformation,therebyencouragingrespondents
to give accurate information.
● They are cheap to use when collecting data from a very large sample
Disadvantages of questionnaires
● Some questions are left blank.
● Some questionnaires may not be returned at all.
● Biased information can be collected as people may lie.
● Respondents usually do not fill the correct information.
● It is difficult to analyse information collect using questionnaires.
● They are expensive to use if the postal system is used.
● Abusive information can be filled by respondents.
● It is difficult to prepare a good questionnaire
i v. Observations:
Itisafactfindingmethodthatinvolvesviewingtheactualsystemino perationbythe
researcher. The researcher can even take part in o perating the system. It is used
when the researcher wants to see for himself how the system operates.
Advantages of observations
● First-hand information is collected.
● Accurate information can be obtained.
● Areas of interest can be observed.
● The researcher can take part ino peratingthesystemtherebygettinginsight
o n how the system operates.
● the analyst obtains reliable data
● it is possible to see exactly what is being done
Disadvantages of observations
● People work differently if they feel that they are being o bserved, therefore
inaccurate information can be collected.
● The researcher may not understand some of the activities being observed.
● It is time consuming to collect the required information.
● The researcher may interrupt some of the activities being done.
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● if workers perform tasks that violate standard procedures, they maynotdo
this when being watched!!
. Feasibility Study:
3
It involves an evaluation o f proposalstodetermineifitpossibletoconstructanew
system o r just modification o f the existing o ne. Feasibility can be measured by
making the following considerations:
Economic feasibility: determining whether the benefits o f the new system will
o ut-weigh the estimated cost involved in developing, purchasing, assembling
requirements, installing and maintenance o f the new system. The cost-benefits
analysisiscarriedo ut.Benefitscanbetangibleandquantifiable,e.g.profitsinterms
o f monetary values, fewer processing errors, increased production, increased
response time, etc. Other benefits are intangible, e.g. improved customer goodwill,
employee moral, job satisfaction, better service to the community, etc.
Technicalfeasibility:determinesiftheo rganisationcano btainsoftware,equipment
and personnel to develop, install and operate the system and even to maintain it.
Social feasibility: a measure o f the system’s acceptance by the generalpublic;ifit
will meet the norms and values of the society.
Legal feasibility: This is determining if the system can conform to the laws and
statuteso fthecountry.Thisisdonebyconsideringgovernmentlegislation,e.g.Data
processing system must comply with the local Data Protection Acts
Operational feasibility: determines whether the current work practices and
procedures are adequate to support the system, e.g. effects o nsocialliveso fthose
affected by the system, can it work well with existing hardware, etc
Operational feasibility assessment focuses o n the degree to which the proposed
system fits in with the existing business environment ando bjectiveswithregardto
development schedule, delivery date, corporate culture, and existing business
processes
fter carrying o ut the feasibility study, a feasibility study report mustbeproduced
A
and it contains the following information:
- A brief description of the business.
- Advantages and problems of the existing system.
- Objectives of the new system.
- Evaluation of the alternative solutions.
- Development timetable.
- Management summary.
- Terms of reference.
- Proposed solution.
. Analysis stage:
4
This is the in-depth study o f the system to determine how data flows within the
system.
Analysis tools used includes:
- Decision trees
- Decision tables
It involvesuseo fflowcharts,dataflowdiagrams,structurediagrams,decisiontrees,
and o thers, to describe the o perations o f the system in detail. The analysis stage
determines whether computerisation will take place o r not. Theanalysisstagealso
specifiesthehardwareandsoftwarerequirementso fthenew/proposedsystem,the
advantages and disadvantages of the proposed solution, etc.
Analysis stage also involves identification of the following:
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- A lternative solutions: other solutions, not considering the chosen one
- Specification requirements: o ther system requirements like hardware,
software, personnel, etc
- Carrying o ut the Cost-benefit analysis: weighing o ut costs o f developing the
new system versus the benefits that will be realised.
ataflow Diagrams
D
These are diagrams that show how data moves between externalsources,through
processes and data stores o f a particular system. Dataflow diagrams use the
following symbols:
. Design Stage:
5
This stage is concerned with the design o f the new computer based solution as
specified by the analysis stage. Design stage involves:
Input Design: includes designing o f data entryforms,inputmethods(e.g.byfilling
forms, use of barcodes, etc) and the user interface.
OutputDesign:Includesdesigno freports,datao utputformats,screendisplaysand
o ther printed documents like receipts, etc
File design: Involves designing tables/files, records and validation rules. It also
involvesdetermininghowdataistobestoredandaccessed,themediatobeusedfor
storage and the mode o f file o rganisation. Fields in each filescabedesigned,their
length and data type, e.g.
ile Name: Student File
F
Storage Location: Hard Disk
Mode of Access: Direct/Random
File Structure:
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It also involves specifying how data is to be sorted and updated.
rogram Design: Involves design o f systems flowcharts, structure diagrams,
P
dataflowdiagrams,algorithms,etc.Selectionofappropriatehardware:Specifythe
input hardware, o utput hardware, processing hardware and speed, storage media,
RAM size, etc. Selection of appropriate software: specifying thetypeo fo perating
system,programminglanguageo rdatabasepackageando therapplicationpackages
to be used.
Design o f test plan and strategy, Designo ftheusermanual,Designo fthetechnical
documentation
In general, design stage involves the following:
✔ design the data capture forms/input forms
✔ design the screen layouts
✔ design output forms and reports
✔ produce systems flowcharts and/or pseudocode
✔ select/design any validation rules that need to be used
✔ design a testing strategy/plan
✔ file structures/tables need to be designed/agreed
✔ select/design the hardware requirements for the new system
✔ select/design the software requirements
✔ produce any algorithms or program flowcharts
✔ select the most appropriate data verification method(s)
✔ interface design(Command-line, GUI, form-based, menu-driven, etc
6. Development and Testing
he computer environment is prepared, the programs to be written are done and
T
they are tested to determine if the run as expected.
omputerenvironmentbeingprepared:electricalwires,networkcablesareinstalled,
C
furniture, air conditioning are in place. The computers are installed and tested.
Italsoinvolvestheconstructionandassemblingo fthetechnicalcomponentsthatare
needed for the new system to o perate. This includes preparation o f the computer
room environment, coding o f the computer program using aspecificprogramming
language, testing of the coded program,
Testing strategies
- standard (normal) data testing: testing o f data within the given range
(should be accepted)
- abnormal data testing: testing o f data o utside the given range (should be
rejected). It gives an error message when entered into the computer system.
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- e xtreme (boundary) data testing: testing o f the minimum and maximum
values in the given range (should be accepted)
. DOCUMENTATION AND USER TRAINING
7
Documentationreferstothecarefulanddisciplinedrecordingo finformationo nthe
development,o perationandmaintenanceo fasystem.Documentationisintwomain
types: user documentation and technical documentation
( a) User Documentation: It is a manual that guides system userso nhowtoload,
o perate, navigate and exit a program (system). User documentation contains the
following:
✔ System/program name.
✔ Storage location.
✔ System password.
✔ Instruction on how to install the program.
✔ Instruction on how to operate the system: e.g.
o How to quit the program
o how to load/run the software
o how to save files
o how to do print outs
o how to sort data
o how to do a search
o how to add, delete or amend records
o print layouts (output)
o screen layouts (input)
o the purpose of the system/program/software package
o error handling/meaning of errors
o troubleshooting guide/help lines/FAQs
o how to log in/log out
( b)TechnicalDocumentation:Thisisamanualforprogrammerswhichaidthemin
modifying the system and in correctingprogramerrors.Thefollowingarefoundin
technical documentation:
✔ Algorithms of the program,
✔ Program testing procedures and test data,
✔ Sample of expected system results,
✔ Program structure showing modules and their relationships,
✔ System flowcharts,
✔ Programming language used,
✔ Program code,
✔ program listings,
✔ File structures.
✔ Validation rules
✔ Output formats
✔ Bugs in the system
✔ Hardware requirements
✔ Software requirements
ser Training:
U
Onceanewsystemisputinplace,existingemployeesaretrainedo nhowtoo perate
thenewsystem,o therwisenewemployeesarerecruited.Usersaretrainedo nhowto
enter data, search records, edit fields, produce reports, handling errors, etc.
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ser training can be in the following forms:
U
i.Onthejobtraining:Usersaretrainedattheiro rganisationbyhiredtrainers.This
has the following advantages:
✔ Learners practice with actual equipment and the environment of the job.
✔ Learners can engage in productive practices while on training.
✔ This is cheaper for the organisation.
✔ Enough practice (experience) is gained on how to operate the system.
✔ Production does not stop
Disadvantages of on the job training
✔ Distractions occur in a noisy office.
✔ Instructional methods are often poor.
✔ The need to keep up output may lead to hasty teaching
✔ Mistakes by learners can be disastrous for the system
i i.Classroomtraining:Usersaresendtoo thercollegesandinstitutionswhicho ffer
courses o n the subject matter. This could be expensive to o rganisations since
employeestakestudyleavewhilebeingpaidatthesametime.Employeescanalsobe
trained o n aspects that they will not apply when they finish the course. The gap
between what is learnt and what is needed at the job may be too wide.
Considerations when training users:
1. All staff need training that is relevant to their work using the computers.
However, others may find it difficult to learn the new system and may resist.
2. Age problem of trainees-older workers takes long to conceptualise concepts
3. Reluctance of employees to learn (use new system)
4. Computer based system means training on the computer
5. Regular updates means new training each time an upgrade is made
6. The type of training should be chosen carefully as it is important
7. Course type with trainer
o It may restrict learning times
o Can be intimidating to other employees
o Difficult to satisfy all trainees’ demands
o Gives human contact
. Implementation/ Conversion (Installation/Changeover)
8
Thisalsoinvolvesputtingthenewcomputersystemintoo peration,thatis,changing
fromtheo ldsystemtothenewo ne. Itinvolvesfileconversion,whichisthechanging
o fo lddatafilesintothecurrentformat.Differentchangeovermethodscanbeused,
and these include:
. Parallel Run: This involves using o f both the o ld and new system concurrently
a
until the new system proves to be efficient. It involves o perating the new and o ld
systems simultaneously until management is confident that the new system will
perform satisfactorily. Other workers will be using the o ld systemwhileo thersuse
the old system but doing the same type of job.
Advantages of parallel run
✔ Results for both systems are compared for accuracy and consistency.
✔ If the new system develops problems, it will be easier to revert to the old one.
✔ Thereisenoughtimegiventodetermineifthenewsystemproducesexpected
results.
✔ Employees have enough time to familiarise with the new system.
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Disadvantages of Parallel run
✔ Running two systems at the same time is very expensive.
✔ Running two systems simultaneously is demanding to employees.
✔ It may be difficult to reach a decision when comparing the two systems.
✔ There is duplication of tasks which in turn stresses employees
i i.Abrupt(Direct)c hangeover:Involvesstoppingusingtheo ldsystemo nacertain
dayandthenewsystemtakesovero nthenextmorning.Thisissuitableforcontrol
systems like in chemical plants and for traffic lights.
Advantages of Direct Changeover
✔ Reduces cost as of running two systems at the same time.
✔ Faster and more efficient to implement.
✔ There is minimum duplication of tasks.
✔ Enoughresourcescanbeallocatedtomakesurethatthenewsystemo perates
successfully.
Disadvantages of Direct Changeover
✔ It will be difficult to revert to the old system if the new system fails.
i ii. Phased / Partial conversion: This is whereby the o ld system is gradually
removed while the new system is gradually movedinatthesametime.Thiscanbe
donebycomputerisingo nlyo nedepartmentinano rganisationthismonth,thenthe
next department in two months’ time, and so o n until the whole system is
computerised.
Advantages of phased conversion
✔ Avoids the risk of system failure.
✔ Saves costs since the new system is applied in phases.
✔ Itcouldbeeasiertoreverttotheo ldsystemifthenewsystemfailssinceo nly
o ne department will be affected.
Disadvantages of phased conversion
✔ Itcouldbeveryexpensivesincetheo rganisationwillberunningtwosystems
but in different departments.
i v. Pilot conversion: This is whereby a program is tested in o ne o rganisation (or
department), and is applied to the whole o rganisation if itpassesthepilotstage.It
serves as a model for o ther departments. A pilot program can then be applied in
phases, directly or using the parallel run method.
NB: before making system live, the following musthave taken place:
- Production of user documentation and technical documentation
- Installation of hardware and software
- fully testing the new system
- training the staff to use the new system
. Maintenance/review/evaluation Stage:
9
This stage is concerned with making upgrades and repairs to an already existing
system. Certain sections of the system will be modified with time.
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aintenance can be to Perfect the system, to Correct some errors o r to make it
M
adapt to changing needs, e.g changeingovernmentlaws.Maintenanceinvolvesthe
following:
● update hardwareasnewitemscomeo nthemarketo rthecompanychanges
in any way which requires new devices to be added/updated
● update software if necessary if company structure changes o r legislation is
introduced which affects how the company operates
Evaluation involves the following:
- compare final solution with the original requirement
- identify any limitations in the system
- identify any necessary improvements that need to be made
- evaluate the user’s responses to using the new system
- compare test results from new system with results from the old system
- compare performance of new system with performance of old system
Assessing the effectiveness of the new system:
- compare final solution with original requirements
- identify any limitations in the system
- identify any necessary improvements that need to be made
- evaluate user responses to using the new system
- compare test results from new system with results from old system
- compare performance of new system with performance of old system
- effectiveness of the hardware
- effectiveness of the software
ystems Analysis Tools
S
(a) Gantt Charts
These are diagrams used to show the time taken for each stage o f the systems
development life cycle. Gant charts show the following information:
- all stages/tasks to be done during SDLC
- the critical path(s)
- number of days to do tasks
- progress on tasks as % complete
- progress versus expected time to do work
- how tasks are all linked together
( b) Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) Diagrams
PERTchartisatypeo fchartusedforprojectmanagement;itrepresentseachtasko f
a project and how tasks are all linked together insequenceandtaskdependencies
(i.e. which tasks need to be complete before others can start).
( C) System Flowcharts
A systemsflowchartisadiagramusedtoshowhowallthecomponentsinasystem
link together (e.g.input,storage,o utput,processing,etc.).Theyareverydifferentto
normalflowchartssincetheydon’tgointodetailo fhowsomethingisactuallydone–
they are a general overview. It showstheoverviewo fthesystem,taskscarriedo ut
by the system, whether manual o r computer, devices, o utput media and files used,
etc.
Common symbols for designing systems flowcharts are as follows:
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* NB: Meanings o f these symbols are not universal and mean a different thing to
o thers. Some symbols are borrowed from program flowcharts.
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elow is a systems flowchart for a B
B elow is a systems flowchart that is
payroll processing system that uses usedtoupdateastockmasterfilewhen
batch processing stock items are purchased.
Review Questions
1. (a)Asystemsanalystwasbroughtintocomputeriseapaper-basedcarsales
system. What methods could be used to gather data about the existing
system? Give reasons for your choice.
(b) What would need to be done before the new computerised system
become ‘Live’?
(c)WhywouldPILOTandPARALLELchangeovermethodsbesuitableinthis
application?
2. A program is written to input daily temperatures. Name three types o f test
data that could be used.Giveexampleso feachtypeo ftestdatawhichcould
be used and discuss the outputs you would expect to get.
3. Name five tasks that would be carried o ut at the DESIGN stage in systems
analysis.
4. Name four methods used to change over from a manual system to a new
computerised system. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages o f
these four methods.
5. Describe how the effectiveness of a new computer system can be assessed
6. What tools exist to help the analyst draw up anactionplanandensurethat
the project is completed on time and to budget?
7. What information would asystemsanalystneedtogathertodecideo nwhat
hardware is required for a new computerised system?
8. State 5 items that need to be included in the User guide and 5 items o f the
technical guide of a newly developed computer system.
9. Choose 6 symbols used in systems flowcharts and explain what each means.
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ATA CAPTURE / COLLECTION
D
Data capturing can be either automatic or manual.
Manualmethodsareslowinenteringdataandarealsopronetoerrors,e.g.typing
2.3 instead of 3.2. Manual data capturing techniques includes the following:
- keyboards/keypads to type in data
- touch screens to select data/options
Automatic data capturing techniques are more accurate and faster but are more
expensive and involves use of the following:
(a) Data logging: this technique involves collecting data automatically using
sensors; mostly used when doing scientific experiments o r monitoring a
control system
(b) Barcode readers: these take data from printed barcodes and allow
automatic stock control in, for example, supermarkets.
(c) RadioFrequencyIdentification(RFID):thismethodinvolvesusingsmall
electronic devices containing a microchip and antenna; they work in a
similarwaytobarcodesbutcanbereadfromadistanceo f5metres;o ften
used to track livestock, vehicles, library books and goods sold in shops.
(d) Biometrics: this involves o btaining data and identifying characteristics
automaticallyinsecuritysystemse.g.useo ffingerprints,palmprints,facial
images and iris prints
(e) Magnetic Strips: these contain information/data stored o n magnetic
material o ften o n the back o f a credit/debit card; the information is
automatically read by swiping the magnetic stripe past a reading head
(reading device).
(f) Optical character recognition(OCR):informationo npaperisautomatically
read by a scanner and is then analysed/processed by OCR software and
stored in an electronic format.
( g) Voice recognition: these systems recognisespokenwordse.g.fordisabled
people who can’t use keyboards where they speak commands instead o f
having to type
(h) Smart cards: these containembeddedmicrochipsandreceivepowerfrom
the card readers; the microchip is made up o f RAM, ROM and 16-bit
processor and the stored data is automatically read by the card reader;
used in credit cards, security cards, loyalty cards, etc.
(i) OpticalMarkRecognition(OMR):OMRtechnologyscansaprintedformand
reads pre-defined positions (where specific fields have been filled in e.g.
●─● o r ▄); the system records where marks have been made so can
automatically determine responses to, for example, a questionnaire.
ATA ENTRY ERRORS
D
Data can be entered incorrectly into the computer and this can have the following
effects:
- A company can be prosecuted under the Data Protection Act if incorrect
information causes a person or organisation some loss.
- Wrong decisions can be made by managers due to wrong information given.
- Customers may be angry if they are sent wrong bills.
ypes of Errors
T
1.TranscriptionErrors:Thesearemistakesduetomisreadingo rmistypingo fdata,
e.g.,confusingthenumber5withtheletterS,0(zero)insteado ftheletterO,etc.This
can also be caused by bad handwriting.
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.TranspositionErrors:Thesearemistakescausedbyswapping2letterso rdigits,
2
e.g. typing ‘ot’ instead o f ‘to’, 5721 instead o f 7521. Transposition errors o ccur
mostly when typing at very high speeds.
voiding Data Entry Errors
A
The following procedures can be used to avoid / reduce data entry errors:
1.Verification:Involvescheckingwhetherwhathasbeenenteredintothecomputer
is similar to what is o n the input document. Also done data is copied from o ne
mediumtoanother,e.g.frompapertodisk.Verificationisdonemanuallybytheuser
o f the computer. Verification is carried o ut to determine errors that cannot be
detected by the computer.
NB:-Verificationcanalsobeusedtodetermineifdatahasbeencorrectlytransferred
from one place to other(e.g. between devices or on a network).
Verification can be done in the following forms:
(a) Double entry:
● Inthismethod,dataisenteredtwice(usingtwodifferentpeople);thedatais
o nly accepted if both versions are similar.
● Doubleentryiso ftenusedtoverifypasswordsbyaskingthemtobetypedin
again by the same person twice.
(b) Visual Checking
● This is checking for errors by comparing entered data with the o riginal
document(NOTE:thisisnotthesameasproofreading!!).Iftheentereddatais
similar with the source document, then it has been entered correctly.
(c) Parity Checking
Thisisusedindeterminingwhetherdatahasbeencorrectlytransmittedbetween
computer devices o r o n a network. It uses parity bits to verify correctness o f
transmitted data.
● ParityBits:Aparitybitisanextrabit(1o r0)thatisappendedtothelefto f
a byte to make it even o r o dd depending o n the method o f parity checking
being used. It is used in checking for errors in a group o f bits transferred
withino rbetweencomputers.Paritybitsarealsousedtodetermineifablock
o f data has been correctly transmitted over a communication channel. It
works in the following way:
● Using Odd Parity: The letter C is transmitted as 1000011. Since there are
three1sinthisbyte,a0isaddedtotheleftsothatthetotalfor1siso dd,thus
making it01000011.The first 0 (underlined) is usedas the parity bit.
● Using even parity: In even parity, a 1 would be appended to thelefto fthe
byte so that the total number of ones is even, thus making it11000011
. Validation: A process done by the computer to detect if data entered is valid,
2
correct, complete, sensible and reasonable. For instance the height o f a person
entered as 12 metres is incorrect, is not sensible, neither is it reasonable, and
thereforethecomputershouldrejectthis.Validationisaprocesso fcheckingifdata
satisfiescertaincriteriawheninputi.e.fallswithinacceptedboundaries.Validationis
done by the computer.
ypes of Validation Checks on Data
T
(a)Charactertypec heck:Avalidationcheckfordetectingifthecorrectcharacters
have been entered, for example can detect and reject alphabetic letters where
numbers are needed. Thecomputershouldalsorejectifadigitisenteredwherea
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ameisneeded,e.g.John5iswrongsincethereisawrongcharacterinthename,i.e.,
n
5.
(b)RangeChecks:Arevalidationchecksperformedo ndatatomakesuretheyliein
a specified range. For example,youarerequiredtoenteranumberbetween5and
20, and you enter 51, the computer should automatically reject this since it lies
o utside the required range.
(c) Limit Check: this is similar to a range check except o nly ONE o f the limits
(boundaries) is checked e.g. input data must be > 10.
(d) Presence c hecks: check that data isactuallypresentandnotmissedo ute.g.in
Student form, somebody’s Student Surname may been left o ut yet it is a required
fieldname.Thecomputerdoesnotallowtheusertocontinueuntilanentryhasbeen
made in a required field name.
(e)Lengthc hecks:Thesearevalidationchecksusedtodetermineifdataenteredis
o ftherequirednumbero fcharacters.Forexample,ifastudentnumberhas5digits,
the computer should reject if a number with 4 o r lessdigitso revenmoredigitsis
entered.
(f) Format Check: this checks thatdataisinaspecifiedformat(template)e.g.date
should be in the form dd/mm/yyyy.
( g)Consistence(CrossField)Check:thischecksiffieldscorrespondwiththeo ther,
e.g. if o ne enters ‘MR’o nTitlefield,theSexfieldmustcontain‘Male’o r‘M’.Ifo ne
entersthetitleasMrandtheno nsexentersFemale,thereisnocorrespondenceo n
the two fields and therefore the computer must reject this.
(h) Spell Checkers: These are validationchecksthatdetermineifaccuratetexthas
been entered especially in word processing. Spell checkersusecustomdictionaries
to check spellingmistakesindocuments.Ifawordistypedin,itischeckedifitisin
thecustomdictionary,ifnot,itistreatedasanerror.Spellcheckerscannotbeusedin
case of names of people, places, computer jargon, new slang words, etc.
(i)ControlTotal:thisisameaningfultotalo btainedbyaddingtogetheralldataina
table, e.g. prices o f goods to give a total. If the total does not tally, then o ther
elements may have been left o ut. This total is meaningful since it may be used to
deduce if the organisation is making profit or not.
( j) Hash Total: It is a meaningless total, o btainedbyaddingtogetheralldigitsina
field like serial numbers o f a product to give a total that is used for validation
purposes o nly. The total o btained is not, and cannot be used to deduce any o ther
meaning. Thus in this case, the total o btained by adding product serial numbers
cannot be used for any other purpose.
(k) Check Sum:Avalidationchecko faddingtogetherthedigitsinablocktogivea
number that will be transmitted together withthedata.Itisusedtocheckwhether
errorshaveo ccurredintransmissiono rstorage.Checksumcanalsoimplyhashtotal
and control total.
(l)DataTypec heck:Thisisusedtocheckifdataenterediso fthecorrectdatatype.
For example, Quantity of Items bought is an integer data type, therefore it must
rejectfractions.Thusthecorrectdatatypeisconsideredinthissituation.Datatypes
includes Boolean, integers, char, etc.
( m) Check Digits: A check digit is an extra digit appended to the right -end o f an
o riginal number for error checking purposes and is calculated from the o riginal
block of data using modulus 11.
*NB: - Check digits are used where data is entered automatically as in using
barcode readers and are important for c hecking for transposition errors
(swapped digits)
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alculating Check Digits
C
Using the Modulus 11 method: Suppose a product number has been enteredas:
151211323; the following procedures will be used tocalculate its check digit.
e have 9 digits. Working from the right, the first digit is multiplied by 2, second
W
number by 3, third number by 4 andsoo n.Westartat2becauseposition1isfor
the check digit. The results are added together, e.g.
(1x10) + (5x9) + (1x8) + (2x7) + (1x6) + (1x5) + (3x4) + (2x3) + (3x2) = 112
Thetotal(112)isdividedby11andtheremainderisnoted;e.g.,112dividedby11=
10 remainder 2.
The remainder is subtracted from 11 to give the check digit: 11 – 2 =9
9becomes the check digit. Therefore the number willbe transmitted as1512113239
*NB: -
(1)If the check digit found is10,anXis used asthe check digit.
(2)If,upondividingthetotalby11andtheremainderis0,then0isthecheckdigit.
This is o btained as, 11-0=11. Divide 11 by 11 and take the remainder, which is 1
remainder 0, thus 0 becomes the check digit.
(3)Check digits are used to detect where digits havebeenswapped
NB: thus the procedure of calculating check digits is summarised as follows:
- llocate weights for digits from right going to the left, starting as 2.
A
- Multiply each digit with its weight and add them.
- Divide the total by its modulus (11 in our case) and get the remainder.
- Subtract the remainder from the modulus (11)
- The result will be the check digit.
- However,someauthorsgofurtherbysayingthat,dividetheanswer(obtained
after subtracting from 11) by its modulus (11) and take the remainder.The
remainder is the check digit.
Proving whether the given check digit is correct or not.
This is done using two methods, which are:
( 1). Remove the given check digit, calculate your own check digit. If they are
similar,thenthecheckdigitiscorrect.Iftheyarenotsimilar,thenthegivencheck
digit is wrong.
( 2) Re-calculate without removing the given checkdigitusingtheexamplegiven
below:
Example:
The ISBN to check is given as with X as the check digit: 0 - 1 3 1 5 - 2 4 4 7 – X
Remember X means 10, so 10 is the check digit in the example above.
ere, the check digit is o n position 1. So the numbers and their positions is as
H
follows:
Position 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Digit 0 1 3 1 5 2 4 4 7 X
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Multiply each digit with its position and add the results, thus giving:
(10x0)+(9x1)+(8x3)+(7x1)+(6x5)+(5x2)+(4x4)+(3x4)+(2x7)+(1x10) =132
Divide 132 by modulus (11) and get the remainder. This gives us 12 remainder 0.
Therefore the check digit is correct.
B:Iftheremaindero btainedis0,thenthecheckdigitiscorrect,ifnot,thenthe
N
check digit is wrong.
Questions
1. D escribe 4 methods o f automatic data capture, givinganapplicationo feach
method
2. A record contains the following fields:
- Title (Mr/Mrs/Miss) and Sex (Male or Female)
- Date of birth (written in the form dd/mm/yyyy)
- Pay Number (which is made up of 8 digits)
- Telephone Number
- Pay
Giveadifferentvalidationcheckforeacho ftheabovefieldsandexplainwhy
it is used.
3. (a) Which of the following numbers have the correct check digit?
(i) 0 – 5 5 5 – 2 1 6 2 2 – 5
(ii) 0 – 1 2 1 – 9 0 0 2 1 – X
(b) Calculate the check digit for the following number:
0 1 5 0 2 4 6 2 2 ………
(c) Discuss the types of errors that check digits can identify.
4. ( a) Give 2 different ways of carrying out verification checks.
(b) Give 2 examples of situations where verification would be used.
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SOFTWARE
S oftware refers to a set o f instructions written in computer language that tell a
computertoperformaspecifictask,likeaddingaseto fnumbers.Withoutsoftware,
a computer will be useless. Software is grouped into systems software and
application software.The diagram below illustratesbranches/groups of software:
ystemsSoftware:Referstoprogramsthatcontrolandmanagestheperformanceo f
S
allcomputersystems.Systemssoftwarecompriseso f: (a) o perating systems (b)
Utility programs (c) Translators (d) Device drivers
) Operating System: - refers to the programsthatsupervise,controlandmanage
1
the performance o f the computer hardware and software in accordance with set
o bjectives, for example, Windows 7. Examples o f o perating systems include:
Windows 95/98/2000/XP/ VISTA/ Windows 7/Windows 8, Microsoft Disk
Operating System (MS-DOS), Unix, Linux, OS/2, Ubuntu, etc.
Theo peratingsystemisloadedo ntothecomputerbythebootstraploader.Programs
stored o n ROM chip runs first and this checks if all hardware components are
working normally. It also checks the CPU and theBasicInputo utputSystem(BIOS)
forerrors.Iftherearenoerrors,theBIOSwillactivatethediscdrive.Theo perating
system is then found and the computer can boot. Booting refers to the process o f
loadingtheOperatingsystemintomemorysothatittakescontroloverhardwareand
software resources of the computer.
Functions of the operating systems:
- Controls movement of data to and from peripherals.
- Acts as a background on which application programs can run.
- Device management/Input-Output management: Operating system
manages hardware components of the computer
- Handling of interrupts
- Manage software resources of the computer
- Memory management: Manages memory resources of acomputer
- Acts as an interface between the user and the computer.
- Scheduling of tasks
- Loading and running of programs
- Provides a log of users for the computer.
- Handling o f errors and correctingthemwherepossible.(errorhandlingand
reporting)
- Protect hardware, software and data from improper use.
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- C ontrolovertheselectionando perationo finput,o utputandstoragedevices
o f the computer.
- Used for spooling
- Maintain user accounts
- Booting and properly shutting down the computer.
- File management
B: Household equipment like refrigerator do not have an o perating system since
N
the processor has o ne task to perform, no multiple devices and tasks to handle,
hence they are cheap.
Features (characteristics) of operating systems:
- Must be reliable in terms of being free from errors and handling of all jobs.
- Must be efficient,thatisshouldbeabletouseresourcesfullyensuringgood
job processing, response time, turnaround time, etc.
- Must be maintainable.
- Must be small in terms of storage space on the disk.
* NB:Responsetime–thetimethatelapsesfromthemomentaninstructionisgiven
to the computer and the time that instruction is carried out.
urnaroundtime–thetimetakenfromthemomentadocumentisproducedbya
T
computer and the moment it is used as an input document to that computer again.
urnaround Document: a document produced by thecomputerandlaterusedas
T
an input document to the same computer, e.g. electricity bill
B. Most o perating systems are written in low level language. This is for them to
N
quickly coordinate computer activities since they will not be converted as they are
already in machine language o r less time is needed forconversioniftheo perating
system is written in assembly language. The following must be considered when
buying an operating system:
- Hardware type and computer design e.g. windows o perating system works
well on IBM compatible machines.
- Applications intended for the computer e.g. accounting, stock taking, etc.
- Method o f communicating with the computer, that is, use o f few o r many
peripherals and terminals.
- Method of operating the computer e.g. multi-access, multi-programming, etc
ypes Of Operating Systems
T
1. Single User Operating Systems: These are o perating systems that allow o ne
computer user at a time in an interactive mode, for example MS-DOS, CP/M, OS/2,
etc.
Advantages of Single user operating systems are:
- They are cheap to buy.
- Theyareinteractive,thatis,theyallowatwowaycommunicationbetweenthe
user and the computer in a conversational mode.
- They ensure better security to data since they only allow one user at a time.
- They provide simple command language.
Disadvantages of Single user operating systems are:
- They are very slow in processing data.
- Most of the computers are dedicated to one task.
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- The commands are difficult to learn and to use.
- Commands are difficult to master.
NB-ControlPrograms:Theseareprogramsthatmonitorhardwareo perationo nthe
computer.
- Monitor (supervisor) programs: - These are programs that supervise and
manage hardware and software elements of the computer
. Time sharing operating systems: This type o f o perating system allows many
2
users to use thesameprocessoratatime,usingtheroundrobinmethodbyuseo f
time slices. In Round Robin, eachuserisgivenafractiono fasecond(timeslice)to
use the processor so that all users seem not to be sharing the processor.
*NB: - Time slice: A brief period o f time during which a particular task (or
computer) is given control o f the microprocessor in a time-sharing multitasking
environment. A computer's processor is allocated to an application, usually
measured in milliseconds. Time slice is also calledquantum.
Multitasking: It istheconcurrentexecutiono ftwoo rmoreprogramso nthesame
computer by use o f time slices, doing the same job. For example, copying a graph
from Microsoft Excel to Microsoft Word. Thus the two programs will be running
concurrently, doing a related or same job.
. Multi Access / Multi user operating systems: It is when many o nline users
3
access one processor at the same time to make use of multi-programming.
. Multi-programming: This is whereby two o r more programs (tasks) are being
4
processed(run)atthesametimeo no necomputerbyuseo ftimeslices,forexample
playingmusicwhiletypingadocument.Programsmaytaketurnstomakeuseo fthe
processor, thus when o ne is using the CPU, o thers will be using the peripherals. It
uses interrupts to pass control from one program to another.
. Multiprocessing: A type o f o perating system that allows o ne computer to have
5
two or more processors but sharing the same memory, e.g. dual core computers.
.BatchProcessingSystem:-Asysteminwhichdataiscollectedoveralongperiod
6
o ftime,putingroupsandprocessedato nego,withoutuserinteractionfromstartto
finish,asinpayrollprocessing.Jobscanbeenteredataremoteterminal,thatis,o na
terminalfarawayfromthehostcomputer.ThusbatchprocessingpromotesRemote
JobEntry(RJE):whichistheenteringo fdataintothecomputerthroughaterminal
far away from the host computer.
- For instance, a central computer can process batches o f cheques collected from
different branches, mostly during the night. Ifthereareerrors,theresultswillalso
bewrong.Batchprocessingisverycheaptoo perateandeasytorun.Userscanalso
perform some other tasks while batch processing takes place.
- In batch processing, there is minimum o r no human intervention during data
processing period. It is used where large amounts o f data is processedandwhere
processing does not need to be done immediately, e.g. in Payroll processing,water
billing, electricity billing, telephone billing, clearance of cheques, etc).
ayroll Processing
P
These calculate wages and print payslips. It h the following inputs, processes and
o utputs:
Inputs: employee details (rate o f pay, tax code, bank name, bank account number,
etc), number of hours worked, over time, etc.
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rocessing:Calculationo fGrossSalary,NetSalary,deductions,updatingmasterfile,
P
etc.
Outputs: printed payslips, updated master file, transferto bank account, etc.
illing systems
B
Usedtocreatebillsandinvoicestocustomers.Ithasthefollowinginputs,processing
and outputs:
Inputs: customer details (names, address, account numbers, etc), charge, previous
readings, new readings, bank account details, etc
Processing: calculating the number o f number o f total units, total cost, monthly
payments made, outstanding amount, etc.
Output: printed bill showing all details, updatedcustomer file, etc.
Advantages of batch processing are as follows:
- It is less expensive to use.
- jobscanbeprocessedwhencomputerresourcesarelessbusy(e.g.duringthe
evening or at night);
- Processing does not need to be done with anyone present.
- Users do not need to be specialists in computers. It allows remote job entry.
Disadvantages of batch processing are as follows:
- Batch processing systems are not interactive.
- Data is processed after a long period of time.
- No action can be taken if anything wrong happens during processing.
. Translators: - These are programs that convert source code to o bject code.
b
Translatorsareinthreeforms,whichareinterpreters,assemblersandcompilers.
These will be covered in more detail under Programming Languages.
c . Utility Programs:
Theseareprogramsusedtoperformspecific,usefulandfrequentlyneededtaskina
computer system. They usually have o ne single task to perform o n the computer
system. Utilities include the following:
i .VirusScanUtility:Theseareprogramsthatprotectcomputersfromvirusattacks,
for example Norton Antivirus, AVG, Avast, Esat NOD32, MacAfee, etc.
i i. Sort Utilities: Theseareprogramsusedtoarrangedata,filesandrecordsintoa
specifico rderedsequence,forinstanceinascendingo rdescendingo rdero fagiven
key.
iii. Debuggers:These are utilities used for assistingin correcting errors in programs.
i v.DumpUtilities:Theseareprogramsthatassistincopyingdatafrommainstorage
to output devices and to other storage devices like the hard drive.
. Editors: These are programs used to make changes to data already held in the
v
computer.
i.PeripheralTransferUtility:Theseareprogramsusedtotransferdatafromo ne
v
peripheral device to another.
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ii. System Status Utilities: These are programs that provide information o n the
v
state of files, memory, users and peripherals.
iii. File Maintenance Utilities: These areprogramsusedtoreorganiseprograms
v
and to update them.
( d) Device Drivers:Programs that allows a device,e.g. printer to work on a given
o perating system/computer.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
hisreferstoprogramsandtheirdocumentation,designedtoperformaspecifictask
T
for the user in daily life, like payroll processing, word processing, etc.
Integrated Package (Application suite) - a collection o f application programs
purchased as o ne package, for example MicrosoftOffice2010.Itisacollectiono fa
word processor, spreadsheet, database and presentation packages bought as o ne
package, for example, Microsoft Office 2010.
Advantages of Integrated Packages are:
- It is cheap to buy as compared to buying single application programs at a
time.
- Programs have been tried and tested and therefore are free from errors.
- Programsaredesignedinasimilarway,makingiteasiertolearno thersifyou
are able to use one of them.
- Programs are easier to use and to learn, for example, when designing a
database using Microsoft Access.
- Regular updates are provided on the internet or on disks.
Disadvantages of integrated packages are as follows:
- The user is forced to buy the incorporated packages even if he/she needs
o nly one of them.
- They are not tailored for individual user requirements.
- Organisations purchasing them have little or no control over their use.
- The packaged programs can only be modified by the programmers (owners).
- Most of the need regular updating, which may be expensive.
- They have many features that the users might never use yet they buy them.
ethods of Acquiring Software
M
1. Off-the-Shelf/Generic: This refers to buying generalised software like Microsoft
Word from software vendors.Generalised( generic)softwarereferstoapplication
programs designed for use in a number o f o rganisations without problems, for
example Microsoft Word. A software vendor is an o rganisation that specialises in
selling generic software.
Advantages of generic (Off-the-shelf) software:
- Cheaper than custom written (tailor made) packages as development costs
are spread over many users.
- the package is available immediately – no need to wait for development period
- Allows large scale sales which bring in considerable revenue which can be
used to enable a lot of development to be done.
- They are immediately available in shops.
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- T hey are tried and tested and therefore are free from errors.
- Documentation is always provided in form o f manuals, user guides and
tutorials that may be in soft or hardcopy.
- Training courses can be available from other end-users.
- Technical support is always available from other users and from the internet.
- Other users o f the package can be consulted before purchasing o r when a
problem occurs.
- Upgrades are always available every year or two.
- It is easy tosharefilesproducedbythesoftwarewitho thersaschancesare
they also have the software available to open the file
- sharingo ffileswitho therpackagesisusuallyeasiersincetheyarelikelytobe
compatible (e.g. ExcelandWord)
Disadvantages of Generic Software:
- May not meet the individual needs of an organisation.
- May not run on the organisation’s hardware.
- May not interface with other software already in use in the organisation.
- Organisations purchasing them have little or no control over their usage.
- Organisations purchasing them have no right to modify them.
- Thesoftwarecanbeverysophisticatedandwillusuallyincludelargesections
that you will never use (e.g. Excel or Word)
- may be very complex to learn because o f the complexity caused through
having unwanted features
. Tailor-made Software (bespoke/user application software): These are
2
programs specifically designed to meet the unique needs o f o nly o neo rganisation,
forexampleabank.Theo rganisationwouldemployo rhireananalyst/programmer
who will first asses the needs o f the o rganisation before designing aprogramthat
will solve the problems of the organisation.
Advantages of Tailor-made software
- Easier and more intuitive to use.
- Much better customer support since they will be in direct contact with the
software designers.
- Specificallydesignedfortheapplicationandthereforemoreefficientandwill
o nly contain the features wanted by the user.
- can be customised to interface with all o ther software within the company
thus preventing software clashes
- easier to use since very specific and the writers o f thesoftwarecanalsobe
involved in the training o f staff which will be geared towards their
requirements
- can be modified/updated as the company’s requirements change
Disadvantages of Tailor-made software:
- It is very expensive to develop.
- They take too long to develop and to implement.
- If youpickthewrongdeveloperyoucouldendupwithanapplicationthatis
unstable, unreliable and full of bugs
- very dependent o n the suppliers o f the software; if they go o ut o fbusiness
there will be little or no support if problems occur
- less likely to be as well developed/tested as off-the-shelf software
- difficult to tell how good the final software package will be
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* NB: A programmer is a person who specialises in designing, coding and testing
computer programs.
Software House is an o rganisation that specialises is developing software; this
includes both generic and tailor-made.
Special Purpose Application Software: - These are programs designed for o ne
specific business purpose, for example Pastel for accounting purposes.
Advantages of Off-the-Shelf Software Over tailor-made software:
- Off - the - self software is cheaper to buy while tailor-made software is
expensive.
- Off-the-Shelfsoftwarehasbeentriedandtestedhencefreefromerrorswhile
tailor-made software may have some errors.
- Off-the-Shelf software is easier and faster to implement while tailor made
software takes long to implement.
- Off-the-Shelf software is used by many o rganisations; therefore users can
shareinformationo nitsusagewhiletailor-madesoftwareiso nlyusedbyo ne
o rganisation.
- Off-the-Shelf software has regular updates available for download o n the
internet while tailor-made software does not.
Advantages of tailor made software as compared to Generic Software:
- Tailor-madesoftwareisdesignedtomeettherequirementso fano rganisation
while Off-the-Shelf software might not meet the needs o f an individual
company.
- Organisations have full control over tailor-made software as compared to
o ff-the-shelf software which is controlled by the programmers.
ypes of Application Software:
T
These include:
1. Word Processing Packages:
These are application packages used for creating, editing and formatting text
documents like letters and reports. Examples o f WordProcessingpackagesinclude
Microsoft Office Word, WordPerfect, WordPro, Notepad, etc. Word processing
packages have the followingadvantages over the typewriter:
- Produces more attractive documents.
- Word processors are less noise than typewriters.
- Documents can be edited and formatted before printing, which reduces
spelling and other typing mistakes on printed documents.
- Typed documents can be stored in the computer for future use.
- Document layout can be viewed o n the screen before printing and can be
changed easily.
- A word processed document can be printed more than once.
- Other text and diagrams can be added without the need to retype the
document.
- Word processors can move some parts o f text to another part o f the
document easily (using copy/cut and Paste feature).
- They have the ability to delete words, sentences and paragraphs neatly.
- They are less manual than typewriters.
Features of Word processing Packages
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- a bility to set the page size and page orientation (portrait/landscape)
- ability to change font style and font size (e.g.arial,courier, times new roman, etc.)
- ability to change margins (top, bottom and sides)
- page format (e.g. paragraphs, columns, etc.)
- importingtext,graphicsandpicturesintothedocumentbodyfromo therpackages
like Microsoft PowerPoint and Excel.
- inserting and deleting text
- cutandpaste/copyandpaste(topreventtheneedtore-typesectionso ftexto rto
move/remove text)
- search and replace words
- word wrap (e.g. auto adjust a line to fit into paragraph alignment such as straight
- file management (create/delete/move/search for files)
- headers and footers and the automatic numbering of pages
- graphics (embed drawings and graphs into the document)
- use macros
- merge (merge text files from one file into another e.g. mail merge)
- ability to send documents to a printer
- carry out a word count on the document
- add and manipulate tables in the main body of the document
- windows (edit 2 or more documents at the same time)
- WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) – preview document to see how it will
look when printed
- spell checkers, language check and thesaurus
- Simple translation from o ne language to another; for example, from English to
French.
* NB:Editing:theprocesso fcorrectingmistakesinadocument,forexample,spelling
mistakes.
Formatting: making a document look more attractive by bolding, underlining,
inserting borders, etc
. Spreadsheet Packages: These are application programs used to manage and
2
analyse statistical, numeric and financial data, for example Microsoft Office Excel,
Lotus 1-2-3, SuperCalc, etc. The structure of a spreadsheet is as follows:
Features of Spreadsheet packages
- Can format text (Bold, underline, …)
- Can change font size and font type
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- U ses functions/ formulae to makecalculationso ndata.Thefunctionscanbe
user-defined or in-built functions
- Ability to inset boards on cells
- Can import and export text
- Can create graphs on given data, e.g. column graphs, pie charts, etc
- it is made up o f columns and rows; each row isidentifiedbyanumberand
each column is identified with a letter (or letters)
- can useAutofillfeature
- Eachcellisidentifiedbyitscolumnidandrowide.g.A4,ET300etc.Cellscan
be given as cell ranges, e.g A4: G4.
- a cell may contain a label (text entry such as Surname, Date OfBirth,..)o ra
value (which can be a number, a date, a formula, result o f a calculation, o r
currency)
- thecursoridentifiesthecurrentcellselected;itispossibletoclicko ntoacell
and a “+” sign appears in the bottom right hand corner; by dragging the
formula down it is possible toreplicateit in othercells
- etc……
Problems Associated With Spreadsheets:
- capacity (i.e. maximum number o f rows and columns) can be limiting when
dealing with large data sets
- security issues in some spreadsheets (i.e.ifyoucano penaspreadsheetyou
can also change any part of it; this can lead to fraud
- lack o f concurrency; usually o nly o ne person can work o n a spreadsheetat
any given time (databases are better in thisaspectsincetheycanusuallybe
o pened by more than one user at a time)
- becauseo ftheirstructureitiseasytoenteranerror(whethero npurposeo r
by mistake) byenteringdatainthewrongcellso rdependenciesamongcells
incorrectly applied
3. Presentation Packages:
- These are programs used for designing slides for a presentation to an
audience, for example Microsoft Office PowerPoint, Lotus Smart Suite, etc.
- Presentation packages include text, pictures, sound, animation, graphics and
tables, thus being multimedia.
- Presentations are colourful and attractive.
- Speakers and projectors are needed.
- Presentation packages have the followingfeatures:
● Have Clip art. Can accommodate images and graphics.
● Can use sound, video and animation.
● Incorporate Word Art.
● Have facility to insert charts and graphs.
*NB:Animation:-Creatingillusiono fmovingsequenceusingaserieso fstillimages
as done in movies and cartoons.
. Database Packages (DBMS): Refers to programs used to create and maintain
4
databases for a specific application area.
They areusedformaintainingandprovidinginterfacebeenusersandthedatabase
and to interface the database and other application programs.
Examples o f database packages include Microsoft Office Access, Oracle, Dbase IV,
MySQL, etc
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roperties/features of databases
P
Most database packages have the following features:
(a) Tables:Theseareequivalenttofilesandthereforeareusedtostoredata.
The data is stored in rows and columns. Each row in a table is called a
record whichismadeupo fanumbero ffields(columnsinthetable).The
data type in the fields is usually either text, numeric o r date/time. Most
databasescontainanumbero ftableswhichareusuallylinkedtogetherin
some way.
(b) Forms: Forms are commonly called data entry screens since theyarethe
user interface which allows data in the tables to be viewed, entered o r
edited. Forms permit the control o f how o ther users interact with the
informationinthedatabasee.g.o nlyallowcertainfieldstobeseeno ro nly
allow certain o perations to be carried o ut . This subsequently helps the
protection of the information and also ensures it is entered correctly
(c) Reports: Reports are produced as a result o f questions such as
“date>=01/01/1975”. The data o n report is extracted from queries o r
tables as per user requirement. They display certain required data as
neededbytheuser,e.g.aftersearchingo rfilteringo fdata.Reportscanbe
printed o ut as hardcopy, o r viewed o n the screen o r exported (e.g. to a
word processor, an email message, etc.).
(d) Queries: Queries are questions that requestcertaindatafromtables,e.g,
Amount <200. It can also be aninstructiontosearchdatawhichmeetsa
certaincriteriafromtableanddisplayito nthescreeninformo fanother
tablecreatedfromtheo riginaltable.Mostcommonlyallowinformationto
be retrieved from tables. They also allow filtering so o nly the records
required are seen.
(e) Macros
A macro is a name o r key that represents a series o f commands o r key
strokes.Manyapplicationsallowsinglewordo rsinglenominatedkeyo na
keyboard to perform a whole series o f actions. Macros can be either
written as required and then storedo rstoredinalibraryforfutureuse.
Macroscanbeverysophisticatedandsavetheo peratoraloto ftime.For
example, the name and address in a word processor could be set upby
pressing key F1 and the system brings information from a related
database
.GraphicsPackages:Referstoprogramsusedtocreateandeditgraphs,diagrams,
5
drawings, charts and plans for buildings, for example Microsoft Paint, Harvard
Graphics, Corel Draw, Real Draw, etc. Computer graphics are images designed for
logos, commercial and news inserts during television advertisements o r
transmission.
.CommunicationSoftware:Theseareprogramsthatallowuserstocommunicate
6
o nnetworkedcomputersandtologo ntotheinternet,forexampleTCP/IPsoftware,
Client – server software, e-mails, etc.
*NB:-LogOn:toprovideausernameandpasswordfortheusertogainaccesstoa
computer or computer network.
.DesktopPublishing(DTP)Packages:Itisanextensiono fwordprocessorsthat
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incorporates images and text for creation o fattractiveandprofessionaldocuments
for publication purposes. Examples o f DTP packages include Microsoft Publisher,
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ageMaker and QuarkXPress. DTP is used tocreatebrochures,magazines,wedding
P
cards and newsletters.
Features of DTP include:
- They have a graphic program for inserting graphics in the document.
- They have a page composition program.
- They incorporate columns on one page.
- They have frames for positioning texts and graphics.
- They have templates used for recording document properties likepagesize,
margins, etc.
- They have style sheets used for making consistent main texts, headings and
subheadings.
equirements for DTP:
R
(a) A Scanner: - for capturing images o r hand drawings o n paper, for example
photographs
(b) High Resolution Monitor with graphics capabilities: - For viewing publication
during design stage.
(c)Colour Printer: For printing high quality andcolourful documents.
(d)Digitalc amera/webcam/cell-phonewithac amera:-fortakingandstorageo f
photographs that will be incorporated into the computer.
(e)Keyboard: For typing in text
(f)Mouse: - For adjusting size of pictures and fordrawing purposes.
(g)Desktop Publishing (DTP) software.
Advantages of Desktop Publishing:
- Users have more control over text layout compared to word processors
especially over formatting and layout of text and images.
- Lots of different files can be brought together on the same document.
- Produces colourful and attractive documents for commercial purposes like
brochures.
Differences Between DTP and Word Processors
- mostwordprocessorsforceuserstoworko nadocumentinalinearfashion
(i.e. paragraph by paragraph and page by page); with DTP it is possible to
placeelementso nthepageandthenmovethemaroundasyouwishtocreate
the desired product.
- elements repeated throughout a document (e.g. a company logo) can be
placedinmasterpagesratherthansettingupeachpageindividuallyaswould
be the case with a word processor.
- Textisusuallyimportedfromawordprocessoro ristypedintothedocument
directly using a frame. This allows you to create the layout first, link the
framestogetherandaddthetextintotheframeslater(e.g.innewslettersand
magazines where layouts are created before any o f the actual text becomes
available).
. Authoring Packages (Authorware): Software that can be used to write
8
interactive, hypertext o r multimedia computer programs without the technically
demanding task o f computer programming. Also used in multimediapresentations.
These programs can be used for developing databases and material for Computer
Aided Instruction (CAI).
Authoring tools require lesstechnicalknowledgetomasterandareusuallyusedfor
applicationsthatpresentamixtureo ftext,graphics,andaudio/musicfiles.Authoring
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t oolsusuallyallowthecreationo ftheactualrequiredapplicationbylinkingtogether
objects which can be text, graphics, music file, etc. By defining the relationship
betweenobjectsit is possible to produce very usefuland eye catching applications.
( 9)WebBrowsers:Softwareusedtoo penwebpageso ntheinternet,examplesare:
Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Internet Explorer, Safari, Opera, etc.
( 10)SearchEngines:Thesearepackagesusedforsearchingdatafortheuserfrom
the internet, e.g. google, yahoo, etc.
* NB: - Specialist Packages for Business: These are packages for use in a specific
business environment, for example, Pastel for accounting purposes.
*NB:-Install:-toaddprogramstothecomputer.Thereforetouninstallistoremove
programs from the computer.
Factors to consider when purchasing an application package:
- Application intended for.
- Easiness of installation.
- Mode of processing (single user, multi user, etc).
- User friendliness.
- Availability of support personnel.
- Availability, readability and clarity of documentation.
- Memory requirements.
- Hardware requirements.
YPES OF SYSTEMS
T
1. Real Time Processing System: - An o nline system in which individual, discrete
transactions are processed as they o ccur to influence the activity currently taking
place,asinairlinereservation.Resultso ftheprocessareproducedimmediately.The
system response quickly and give feedback o f a request. Thus the system is
interactive in nature. Such systems include airline reservation systems, hotel
reservations, stock control, etc.
ealTimeProcessingSystem c analsobec alledTransactionProcessingSystem
R
(or Real Time Transaction Processing Systems): this is a real-time (or
pseudo-real-time) transaction processing system whereby o nly individual items o f
data need immediate processing, results and files are updated instantly e.g., airline
reservation, balance enquiry at an ATM, etc. Response to aqueryneedstobevery
fast and o nce a seat is bookeditneedstomarkedas“notavailable”immediatelyto
avoid any risk of double booking.
Using this example o f booking seats o n a flight, the following sequence o f events
would take place:
- customer/travel agent contacts the airline
- the customer/travel agents types in the day/time o f flight and number o f
travellers
- the customer/travel agenttypesinthedepartureairportandthedestination
airport
- the airline database is searched and availability of seats checked
- if seats are available on the required day/time then a booking is made
- the database/file is updated immediately to indicate that these seats are no
longer available and prevents double booking from occurring
- if no seats are available a message is sent back to the customer/travel agent
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- t hisusesrealtime(transaction)processingsincethefilesareupdatedinreal
time; interrogation of files will have access to totally updated information
Transaction processing’s requirements include:
- A large quantity of hardware support.
- Large and fast main storage, over 1 GB.
- Large and fast backing storage like hard drives of about 300 GB.
- Efficient communication equipment like fibre o ptics, satellites, etc. Efficient,
secure and reliable operating systems.
- However, transaction processing systems are very expensiveto run.
. Real time process control
2
Thisisareal-timesystemwhichusessensorsandfeedbackloops(i.e.theo utputcan
influencethenextinputtothesystem.).Usedinsafetyc riticalsituationslikepatient
monitoring, monitoring andcontrolinnuclearpowerstations,etc.Itusesactuators,
sensors,DAC,ADCtocontinuouslyandautomaticallymonitorphysicalquantitieslike
temperatureinasystem. Itdifferswithrealtime(transaction)processingsystemin
that:Inrealtime(transaction)processingsystem,filesareo ftenupdatedinrealtime
(e.g. when bookingflightso nanairplane);butinrealtimeprocesscontrol,physical
quantities (such as temperature) are continuously monitored and the input is
processed sufficiently quickly to be capable of influencing the data source
.On-LineSystem:Asystemthatisdirectlylinkedtothehostcomputerforreal-time
3
communication and provides interaction between the user and the job, as in POS
terminals in supermarkets. In networked computers, theterminalsmustbedirectly
linked to the host computer. Examples include ATM systems in banks, airline
reservation systems. Online systems can just be for information retrieval.
Information retrieval systems are there for users to access certain information
promptly as o ntheinternet.Incontrast,offlinesystemsarecomputersystemsthat
work without being directly connected to the host computer.
.NetworkSystems:-Asysteminwhichprocessingiscarriedo utindependentlyin
4
more than o ne location but with shared and controlled access to some common
facilities like file storage.
.ControlSystem:-Asysteminwhicho neo rmorecomputersareusedtomonitor
5
the o perations o f some non-computer equipment like in o il refineries. Control
systemsinvolvemonitoringandloggingo fphysicalquantities,provideananalysiso f
performance and allows some userinteraction.Feedbackisanessentialelementas
well as timing.Mostcontrolsystemsarereal-timesystems,e.g.o ilrefining,chemical
processing, traffic control, etc.
. Automated Systems: - These are control systems that are dedicated to o ne
6
particular task and lack the ability to collect andanalysedataasindigitalcameras.
They do not allow for o r act o n user interaction, e.g. washing machines, cameras,
watches. Most control systems have embedded computers systems inside them.
. Multimedia Systems:-Arecomputersystemsthatenablerepresentationo fdata
7
inanumbero fformatslikesound,pictures,films,video,etc.Multimediasystemsare
used in commercial applications (advertising, journalism, presentations, etc.),
entertainment (special effects, video games, fine arts, etc.),education(CBTtraining,
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ses in virtual reality training, etc.). A computer that can be referred to be a
u
multimedia system should have at least the following:
- a CD – ROM/DVD-ROM drive,
- speakers, large RAM size,
- large disk storage space,
- sound card
- video card and
- multimedia software like Windows Media Player and
- o ther software like sound drivers.
. Distributed (decentralised) Systems: A system whereby processing is done
8
independentlyinmorethano nelocationbutwithshared andcontrolledaccessedto
common facilities, like file storage as appliedindepartmentalshops.Thesesystems
are normally found in departmental shops, bank branches that will be linked
together, etc.Advantages of distributed systems:
- Users feel more involved and responsible and this increase motivation.
- Systems o ften meet user specific needs and requests for changes are more
readily met.
- Costs of physical and electronic movement of data are reduced.
- The total breakdown of information processing disappears.
Disadvantages of distributed systems:
- There is often lack of coordination and control.
- It is difficult to impose standardisation, adequate security measures and
sharing of data and know-how.
- Difficult too btainintegratedinformationfortopmanagement.Duplicationo f
data is rampant.
- Excessive investment in hardware, software and personnel is involved.
. Centralised systems: This is whereby processing is carried o ut at o ne central
9
locationforano rganisationwithanumbero fbranches.Usersino therlocationscan
view data and utilise it but withlimitedcapabilities. Centralisedprocessinghasthe
following advantages:
- Hardware within the organisation will be compatible and can be linked.
- The o rganisation gets better deals in terms o f maintenance contracts.
Employees do not have to learn new systems when they move from o ne
department (or branch) to another.
- It is easier to coordinate staff training courses using thesamesoftwareand
hardware for all departments (or branches).
- There is better control over use of unlicensed software.
- Data can be exchanged easily between similar types of hardware and software
Disadvantages of Centralisation:
- Requires highinitialcapitalinvestmento fsophisticatedequipment,o perating
systems, well developed communication systems and complex application
packages.
- Requires highly qualified and experienced personnel to run it.
- A system failure will paralyse the entire system unless expensive backup
system is provided.
- Users feel not being fully involved and therefore are not motivated.
The choice of processing depends on:
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- Cost of hardware: o nline systems are more expensive to install, including
installation of communication systems like telephones and satellites.
-Volumeofdatainvolved:batchprocessingisappropriatewhereverylargedatais
handled.
-Frequencyofdatac hange:banksneedo nlinesystemsforcustomerdatachanges
more frequently than in payroll processing systems.
FILE HANDLING
ypes of files
T
1.MasterFile:Itisapermanentfilethatiskeptup-to-datebyapplyingtransactions
that o ccur during business o perations. It contains permanent (static) and
semi-permanent data.StaticdatastoredindatabasefilescanincludeSurname,First
names, Date of birth, etc.
2. Transaction Files: These are temporary files that contain data that can change
regularly, e.g. o n daily bases and it is used to update the master file. This includes
salesperday,studentmarkinaweeklytest,etc.Transactionfilesareusedtoupdate
master files.
3.Referencefiles:Thesearefilesthatcontainpermanentdatawhichisrequiredfor
referencing (viewing) purposes o nly.Thisincludesdatao ntaxbands,formulae,etc.
No changes to files are done.
4. Data file:A set of related records (either writteno r electronic) kept together.
. Fixed Length Records
A
Thesearerecordsthatallocateaspecificamounto fspacefordata,mostlyaspecific
numbero fcharacters.Forinstance,aschoolkeepsstudentrecordsinafixedlength
record. The student number has 6 characters, Surname was assigned 10
characters, First Name is given 10 characters, Date of Birth has 6 characters, sex
has one character and c lass has 2 characters o nly in that o rder in the computer
database file. In total, the length of each record is 35 characters.
The following student details are to be entered into the computer:
Student Number:012999,Surname:Kapondeni,FirstName:Tungamirirai
Date of Birth:7th of February 1978,Sex:Male,Class:Form 4A
When entered into the database, the record will appear as follows:
rom the table above, it can be noticed that:
F
- TheSexfieldiscodedtoaccommodateo nlythelettersMo rF.Thisisshorterand
thereforefastertoenterdataintothecomputerandtosearchrecordsthanentering
the words Male or Female.
- The Surname Kapondeniisshorterthantheallocated10spaces.Theo therspaces
will remain idle (unoccupied).
- The First Name Tungamirirai is too long than the allocated spaces and therefore
extra characters will be cut.
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Fixed length records have the following advantages:
● Entering data is faster as records are shorter and less typing is required.
● Easy to search data
● Less data entry errors are encountered.
● It is faster to carry out searches.
● Faster to do validation checks and procedures.
● They are easier for programmers to work with than variable length records.
● They allow an accurate estimate o f disk storage requirements. Thus disk
storage spacecanbeeasilymanagedasrecordso ccupyaspecificnumbero f
characters.
● They are very easy to update
However, fixed length records have the following disadvantages:
● Canleadtowastageifdiskstoragespaceifusedtostorevariablelengthdata.
For example, not all surnames are of the same length.
● Some spaces may lie idle as data entered will be shorter than the space
allocated.
● Some data to be entered may be too long for the space allocated and
therefore will be cut.
● Not flexible to work with
. Variable Length Records
B
Thesearerecordsthatallowdatatoo ccupytheamounto fspacethatitneeds.They
allow data with varying (different) number o f characters o r sizes. The number o f
fieldsmayalsovary.Theyusuallyshowwherethefieldo rrecordstartsandends,for
example:
B:-*Indicates the end of field marker, and the≈indicates the end of record marker
N
Variable length records have the following advantages:
● Theyaremoreeconomicalintermso fusageo fdiskstoragespaceastheydo
not allow spaces to lie idle.
● Data entered will not be cut but appears as entered no matter how long it is.
● may reduce time taken to read file/transfer data
● enables as many fields as possible to be added to a file
However, variable length records have the following disadvantages:
● Endo ffieldandendo frecordmarkerso ccupydiskstoragespacethatmight
be used to store data.
● Difficult to update (add o r delete) as the transaction and master files might
have different lengths.
● more complex to use
● more complex to manage
● Hard to search data in the files
ile Organisation
F
Refers to the way in which records inafilearestored,retrievedandupdated.This
affects the number o f records stored, access speed and updating speed. The most
commonmethodso ffileo rganisationare:SerialFileOrganisation,SequentialFile
organisation, indexed – sequential file organisation and random (direct) file
o rganisation.
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. Serial File Organisation: This is whereby dataisrecordedo neafteranotheras
1
theyo ccur,withoutanydefiniteo rder,assupportedbymagnetictapes.Dataisstored
according to arrivaltime.Dataisreadfromthefirstrecorduntiltheneededdatais
found. New records are added to the end o f the file. Serial file o rganisation is not
appropriate for master filessincerecordsarenotsortedandthereforearedifficult
to access and to update. It is faster to find records at the beginningo fthefile,but
takestoolongtofindrecordstowardstheendo fthefile.Serialfilesaresuitablefor
temporary transaction files since records are not sorted.
SerialfilespromoteSerialAccess:wherebyrecordsareaccessedbyreadingfromthe
first until needed record is found in an unordered file, e.g on magnetic tape.
. Sequential File Organisation: This is whereby records are sorted into a key
2
sequence, that is, in ascending o r descending o rder o f a given key filed as o n
magnetic tapes. Sequential files o rganisation is appropriate for files with ahighhit
ratelikepayrollprocessing.Theyaresuitableformasterfilessincetheyareo rdered.
However, it takes too long to access records towards the end o f the file since the
records are accessed by reading from the first record until the required data is
found.However,searchingo frecordsatthebeginningo ffilesisveryfast.Addingo f
newrecordsisdifficultasthisisdonebyre-enteringthedataandthenewrecordis
insertedatitsrightposition.Itistimeconsumingtoupdatesuchrecords.Suitablefor
masterfilessincerecordsaresorted.Thisisusedwhereallrecordsneedprocessing,
e.g payroll.
Sequential Files promote sequential Access: Sequential Access iswherebyrecords
areretrievedbyreadingfromthefirstrecorduntiltheneededrecordisfoundinan
o rdered list o f records, e.g. o n magnetic tape. Sequential access o ccurs where
records are ordered using a key field.
. Indexed-Sequential Files: This is whereby records are o rdered in sequence
3
based o n the valueo ftheindexo rdiskaddressassupportedbyharddisks.Thisis
usedforstoringmasterfilesrecordssincetherecordsareo rdered.Itisalsosuitable
for real time processing applications like stock control as it is fast in accessing
records and in updating them. It provides direct access to data as o n hard disks,
diskettes and compact disks.
.Random(Direct/hash/relative)FileOrganisation:Thisiswherebyrecordsare
4
storedinnoo rderbutaccessedaccordingtotheirdiskaddresso rrelativeposition,
as supported by hard disks and compact disks. The address o f the record is
calculatedusingthehashingalgorithm.Itisappropriatewhereextremelyfastaccess
todataisrequiredasinairlinereservation.Updatingo frecordsisinsitu,verysimple
and very fast. Hard disk, compact disks and diskettes promotes random file
o rganisation.
Random File o rganisation promotes Random/Direct Access to records: Direct
access is hereby records are retrieved randomly by going straight to the needed
recordbyusingaddresso fdata,assupportedbyharddisks,compactdisks,memory
sticks, etc.
ile Processing
F
Refers to any form o f activity that can be done using files. This includes: file
referencing, sorting, maintenance and updating.
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.FileReferencing/Interrogation:Thisinvolvessearchingo frecordanddisplaying
1
it o n the screen in o rder to gain certain information, leaving it unchanged. The
record can also be printed.
2. Sorting: Refers to a process o f arranging (organising) records in a specific
o rdered sequence, like in ascending or descending order of the key field.
3. Merging Files : This is the process o f combining two o r morerecordsintoo ne.
Below is an example of how records can be merged:
Record A (sorted) Record B (unsorted)
12 34 71 78 101 103 67 3 90 12
Record C (Merged and sorted for records A and Record B)
3 12 34 67 71 78 90 101 103
4. File maintenance: This is the process o f reorganising the structure o f records
andchanging(addingo rremovingo rediting)fields.Thiscanbeduetochangesdue
to addition or deletion of records.
5. File Updating: Updating is the process o f either adding new record, deleting
unwanted records o r modifying existing records. It involves making necessary
changes to files and records. Mostly master files are updated and they must be
up-to-date (contain accurate and most recent information).
For updating to occur, any one of the following must have occurred:
● A new record has been entered.
● Deletion of an unwanted record.
● An amendment (change) to the existing data has been made, e.g. change in
date of birth only.
hemostcommonmethodsoffileupdatingare:UpdatinginsituandUpdatingby
T
copying.
. Updating by copying
a
Thishappensinsequentialfileupdatingprocess.Thisisdonethroughthefollowing
steps:
- A record is read from master file into memory.
- A record is read from transaction file into memory.
- Record keys from each file are compared.
- If record keysarethesame,themasterfileisupdatedbymovingfieldsform
transaction file to the master file.
I n sequential file updating, it is recommended to keep at least three master file
versionsthatwillbeusedfordatarecoveryincaseo fasystemfailureo raccidental
losso fdata.ThefirstmasterfileiscalledtheGrandfatherfile,thesecondmasterfile
is called the father file and the third master file is the sonfile.Thisrelationshipis
called the grandfather-father-son version o f files. The process of keeping three
versions of master files ( grandfather-father-son) as a result of sequential file
updatingisc alledFileGenerations. Thusthefirstmasterfile(grandfatherfile)is
calledthefirstgenerationfile,thesecondmasterfile(fatherfile)iscalledthesecond
generation file and the third master file (son file) is the third generation file. The
following diagram illustrates the sequential file updating process:
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* NB: - Always create data
backups o n compact disk o r
hard disks and re-run the o ld
master file with the transaction
file if the computer systemfails
o r if data is lost. This is a data
recovery method that works
well.
* NB:- A backup is a copy o f
file(s)o nanalternativemedium
like CD-ROM which is kept in
separate location in case the
o riginal file is damaged o r lost
and will be used for recovery
purposes. The o riginal files
could be deleted accidentally,
deleted by hackers, corrupted
by system failure o r could be
corrupted by hackers.
. Updating by overlay (in situ):
b
In this case, a record is
● accessed directly,
● read into memory,
● updated and then
● written back to its original position (in situ).
This o ccurs in random and indexed-sequential files, thus o ndeviceslikeharddiscs
and memory sticks.
PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS
efinition of terms:
D
-Program:aseto fdetailedandunambiguousinstructionsthatinstructsacomputer
to perform a specific task, for example, to add a set of numbers.
- Programming: A process of designing, coding andtesting computer programs
- Programmer: Apersonwhospecialisesindesigning,codingandtestingcomputer
programs
-Problem:anyquestiono rmatterinvolvingdifficultyo runcertaintyandisproposed
for solution.
rogramming Languages
P
A programming language isaseto fsymbolsincomputerlanguagethatareusedin
codingcomputerprograms.Aprogramminglanguageisaspeciallywrittencodeused
for writing application programs e.g C, Pascal, COBOL, BASIC, C++ and Java.
Programming languages are of the following types:
. Low Level Languages (LLL): These are programming languages used to write
1
programsinmachinecode,thatisinzerosando neso rinmnemoniccodes.Lowlevel
language is in two forms:Machine LanguageandAssemblyLanguage.
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.MachineCode(Language)isthelanguageusedtowriteprogramsinbinaryform
a
(zeros and ones). Machine language has the followingadvantages:
(i) Programs run faster since they are already in computer language. There is no
need for conversion as programs are in machine language.
(ii) Programs occupy very small disc storage space by storing just 1s and 0s.
Disadvantages of Machine Language:
● They are very difficult to learn.
● They are difficult to understand.
● Very difficult to use and takes too long to find an error in a program.
● It takes too long to develop working programs.
● They are machine dependent (they can o nly work o n type o f computer
designed for and not work on other computers)
.AssemblyLanguage:Theseareprogramminglanguagesthatusemnemoniccodes
b
in coding programs. Mnemonic codes are abbreviations used in coding assembly
language programs, for example, LDA for Load, ADD for Addition, etc. Mnemonic
codes are very close to machine code, hence are low level language assembly
language codes
Advantages of Assembly language:
● One assembly language instruction corresponds to o ne machine code
instruction and therefore translation is easier and faster.
● Programs run faster since they are close to machine code.
● They occupy very small disk storage space hence are economical to use.
● Easier for a programmer to use than machine language.
Disadvantages of Assembly Language
● They are very difficult to learn.
● They are very difficult to understand.
● Takes too long to develop working programs.
● They can be machine dependent.
. High Level Languages (HLL): These are programming languages that use
2
English-like statements in coding programs, for example COBOL, Pascal, BASIC, etc.
There are so many high level languages because each language is designed for a
specificproblemtobesolvedino urdailylives.ForexampleBASICwasdesignedfor
learning purposes, COBOL for business applications, FORTRAN for scientific
purposes, etc. Below is an example o f a BASIC program that accepts two numbers
entered through the keyboard, adds them and display the result on the screen:
INPUT “ENTER FIRST NUMBER.”, A
INPUT “ENTER SECOND NUMBER.”, B
SUM = A + B
PRINT SUM
END
rogramswritteninHighLevelLanguagearefirstconvertedtomachinecodebefore
P
running.
Advantages of High Level Languages:
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● T hey are easier to understand since they are written in English-like
statements which are more readable.
● They are easier to learn.
● It is easier to work with, that is to correct errors and to test programs.
● They areproblemo rientedandthereforecanbeusedo nanycomputer(not
machine dependent)
Disadvantages of HLL
● Takes long to run since they need to be first converted to machine code.
● They occupy a lot of disk storage space as compared to low level languages.
Factors to consider when choosing a programming language
● Nature of the application.
● Availability o f needed facilities in the programming language for system
implementation.
● Availability of compatible hardware.
● Availability of expertise of the programmers.
ranslators
T
Theseareprogramsusedtoconvertsourcecodeintomachinecode,andareintwo
types, which are interpreters, compilers and assemblers, which are further
explained below:
. Interpreters
1
Theseareprogramsthatconvert(translate)andruno neinstructiono faprogramat
a time before going to the next, until the end o f the program, e.g. the BASIC
interpreter. They do not produce the machine code version o f a program; hence
conversion is repeated when you run the program again. Thus interpreters retain
source code. The interpreter must be present in the computer for the program to
run.
Functions of Interpreters
● They check syntax error in a program statement.
● Theytranslateaninstructionintomachinelanguageandrunitbeforegoingto
the next.
● Allocates storage space to variables.
Advantages of interpreters
● It is easy to find and correct syntax errors in interpreted programs.
● It is very fast to run programs for the first time.
● It is very fast to run small programs.
Disadvantages of interpreters
● They are very slow in running very large programs.
● They do not produce an o bject code o f a source codeandhencedifficultto
use.
● The interpreter must be present in the computer for the program to run.
. Compilers
2
These are programs that convert a high level language program into its machine
codeequivalentato negoandthenrunit,e.g.theCOBOLcompiler.Thusittranslates
the entire program before running it.Oncecompiled,theprogramnolongerneeds
conversion since the machine code version is the o ne that will be run, until some
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c hangesaremadetotheprogramcode.Thusacompilerproducesano bjectcodeo f
the program. The computer must have a compiler for translation.
Functions of Compilers
● They check syntax errors in program statements.
● They allocate storage space to variables.
● Translate the whole program into machine code at one go.
● Run an object code of the program.
● Produces a program listing which indicates position of errors in a program.
Advantages of Compilers
● Compiled programs runs faster since the object code is run.
● Compilers indicate the line numbers with syntax errors andthereforeassist
programmers in debugging programs.
● They are appropriate even for very large programs.
Disadvantages of Compilers
● Slower than interpreters for running programs for the first time.
● The compiler must be present for the translation process to occur.
● They can cause the computer to crash.
● Difficult to find errors in compiled program.
* NB: Source Code refers to the program written in English-like statements (High
Level Language) by the programmer.
ObjectCodereferstoamachinecodeversiono fasourcecode.Allprogramswritten
in source code must be converted to o bject code for the computer to understand
them.
.Assemblers:Theseareprogramsusedtoconvertassemblylanguageinstructions
3
into machine language. Other uses of assemblers include:
● They generate machine code that is equivalent to assembly language.
● Theyareusedtocheckthevalidityo finstructions,thatis,checkingforsyntax
errors in an instruction.
● They also assign memory locations to variables.
Difference between High Level Languages and Low Level Languages
igh Level Language
H ow Level Language
L
1 Written in English like statements Written in 1s and 0s (machine code) o r in
mnemonic codes.
2 Easier to work with Difficult to work with
3 Easier to understand Difficult to understand
4 Areproblemo rientedandcanbeused Machine oriented
o n any computer
5 Slowerinexecutionsincetheyneedto Faster in execution since they are in machine
be first converted to machine code code already.
before running
6 Occupy large disk storage space o n Occupy small disk storage space o n the
the computer computer
7 They are machine independent They are machine dependent
op-Down Program Design
T
Refers to thesplittingo faprogramintosimplersubtaskscalledmoduleswhichwill
be easier to solve. For example, a program can be split into modules to Accept
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umber, Add, Divide, Subtract and to Display Results. Modules are also called
N
procedures, routines, sub-routines o r functions. The splitting o f a problem into a
series of self-contained modules is called modularisation (modular programming).
Advantages of modularisation (modular programming)
● Programmer can concentrate at one task at a time.
● Modules are simpler and easier to understand and to solve.
● Modules are easier to test and to debug.
● Program modification is easier since changes are isolated with specific
modules.
● More experienced programmers can be assigned complex modules.
● It saves programming time by sharing tasks.
● A large project will be easier to monitor. It is easier to update (modify)
modules
However,
● It may be difficult to link the modules together.
● Therecouldbeproblemso fusageo fvariablesassimilarvariablenamesmay
be referring to different sets of data. They may also vary in scope.
* NB: Library programs: this refers to a collection o f standard programs and
subroutinesthatarestoredandavailableforimmediateusebyo thermodulesinthe
system. Library programs are referenced by most modules in the systems.
*NB: Stepwiserefinement:atechniqueusedindevelopingasystembybreakingit
into modules and then work on the internal working of a module.
*NB: The difference between a procedure and a function is that a procedure is a
sub-program that do not return a value while a function is a sub-program that
returns a value.
LGORITHMS
A
A set o f instructions describingthestepsfollowedinperformingaspecifictask,for
example, calculating change. Algorithms are not necessarily written in any specific
language. Algorithms can be illustrated using the following:
Descriptions, Flowcharts, Pseudocodes, Structure diagrams.
Advantages of algorithms
- not biased towards any programming language
- easy to convert to a program code or flowchart
- easy to determine logic errors
- has finite steps which lead to a solution
Disadvantages
- time consuming to design, i.e. first convert to flowchart, then to program code
- most people find them difficult to learn
.Descriptions:Thesearegeneralstatementsthatarefollowedino rdertocomplete
a
aspecifictask.Theyarenotgovernedbyanyprogramminglanguage.Anexampleis
as follows:
Enter temperature inoC
Store the value in box C
Calculate the equivalent temperature inoF
Store the value in box F
Print the value of box C and F
End the program.
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.Pseudocodes:TheseareEnglish-likestatements,closertoprogramminglanguage
b
that indicate steps followed in performing a specific task. They are however
independent of any programming language. An example is as follows:
Enter centigrade temperature, C
If C = 0, then stop.
Set F to 32 + (9C/5)
Print C and F
End
ARIABLES
V
Definition: A variables is amemorylocationthatcanstoreavaluethatcanchange
during program execution.
Naming variables: Each programming language has its own way o f naming
variables. However, the following conventions are common:
- a variable should notbeareservedword.Areservedwordisawordwitha
specificmeaning/functioninthatprogramminglanguage,e.g.Print,else,are
reserved words in BASIC
- Variables must start with an alphabetic character, not with digit.
- It is wise to name a variable using the data it stores, e.g. surname (to store
surnames), DOB (to storeadateo fbirth),etc.Thusitmustbemeaningfulto
avoid confusion
- Must not be too long
- Must be one word
ontrol Structures in Pseudocode
C
A number o fcontrolstructuresareusedindesigningPseudocodes.Theseincludes:
simple sequence, selection and iteration (looping/repetition).
i . Simple sequence: This is whereby instructions are executed in the o rder they
appearinaprogramwithoutjumpinganyo neo fthemuptotheendo ftheprogram.
Statements are executed o ne after another in the o rder they are. It is simple and
avoids confusion. Example:
Enter first number, A
Enter second number, B
C = A + B
Print C
Stop
ii. Selection Structure:
This allowso netochoosetheroutetofollowino rdertoaccomplishaspecifictask.
Selection is written using the IF ....THEN...ELSE statement or the CASE statement.
I F...THEN ...ELSE statement: A programming structure that allows the user to
choose o ne from at least two routes o f solving a problem. The following
Pseudocodescomparestwonumbersenteredthroughthekeyboardanddetermines
the bigger one.
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nter first Number, A
E nter first Number, A
E Enter first Number, A
Enter second number, B Enter second number, B
Enter second number, B
IF A>B THEN IF A > B THEN
Print A is bigger Print A is bigger IF A>B THEN Print A is bigger
ELSE ENDIF
IF A<B THEN Print B is bigger
IF A<B THEN IF A < B THEN
Print B is bigger Print B is bigger IF A=B THEN Print Numbers are equal
ELSE ENDIF
END
Print Numbers are IF A = B THEN
equal Print Numbers are equal
ENDIF ENDIF
ENDIF END
END
The above 3 Pseudocodes produces the same result.
ASE Statement: This is an alternative to the IF...THEN...ELSE statement and is
C
shorter. For example:
Enter first Number, A
Enter second number, B
Enter operand (+, -, * /)
CASE operand of:
“+”: C = A + B
“-”: C = A-B
“*”: C = A*B
“/”: C = A/B
ENDCASE
Print C
END
I ii. Repetition/Iteration/Looping:
Acontrolstructurethatrepeatedlyexecutesparto faprogramo rthewholeprogram
until a certain condition is satisfied. Iteration is in the following forms: FOR...NEXT
loop, REPEAT... UNTIL Loop and the WHILE...ENDWHILE Loop.
.For...NextLoop:Aloopingstructurethatrepeatedlyexecutestheloopbodyfora
a
specified number of times. The syntax of the For...Next loop is as follows:
FOR {variable} = {starting value} to {ending value} DO
Statement 1
Statement 2 loop body
................
NEXT {variable}
groupo fstatementsbetweentheloopingstructuresiscalledtheloopbodyandis
A
the one that is repeatedly executed.
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he For...Next loopisappropriatewhenthenumbero frepetitionsisknownwellin
T
advance, e.g. five times.Anexampleo faprogramthatusestheFor...Nextloopisas
follows:
Sum, Average = 0
FOR I = 1 to 5 DO
Enter Number
Sum = Sum + number
NEXT I
Average = Sum/5
Display Sum, Average
End
.Repeat...UntilStructure:Thisisaloopingstructurethatrepeatedlyexecutesthe
b
loop body when the condition set is FALSE until it becomes TRUE. The number o f
repetitionsmaynotbeknowninadvanceandtheloopbodyisexecutedatleasto nce.
The syntax is as follows:
Repeat
Statement 1
Statement 2 loop body
................
Until {Condition}
For example
Sum, Average, Count = 0
Repeat
Enter Number (999 to end)
Sum = Sum + Number
Count = count + 1
Until Number = 999
Average = Sum / count
Print Sum, count, Average
End
In the above program:
- Countrecords the number of times the loop body executes.
- 999 is used to stop further data entry through the keyboard and thereby
ending the loop. Such a value that stops further data entry through the
keyboard thereby terminating a loop is called aRoguevalue or sentinel.
- Theconditionhereis{Number=999}.Theloopexitswhenthenumber999
isentered.If999isparto fthenumbertobeenteredinthisprogram,thenthe
user has tosplititintotwonumbers,thatis999=990+9,thereforecanbe
entered separately as 990 and 9.
- A flag is also used to control the loop. In this case 999 is also a flag.
NB.AsfortheRepeat...Untilloop,theconditionistestedaftertheloopbodyhasbeen
run at least o nce, even when the condition is true from start. This is rather
misleading.
c .While...DoStatement:Aloopingstructureinwhichtheloopbodyisrepeatedly
executedwhentheconditionsetisTRUEuntilitbecomesFALSE.Itisusedwhenthe
number o f repetitions is not known in advance. The condition set is tested first
before execution o ftheloopbody.Thereforetheloopbodymaynotbeexecutedat
all if the condition set is FALSE from start. The syntax o f the WHILE…END WHILE
structure is as follows:
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WHILE {condition}
Statement 1
Statement 2 loop body
................
ENDWHILE
An example of the program is as follows:
Sum, Count, Average = 0
WHILE Count < 6 DO
Enter Number
Sum = Sum + number
Count = count + 1
ENDWHILE
Average = Sum/count
Display sum, count, average
END
he word WEND can be used to replace the word ENDWHILE in some structures
T
and therefore is acceptable. The wordDo, after theconditionis optional.
Differences between the Repeat...Until and the While…ENDWHILE structures
epeat Until Loop
R hile Endwhile Loop
W
1 Loop body is executed when the Loop body is executed when the
condition set is FALSE until it condition set is TRUE until it becomes
becomes TRUE FALSE
2 Loop body is executed at least Loop body may not be executed at all
o nce
3 Condition is tested well after ondition is tested before execution o f
C
execution of loop body loop body
c . Flowcharts
It is a diagram usedtogivedetailso nhowprogramsandproceduresareexecuted.
Flowcharts are drawn using specific symbols, each with its own meaning, as given
below:
Symbol Explanation
Process Symbol - Indicates where some form of processing occur
rrow
A - Shows directional flow of data (data flow symbol)
Input /output - Parallelogram in shape. Indicates where data is
entered and o utput form, either screen displayo r
printout.
Terminal - Oval in shape. Indicate the start and stop o f a
program. Therefore it is written either
Start/Begin/Stop/End.
Connector - Circular in shape.Denotesthestartandendo fa
subroutine. Nothing should be written inside it.
Pre-defined process Indicates a module/subprogram/procedure inside
another program
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Decision epresents a selection stage. Often used where a
R
condition is, especially in repetition and selection
structures.
I llustrations of flowcharts for programs
1. Using Simple Sequence Structure
tart
S
Enter number, A
Enter number, B
Sum = A + B
Display Sum
Stop
seudocode for the flowchart on the
P
left:
lowchart equivalent
F to the
pseudocode on the right
2. Using Selection Structure
Flowchart Pseudocode equivalent
nter first Number, A
E
Enter second number, B
IF A>B THEN
Print A is bigger
ELSE
IF A<B THEN
Print B is bigger
ELSE
Print Numbers are
equal
NDIF
E
ENDIF
END
. Using Iteration
3
(a) Repeat ... Until Structure
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Flowchart seudocode equivalent
P
Sum, Average, Count = 0
Repeat
Enter Number
Sum = Sum + Number
Count = count + 1
Until Count > 10
Average = Sum / count
Display Sum, count, Average
End
b) WHILE...WEND Structure and the FOR...TO...NEXT Loop
Flowchart seudocode equivalent
P
Sum, Average, Count = 0
WHILECount <=10
Enter Number
Sum = Sum + Number
Count = count + 1
WEND
Average = Sum / count
Display Sum, count, Average
END
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se of the Pre-defined Symbol and the connector
U
This is used when drawing flowcharts of subprograms as given below.
Start Module Accept
Numbers
Enter First Number, A
Enter Second Number, B
Enter Third Number, C
End Module
. Flowchart for module
b
c . Pseudocode for module
a. Flowchart forwhole Accept Numbers Accept Numbers
program
lowchart (a) above indicates modules named Accept Numbers, Add numbers
F
Multiply Numbers and Display Results. Flowcharts for individual modules canthen
be designed as given in diagram (b) above, o nly the first module is indicated. Can
you do the rest?
. Structure Diagrams: These are diagrams that show relationships between
d
different modules as given below.
Start
Sum, Product = 0
Enter First Number, A
Enter Second Number, B
Sum = A + B
Product = A * B
Display Sum, Product
End
he structure diagram above indicates five sub-programs o f the program Process
T
Numbers, namely Initialise, Accept Numbers, ProcessNumbers,DisplayResultsand
Exit. The module Process Numbers has its own sub-programs, which are Add
Numbers and Multiply Numbers. Modulesareappropriateforverylargeprograms.
Canyouwritepseudocodeforindividualmodules?Theprogramcanbewrittenasa
continuous single program as indicated on the right side of the diagram.
I nterpreting and Testing Programs
Dry running (desk c hecking): the process o f manually testing the logic o f a
programo npaperbeforecodingo nthecomputer.Dryrunningisdonetodetermine
the logic of a program (to check if it gives intended results.)
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ebugging: The process o f finding and correcting errors in a program. Bugs are
D
errorsinaprogram.Adebuggerisaprogramusedinaidingthefindingandremoval
o f errors in a program.
rogramming Errors
P
Programming errors are grouped into:
i.Syntaxerror:thisisanerroro fviolatingthegrammaticalrulesgoverningsentence
constructioninacertainprogramminglanguage,forexample,leavingasemi-colonat
theendo feachlineinPascal.Syntaxerrorsaredetectedbythecomputer.Aprogram
cannot run with syntax errors.
ii. Logic error (Semantic error): refers to an error in the sequencing o f
instructions, modules and specifying wrong formulaethatwillproduceundesirable
results. For example, instructing the computer to display result before any
processing has been done. Logic errors cannot be detected by the computer. The
user just finds wrong and unintended results of a process.
iii. Runtime (execution) error: These are errors that o ccur during program
executionandcanbegeneratedwhenthecomputertriestoreadpastanendo ffile
marker or by dividing a number by zero.
ATA TESTING
D
After a program has been coded, it must be tested with different data types to
determine if intended results are produced.Thetypeso ftestdatathatcanbeused
include:
i.ExtremeData(boundarydata/borderlinedata):Referstotheminimumandthe
maximum values in a given range. For example, a computer program requires the
user to enter any number from (between) 1 to 20.1and20areextremedataand
the computer must accept these. Thus extreme data is accepted by the computer.
ii.Standard(normal)Data:Thisreferstodatathatlieswithin(in-between)agiven
range. In o ur example above, the numbers from2to19arestandarddataandare
accepted by the computer.
iii. Abnormal Data: This refers to data o utside a given range. As to o ur example
above,thenumber0,-1,-50andallnumberfrom21andaboveareabnormaldata.
The computer system gives/displays an error message if abnormal data is entered.
esting Strategies
T
First step involves testing of the programs and various modules individually, e.g.
-Top-Down testing: program is tested with limitedfunctionality. Most functions are
replaced with stubs that contain code. Functions are gradually added to the program
until the complete program is tested.
-Bottom – up testing: Each function is tested individuallyand then combined to test
the complete program.
-Black-box testing:
- Program is regarded as a black box and is tested according to its specification.
- No account is taken of the way the program is written
- Different values are entered for variables to determine whether the program
can cope with them. This includes standard (typical/normal), extreme
(borderline) and abnormal data values.
-White-box testing:
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● E ach path through the program is tested to ensure that all lines of code work
perfectly.
● Involves testing the program to determine whether all possible paths through
the program produce desired results
● Mostly appropriate if the program has different routes through it, i.e. uses
selection control structure and loops
● Involves testing of logical paths through the code
● Involves testing of the structure and logic of the program (if it has logical
errors)
● Involves desk checking (dry running)
-Alpha testing:
● The first testing done within the developers company (at owners’ laboratory).
● Testing is done by members of the software company
● Some errors may still be in existence after alpha testing as the testers are
programmers not users.
● The software version will be unfinished
● Testers have knowledge of the software and of programming
-Beta testing: System testing done after alpha testing;in which the program version
is released to a number of privileged customers in exchange of their constructive
comments. Mostly similar to the finally released version.
ystem testing
S
Once a program is tested, it is installed and the analyst can now test it. A very large
program must be tested using the following types of tests:
.Unit testing: the process of testing each programunit (sub-routine/module in a
1
suite) singly to determine if it produces expected results.
2.Integration Testing: testing to see if modulescan combine with each other and
work as expected. The whole program is tested to determine if its module integrate
perfectly
3.System testing: the testing of the whole programafter joining the modules to
determine if it runs perfectly.
4.User acceptance testing: determining if users ofthe new system are prepared to
use it. Usually the final step. It enables identification of some bugs related to usability.
User gain the confidence that the program being ushered meets their requirements
HUMAN – COMPUTER INTERFACES
I nterface: A form o f communication between the user and the computer, for
example Graphical User Interface. It is the o perating environment presentedtothe
user by the computer system for interaction purposes. A program that is easy to
learn and to use is said to be user friendly. A user friendly interface has the
followingfeatures:
● It is easy for a user to start using the system, especially for beginners.
● The system should be self-contained so that users are not forced to access
manuals.
● Minimum effort must be used for the user to complete required tasks.
● It should have minimum errors and unexpected results. Thus must be reliable.
● It should be logical and consistent, allowing the user to learn it faster.
● It is intuitive to use.
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Help is available.
●
● Can use menus, wizards, sound and colour to assist the user.
Userfriendlyprogramsusuallydisplaywindows,icons,menus,pointersanddialogue
boxes.
An interface can contain the following:
● Window: - A rectangular area on the screen which displaystext or images.
● Icon: - Small image o n the screen that represent a file, folder, command o r
anyo bjectthatcanbemanipulatedbytheuser,liketheMyComputericono n
the desktop.
● Menu: - a list of options from which the user couldselect one.
● Pointer:-Arrowappearingo nthescreenthatismovedbymovingthemouse
to point, select or open an icon.
● StaticMenu:-Menuthatappearo nthescreenmosto fthetime,forexample
File, Edit, View, etc, which are found in Microsoft Word.
● Pull Down Menu: - a list of options that are listedgoing downwards.
● Pop-up menu: - A list o f o ptions that appear which you right click o n an
empty space on the screen.
● Dialoguebox:-Arectangularareawithmanywindowsthatpromptstheuser
to provide data.
● Prompt:-ascreendisplaythatallowstheusertoenteracommandbytyping
as in MS-DOS mode. A prompt may appear as C:>-
● Cursor: - a blinking arrow that shows an insertion point o n the screen
showing where text will appear when typing as in Microsoft Word.
● Scroll bar: - A vertical o r horizontal bar that is moved up anddowno rleft
and right respectively, to view text on the screen.
● Text box: - In a dialog box, a box in which you type information needed to
carry o ut a command. The text box may be blank o rmaycontaintextwhen
the dialog box opens.
ypes Of User Interfaces
T
1. Graphical User Interface (GUI):Itisawayo fcommunicationbetweentheuser
and the computer by use o f Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointers (WIMP) as
supported by Microsoft Windows XP o perating system. Programs that provide a
graphicaluserinterfaceincludeMicrosoftWord2003,WindowsXP.Theusermoves
a mouse and point o n required o ptionsandthenclick.Ithascommandsinformo f
iconswhichhavethenameo fthecommando rfilebelowtheicon.Themouseisthe
most used device in this system. Suitable for users with lower computing skills
Advantages of GUI:
● It is faster to give/select commands by just clicking.
● It is easier for a novice (beginner) to use the system right away.
● Itisuserfriendly(thisisaninterfacethatiseasytolearn,understandandto
use).
● There is no need for users to remember commands of the language.
● It avoids typing errors since no typing is involved.
● It is easier and faster for user to switch between programs and files.
● A novice (beginner) can use the system right away.
Disadvantages of GUI:
● Theiconso ccupyaloto fdiskstoragespacethatmightbeusedforstorageo f
data.
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● ccupy more main memory than command driven interfaces.
O
● Run slowly in complex graphics and when many windows are open.
● Irritate to use for simple tasks due to a greater number of operations needed.
● Usually only predefined choice are available.
. Command ( Driven(Line) Interface/Character based Interface: This is an
2
interface which allows the user to type the command to be carried o ut by the
computer through the keyboard as supported by MS-DOS. Thus communication
between the user and thecomputeristhroughtypedcommands. Thecommandto
beo beyedmustbetypedcorrectly;o therwiseitwillnotbeo beyed.Usuallydisplays
prompt; which are characters displayed o n computer screen to let the user know
that a command is required; e.g.
C:>_
This is the C-prompt, on the user can type the command in front, e.g.
C:>copy:\computernotes.doc D:\KapondeniT
he user has to remember the commands to be typed when performing aspecific
T
task.Anexampleo faprogramthatusescommanddriveninterfaceisMicrosoftDisk
Operating System (MS-DOS). The commands areabbreviatedandshorte.g.Del(for
delete), copy, print, etc.
Command Line interface is ideal for programmers and technically competent
personnel.
Advantages of Command Driven Interface:
● It saves disk storage space since there are no icons involved.
● It is very fast in executing the commands given o nce the user mastered the
commands.
● It saves time if the user knows the commands by heart.
Disadvantages of Command Driven Interface:
● It takes too long for the user to master all the commands by heart.
● It is less user friendly.
● Do not tolerate mistakes
● More suited to experienced users like programmers.
● Commands for different software packages are rarely thesameandthiswill
lead to mix-up of commands by the user.
● It is intimidating for normalcomputerusersandbeginners.Thereforeisnot
the best for normal applications
. Menu Driven Interface: This type o f interface displays a list o f o ptions /
3
commandsfromwhichtheuserhastochooseo nebyuseo fthemouseo rkeyboard.
Below is an illustration of a menu driven type of interface:
1. PRINT RECORD
2. DISPLAY RECORD
3. DELETE RECORD
4. EDIT RECORD
5. MY OPTION IS: __
he user has to enter 1, 2, 3 or 4 and then press enter on the keyboard.
T
Advantages of Menu Driven Interface:
● It is fast in carrying out task.
● The user does not need to remember the commands by heart.
● It is very easy to learn
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● No need to consult manual
Disadvantages of Menu Driven Interface:
● Theuserisrestrictedtothosefewo ptionsavailableandthusisnotflexibleto
use.
● The intended option can be a submenu, which may slow down operations
Characteristics of a Good User Interface
- Should have consistent menu structures
- Forgiving: should not be too strict as users can makemistakes. Thus should
allow users to undo some actions.
- Familiar: should be similar especially for programsdesigned by the same
company
- Attractive: Maybe by use of good colour, layout, etc
- Efficient: must perform functions faster and withless effort.
- Should be clear in terms of labelling and naming its use. Names should not be
vague
- Legibility
DATABASES
Database is a collection o f related and o rganised filessharableamongcomputer
A
users o f an o rganisation. Databases enable addition, deletion and modification o f
data held in the computer.
Building Block of Computerised Databases
-Bit: A single binary digit like 0 or 1.
- Nibble: A group o f 4 bits,whichishalfabyte,eg
1001.
- Byte: A group o f eight bits representing a
character for example 10010110
- Field:Aspecificcategoryo finformationinatable
(database), for example Surname, Date of Birth, etc
- Record:Acollectiono frelatedfieldsdescribingan
entity, e.g patient.
-File: A collection of related records
-Database: A collection of related files
database system (elements) is made up o f stored data, software to maintain the
A
database, procedures and the person working with the database.
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atabase Management System (DBMS)
D
Itisalayero fsoftwareusedtocreate,maintainthedatabaseandprovidesinterface
between the database and application programs. It allocates storage to data. The
DBMSmaintainsdataby:addingnewrecords,deletingunwantedrecords,amending
records.
Data in databases can be accessed using different programming languages.
DBMS facilities:
● Processing of files in serial or sequential order.
● Processing of records.
● Retrieval of records
DBMS provides security to data in the database by:
● Protecting data against unauthorised access using passwords.
● Safeguarding data against corruption.
● All transaction between the database and the user are done through the
DBMS.
ommunicating with the database
C
Some databases have their own computer languages. For all thedataindatabases,
data descriptions must be provided. Data Description Languages (DDL) are
provided as well as the Data Manipulation Language (DML)
*NB: DDL- Refers to the language that allows users to describe data held in the
computer (data about data) (data used to describe data).
DML: Language used to retrieve, sort, .. data indatabases.
A combination o f the DDL and the DML is called a Data Sub-Language (DSL) o r a
Query Language. The most common DSL is the Structured Query Language (SQL)
he Database Administrator (DBA)
T
This is a person appointed to manage the database and ensures that thedatabase
meets the needs o f the o rganisation. The DBA is supposed to have software and
managerial skills. Theresponsibilitieso f theDBAare:
● Ensuring that the database meets the needs of the organisation.
● Setting up the database.
● Control, manage and maintain the database.
● Define, implement and control database storage.
● Ensure that policies and procedures are established.
● Guarantee effective production, control and use of data.
● Define the strategy o f backup storage and recovering from system
breakdown.
● Supervise amendments to the database.
● Ensures that the data is secure from unauthorised access.
ypes Of Databases (Database Models)
T
These includes relational, hierarchical and network databases
1. Relational databases: These are databasethato rganisesdatainatableformat,
consistingo frelateddatainanotherfile,allowinguserstolinkthefilestogether.Each
column represents an attribute (characteristic o r field). Each row represents a
record (or tuple), as shown below.
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elational databases o rganise data in a flexible manner. They are also simple to
R
construct and are easy to use. However, it may be difficult to come up with
relationships.
From the above database structure, it can be noticed that:
-TherearethreerecordsforKapondeni,TurugariandMoyo.Arecordisalsocalled
atuple.
- There are four fields: Student Number, Surname, First Name and Date of Birth.
- The student Number is used as a Primary Key (Key field) because it gives a
unique(one)record.Aprimarykeyisafieldthatisusedtoidentifyauniquerecord
from adatabase.Allo therfieldsfromtheabovedatabasearenotappropriatefora
key field because they can identify more than o nerecord.Thatissurnamescanbe
similar for 2 or more people as well as date of birth.
*NB: Concatenated key: the combination o f two o r more fields in a database in
o rder to identify a unique record, e.g. using the Surname, First Name and Date o f
Birth in search of one record.
*NB: Secondary Key: A field usedtoidentifymorethano nerecordatatime,e.g.a
surname.
*NB:Attribute: A characteristic of a record, e.g.its surname, date of birth.
Entity:anyo bjecto reventaboutwhichdatacanbecollected,e.g.apatient,student,
football match, etc.
ata types for fields can be:
D
- Numeric: consists of digits 0-9 only (negative orpositive), 12, 900, -50, etc
- Alphabetic: Consists o f letterso fthealphabet(a-z,lowercaseo ruppercase)o nly,
for example a person’s name, likeTungamirai.
- Alphanumeric: Combination o f digits and letters o f the alphabet, eg. National
Identification Number, like 27-134575-C-27
- Text: Combination of digits and letters of the alphabet.
- String: Combination of digits and letters of thealphabet
- Currency: in monetary value, e.g. $10.00
- Date/time: shows date and time, e.g. 27/01/1997
- Array: An array is a series o f elements o f the same type placed in contiguous
memorylocationsthatcanbeindividuallyreferencedbyaddinganindextoaunique
identifier.
2. Network Databases
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hese databases have linksthat
T
are used to express
relationships between different
data items.
ata is maintained by a single
D
input.
here is little duplication o f
T
data.
here is no duplication o f
T
inputs. Linkages are more
flexible.
any to many relationships to
M
records are limited
.Hierarchicaldatabase:Thesearedatabasesinwhichrecordsaresubordinatesto
3
o ther records in a tree structure o f database. It promotes grandfather, father, and
son relationship of records as illustrated below..
ach father file has o ne o rmore
E
son files.
ach son file haso nlyo nefather
E
file.
herearenocrosslinkageso ffile
T
records.
I t is difficulttoaccessallthefiles
at one time.
lot o f duplication exists in this
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type of database structure
Advantages of Databases
● Validationchecksaremadeo ndataduringentrytherebyreducingdataentry
errors.
● Searching and retrieval of data is very fast.
● Less likelihood of data getting lost.
● Record structure can be easily modified if the need arises.
● Files can be linked together making file updating easier and faster.
● Avoids/reduces data redundancy.
● Data can be secured from unauthorised access by use of passwords.
● Users can share data if the database is networked.
● Duplication of records is eliminated.
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● d hoc reports can be created easily.
● Sorting of records in any order is very fast
Disadvantages of databases
● If the computer breaks down, you may not be able to access the data.
● It is costly to initially setup the database.
● Computer data can be easily copied illegally and therefore should be
password protected.
● Takes time and costs to train users of the systems.
● Expensive to employ a database administrator who will manage the database
Advantages of computer based systems as compared to manual filing systems.
● Work can be done anywhere, even at offices in different countries.
● It is quicker to transfer files to other offices.
● Fewer staff is employed thereby saving expenses on wages.
● There are less chances of files getting lost.
● Less paperwork and storage requirements are needed.
● It is quicker to search needed records.
● It is quicker to sort records in any order using any field.
● It is quicker to cross reference files.
● It is quicker and easier to insert sections of files into reports
latfile:thisisa2-dimensionalfile,comprisingo frowsandcolumns,thatareused
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to store data, e.g. in a spread sheet. A flat file has the following weaknesses:
- Data is not sharable among users
- Too much duplication of records
- Too much data redundancy
- Difficult to manage
owever,theintroductiono fthecomputersystemsmeansthatstaffwouldneednew
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skills,canleadtounemployment,peoplearelikelytoworkfromhome,couldleadto
de-skilling and some health problems will suffice.
ample Question
S
A database stores details about carsinashowroom:Thedatabaseinformationcan
be amended, deleted or new ones inserted due to:
Amended: information in the databases is incorrect. Price o f vehicle needs to be
changed (e.g. sales). Change of vehicle colour.
Deleted (record deleted): Vehicle is sold or Vehicleis scrapped
Inserted/ added: new vehicle arrived. More information about current vehicle
becomes known.
ODING DATA
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Data to be entered into the computer can be coded / written in a short way, for
example:
Indatabases,afieldforsexcanbecodedasfollows:FforFemale,MforFemale.In
thiscasetheuserjustentersFo rMandnotthewholefieldasitis.Thecolumnfor
colour can also be coded as B for Black, R for Red, Y for Yellow, etc.
Reasons form coding data:
● Codes are quicker to type in, both initially and subsequently.
● Reduces the size of files thereby saving disk storage space.
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● Increases the speed of searching and any process performed on data
Features of Codes
● Should be of the same length.
● Must be easy to use.
● Must not be too short in case you will run out of codes.
● Codes are often unique
PERIPHERAL DEVICES CONTROL
peripheralisanyhardwareconnectedtothecentralprocessingunit(processor),
A
e.g. mouse, printer, etc. Peripherals can be controlledinanumbero fwaysthatwill
provide continuous job processing sequence. These include:
.Buffers:Thisisatemporarymemorystorefordataawaitingprocessingo ro utput,
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compensating speed at whichdeviceso perate,forexampleprinterbuffer.Buffering
isappropriatewhereano utputdeviceprocessesdataslowerthantheprocessor.For
example,theprocessorsendsdatatotheprinter,whichprintsmuchslowerandthe
processor does not need to wait for the printer to finishprintingino rderforitto
carry o ut the next task. The processor therefore saves the data, awaiting to be
printed,inabufferwhereitwillberetrievedbytheprinter.Bufferingusuallymatch
devices that work at different speeds, e.g. processor and disk.
Reasons for using printer buffers:
✔ Stores data or information being sent to the printer temporarily.
✔ Compensates for difference in speed of CPU and printer.
✔ Allows CPU to carry out other tasks whilst printer is printing.
Benefits of increasing size of buffer in a printer:
✔ Reduces the number of data transfers to the printer.
✔ Ensures a more efficient use of the CPU.
✔ Larger files can be sent to the printer without problems
. Interrupts: An interrupts is a signal send to the processor by a peripheral for
2
attentiontobeturnedtothatperipheral,therebycausingabreakintheexecutiono f
a program, e.g. printer out of paper. Examples/types of interrupts include:
✔ Input / output interrupte.g. disk full, printer outo f paper, etc.
✔ Arithmetic and Logic Unit error.
✔ Clock (happens normally in time sharing systems where the clock transfers
control from one computer to another.)
✔ Program Interrupts:Arithmetic overflow, divisionby zero, etc
✔ Hardware Failure: can be caused by power failure ormemory
parity error
I f two devices interrupt the processor at the same time,interruptprioritieswillbe
used. That is, an interrupt with a higher priority is handled first than that with a
lower priority.
.Polling:Aprocesswherebytheprocessorinterrogatesperipheralstodetermineif
3
theyareinacertaincondition(orarepresent).Pollingcantakeplaceduringbooting,
wheretheprocessorcheckstheconnecteddeviceslikekeyboard,mouse,harddisks,
etc.Italsoo ccursintime-sharingsystemswheretheprocessorchecksiftheterminal
has anything that needs processing.
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. Spooling (Simultaneous Peripheral Operating On-line)
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A process o f transferring data from processor into temporary and faster access
storageawaitingreleasetoaslowo utputdevice,forexampletoaprinter.Jobsfrom
different users can be queued until the printer is ready to print.
. Handshaking: It is the exchanging o f signals to establish communication link
5
betweentwodevices/computers,forexamplemodemandcomputer.Itisaprotocol
for establishment o f a link between two communicating devices. This controls
movement o f data between the computerdevices,e.g.modems.Thedeviceengages
in something like a dialogue to acknowledge receipt o f data. Can also be called
Three-Way Handshakeprocedure
. Scheduling: This is whereby theprocessordecidestheloadingandexecutiono f
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programstoprovidecontinuousjobprocessingsequence.Schedulingcandothisby
giving time slices to each computer o r by queuing jobs. A number o f scheduling
algorithms can be used; e.g Shortest Job First, Shortest Remaining Time, Round
Robin, First Come First Served, etc. Scheduling generally ensures that:
● No resource is heavily under-utilised or over-utilised.
● The maximum number of interactive users get a reasonable response time.
● Making sure that no job is pushed to the back of a queue.
● Getting maximum number of jobs done in the minimum amount of time.
* NB: Directory: - a folder used to store o ther folders and files in a hierarchical
structure. Directories are usually created in MS-DOS systems.
MALWARE
alware (malicious software) is code o r software that is specifically designed to
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damage,disrupt,stealo rinflictsomeo ther“bad”o rillegitimateactiono ndata,hosts,
o r networks.
Malware can be prevented using the following means:
- se of audit trails to detect Trojan horses
U
- Backing up data to recover it after it has been destroyed or corrupted
- Use of antivirus programs
- Use of firewalls
- Useo fanti-spyware.Spywareisaprogramthatdetectsprogramsthatruno n
the background without knowledge o f user in o rder to steal data from the
user, e.g. stealing passwords, account details,etc.Spywareismostlyusedfor
the purposes o f tracking and storingInternetusers'movementso ntheWeb
and serving up pop-up ads to Internet users. Spyware does not self replicate
Types Of Malware
Types of malware includes Worms, Trojan Horses and Viruses.
1. WORM
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maliciousprogramcapableo freproducingitselfandspreadfromo necomputerto
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the next overanetworkandconsumecomputerresourceslikememoryandCPU.It
does not delete files as viruses do. Worms travel unaided through the computer
network. It does not require a host file or human assistance for it to spread.
2. Trojan Horses
hesearemaliciousprogramsthatappearsasprogramsusefultotheuserwiththe
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intention o f soliciting information like user accounts and passwords o r damaging
computer system files and desktop settings. It can also allow o theruserstoaccess
confidential information from your computer. They do not self-replicate.
. COMPUTER VIRUSES
3
A computer virus is a malicious program which attaches itself to computer file,
replicatesitself,damages,destroyso rcorruptsfilesandmemoryo fthecomputer,for
example, boot sector viruses. Computer viruses spread withhumanaction,e.g.run
an executable file. Viruses also need a host file to attach to it for it to spread. By
replication,itmeansthattheviruscanmultiplyitself(producesseveralsimilarcopies
o fitself)whenitentersthecomputersystem.Exampleso fknownvirusesare:Virus
Melissa, Jerusalem, Cascade, etc.
Signs and symptoms of virus attack on a computer:
● Reduced system performance (reduced speed of operation).
● The computer displays nasty messages on the screen.
● The computer displays a blank screen.
● The computer system produces wrong results of a process.
● Unexplained and frequent loss of data held in the computer.
● The hard disk becomes inaccessible (theusercannotaccessdataheldinthe
computer).
● The computer fails to boot.
Effects of computer viruses:
● Memory of a computer will be used up, slows down computer.
● Alters system settings.
● Erases and corrupts files and data on the computer.
● Infects other computers on network.
● Leads to production loss.
● Leads to financial loss.
● The hard disk becomes inaccessible (theusercannotaccessdataheldinthe
computer).
● The computer fails to boot.
● The computer system produces wrong results of a process.
Methods by which viruses spread from one computer to another
● Bysharingdiskettes,compactdisks,harddisks,memorysticks,memorycards,
Video compact disks, Digital Versatile Disks, etc, with external users.
● Through networked computers, that is on a LAN, WAN or the internet.
● Can come as e-mail attachments, especially emails from unknown sources.
● Can come with downloads from bulletin boards
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Methods of preventing virus attack on the computer
● Avoidingsharingexternaldiskettes,compactdisks,harddisks,memorysticks,
memory cards, Video compact disks, Digital Versatile Disk.
● Installing firewall
● Install the latest antivirus program on the computer and upgrade it frequently.
● Scan the computer with the latest antivirus frequently.
● Avoid software distributed as shareware (freeware) (software produced for
distribution free of charge and can be distributed to others free of charge, e.g.
computer games).
● Avoiding downloading software from bulletin boards.
● Use disk free workstations.
● Donoto penemailattachmentsfromunknownsourceso rdownloaddoubtful
software from the Internet.
● Do not use files that come from unknown sources.
● Buy original software and do not buy pirated software.
● Disable compact disk drives, diskette drives and USB ports of the computer.
ntivirus programs
A
These areprogramsthatdetectcomputervirusesandreducetherisko fcomputers
being attacked by virusesforexampleNortonAntivirus,MacAfee,Avira,Avast,AVG,
etc.
ypes of Computer Viruses
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1. Boot sector Viruses
Thesevirusesaffectthebootingsectoro ntheharddisksothatthecomputerfailsto
boot.
. File sector Viruses
2
These viruses destroy files that are created by users on the computer.
3. Direct Action Virus
his type o f virus o nly comes into action when the file containing the virus is
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executed.
4. Macro Virus
hese attack macros in applications, e.g. in databases and spreadsheets. The most
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well-known macro virus is probably Melissa, a Word document supposedly
containing the passwords to pornographic websites.
5. Multipartite Virus
viruso fthistypemayspreadinmultipleways,anditmaytakedifferentactionso n
A
aninfectedcomputerdependingo nvariables,suchastheo peratingsysteminstalled
o r the existence of certain files.
6. Polymorphic Virus
notherjack-of-all-trades,thePolymorphicvirusactuallymutatesovertimeo rafter
A
everyexecution,changingthecode.Alternatively,o rinaddition,aPolymorphicvirus
may guard itself with an encryption algorithm that automatically alters itself when
certain conditions are met.
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7. Memory Resident Virus
his broad virus definition applies to any virus that inserts itself into a system’s
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memory. It then may take any number o f actions and runindependentlyo fthefile
that was originally infected.
DATA COMMUNICATION
his deals with the means o f sending and receiving data o nnetworkedcomputers.
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Transmitted data can be in analogue or in digital form.
Digital Data: Data is in discrete value, that is,in ones and zeros.
AnalogueData:Dataisincontinuouslyvaryingform,inphysicalo ro riginalforme.g.
human voice.
ynchronous and asynchronous Transmission
S
SynchronousTransmission:Thisiswherebydataissentinblocks(packets)atany
given time. This method is faster in transmitting data.
Asynchronous Transmission: This is whereby data is sendcharacterbycharacter
over a transmission channel. This is much slower as compared to synchronous
transmission.
ransmission Modes
T
Transmission modes include Simplex, Duplex (Full duplex) and Half Duplex
Simplex Transmission Mode Half Duplex Transmission Mode Duplex Transmission Mode
A B C
implexMode:Thisisamodeo fdatatransmissioninwhichdatatravelso nlyino ne
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direction(uni-directional).Thuso necomputeractsasthesenderandtheo therasa
receiver forever. See diagram A, above.
alfDuplex:Thisisatransmissionmodeinwhichdatatravelsinbothdirectionsbut
H
notsimultaneously.Itisbi-directionalbutnotsimultaneous.SeediagramBabove.The
receiver waits until the sender has finished sending data in order for him to respond.
uplex/Full Duplex: Thisisatransmissionmodeinwhichtransmissionispossible
D
in both directions simultaneously. It is fully bi-directional. See diagram B above.
There is no need for one to wait until the channel is free from data.
ransmission impairments
T
This refers to change in signal form as it propagates through the transmission
channel. Transmission impairments include:
Attenuation: The loss of signal power as it movesthrough the transmission channel.
Noise: Occurs when an unwanted signal from o ther sources than the transmitter
enters the transmission channel.
Multiplexing
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hisisamethodo fallowingmultiplesignalstosharethesamechannel,reducingtoo
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much cabling, as shown below:
A multiplexer is used in
multiplexing. A multiplexer
isadevicethatjoinstwoo r
more channels into o ne
channel while the
de-multiplexer is
responsible for splitting a
channel into a number o f
themforeasytransmission
to the intended destination.
Bandwidth
Referstothecaringcapacityo fatransmissionchannel(measuredinbitspersecond:
bps). It determines the amount o f data a channel can transmit atagivenperiodo f
time.
ransmission Media
T
Refers to forms o f media through which data is transferred from o ne point to
another. These include:
1.TwistedPair:Thesearecableswithtwocopperwireso fabout1millimetrethick.
Thewiresaretwistedtoavoidcrosstalk.Twistedpairisverycheaptobuyando ffer
good performance over short distances.
Disadvantages of twisted pair: Twisted pair is very cheap to buy. Has big
attenuation. Has low bandwidth
.Coaxialc able:Itisastiffcopperwiresurroundedbyaninsulatingmaterial.Ithas
2
less attenuation than twisted pair, has high bandwidth and has low error rates.
However, coaxial cable is expensive to buy and is stiff, making it difficult to handle.
. Fibre optics:Amediathatuseslighttotransmitdata.Ithaslessattenuation,has
3
very high bandwidth and cannot corrode (not affected by corrosion),itisthinand
therefore has less weight. However, fibre o ptics is very expensive to buy and is
uni-directional (travels in one direction only)
. Infra-red waves: Refers to data transmission in formo fwavesasthroughsome
4
remotecontrolso ftelevisions.Ithasenormousbandwidth.However,infraredwaves
do not travel through o bstacles like buildings, they o nly work for very short
distances, affect eyes and consume a lot of power.
. Satellite transmission: These include earth stations which communicate with
5
geostationary satellites (36 000 to 80 000 km above the earth. These have high
bandwidth and support very long distance communication. However, they havebig
attenuation and are slow in sending messages.
DATA SECURITY AND INTEGRITY
1. Data Security
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ata security refers to the means o f protectingdatafromunauthorisedaccessand
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from deliberate o r accidental loss. It includes the safety o f data from any form o f
hazard like floods, theft of the computer, fire, etc. Data security can be achieved by:
Physical Security measures against hardware and data loss.
● Locking the computer room.
● Employing security guards.
● Installing burglar bars on windows.
● Use of screen gates.
● Creating backups which will be stored at different locations (File Generations)
● Installing an electric fence around the computer room.
● Constructing a durawall around the computer room.
● Installing fire extinguishers inside the room.
● Building the computer room on higher grounds to avoid flooding.
● Installing a generator to avoid data loss through power cuts.
● Installing an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) to prevent data loss
through power cuts:
B:aUPSisadeviceconnectedbetweenacomputerandapowersourcetoensure
N
thatelectricalflowisnotinterrupted.UPSdevicesusebatteriestokeepthecomputer
running for a period o f time after a power failure. UPS devices usually provide
protection against power surges and blackouts as well.
Measures against unauthorised access to data held in the computer:
● Use o f data encryption methods before sending (data encryption is the
scrambling/coding of data before sending, for security reasonsandcanonlybe
understood once decoded).
● Use of user names and strong passwords.
● Use of firewalls.
● Biometrics: e.g. -use of iris, fingerprints and palm recognition systems.
● Log users for computer use.
● Use call back facility for incoming information.
● Check references of potential staff for employment purposes.
● Divide jobs between several people and then supervise the staff.
● Use physical locks like burglar bars, installing electric fences, etc.
. Data integrity
2
This refers to the correctness and accurateness o f data held in the computer. The
issue o fdataintegrityandsecurityleadtotheintroductiono fsomedataprotection
laws which govern how organisations holding public data must operate.
HE DATA PROTECTION ACT (1984)
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Thistriestoregularisetheuseo fautomaticallyprocessedindividualinformationby
o rganisations. The Act outlines some of the following rules:
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● rganisations using personal data must be registered.
● Data about individuals must be o btained fairly and lawfully for thepurpose
collected for.
● Datamustbeusedo nlyforthespecificpurposecollectedforandmayo nlybe
disclosed in accordance with such a purpose.
● Datacollectedmustnotbeexcessiveforthepurposecollectedforbutmustbe
adequate and relevant.
● Data collected must be accurate, up-to-date and kept no longer than
necessary.
● Data must be protected from unauthorised access or loss.
● Individuals with collected data havetherighttoviewitandmakealterations
where necessary.
I mplications of Computer Application
The following are some o f the effects o f use o f computers (computerisation):
de-skilling,electronicscabbing,newproductionmethods,newproductsandservices,
health and safety, changes in working environment, unemployment, retraining
● Many people lose their jobs leading to high levels of unemployment.
● Hugeprofitsaremadebycompaniesthatengageinelectroniccommerce(the
advertising, buying and selling of goods and services on the internet) and
industrial automation.
● High productivity of high quality goods.
● Cheaper goods have been produced by companies.
● Cheaper, faster and more reliable means o f communication have been
realised.
● Creation of new jobs, e.g. computer programmers, computer technicians, etc.
● Companies lose a loto fmoneybyre-trainingo ftheiremployeesforthemto
catch up of software updates, software changes and hardware changes.
● Retraining of workers without computer knowledge for them to keep up
with changing technology. A lot of money is invested in this exercise.
● De-skilling: - this is the replacement o f skilled and semi-skilled labour by
microprocessor controlled systems, with workers having todojobstheydid
nottrainfor,e.g.inmanufacturing,forexampleincarassemblies.Mosto fthe
skillswhichwerehighlyvaluedaretakentobeuselessbytheintroductiono f
computers. The ability o f unions to maximise impact by selectingcomputing
staff for strike action, etc.
*NB: - Electronic scabbing: a process whereby managers switch word-processing
duties from striking workers in o ne country to none-striking workers in another
country.
● Improved working conditions and environments for employees.
● Misuse o f personal data held in public o ffices like police stations, registry
o ffices, etc.The data can be misused by:
Hackersmayreadthedataandpassito n.Hackersmaydeletethedata.Hackersmay
amend the data, plant viruses in the computer system, engage in industrial
espionage,sellcompany secrets and evenblackmail.
Loss of data can be prevented by:
● Use of Usernames and strong Passwords.
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● D o not connect the computers to a network. If connected to a network use
dedicated lines.
● Physical security- locks on computer room doors andemploy guards.
● Install Firewall.
● Use Proxy server security.
● Data can be encrypted.
● Use iris and palm recognition systems.
● Use of swipe cards, finger print recognition systems.
● Useofaudittrail:Theprocessthattrackstheactivitieso fusersbyrecording
selected types of events in the security log of a server or a workstation.
omputers can create health problems, for example:
C
- Lack of exercises by computer users.
1. Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI): - injury to muscles and tendons caused by
continuous repetitive use o f particular muscles, especially by using a keyboard, o r
working o n an assembly line. Employees are advised to have frequent breaks to
avoid RSI. They can also type with their fingers straight and flat on the keyboard.
. Eye problems: - itchiness o f eyes caused by lightreflectedbycomputerscreens.
2
This can be solved by:
Wearing spectacles (glasses). Use o f antiglare screens: these reduce the amounto f
light reflected by the screen. Adjusting screen settings so that it becomes darker.
Very bright colours are dangerous for eyes.
.Backboneproblems:sittingo nthecomputerforalongperiodcancausethis.This
3
can be solved by:
Usingachairthatisadjustabletofittheheightsuitableforeachemployee.Sittingup
while using the computer.
4. Increase in the amount of litter due to dumping of used and old computers
.Childrenarebeingexposedtopornography,hateliterature,racismanddangerous
5
experimentslikethoseformanufacturingbombso ntheinternet.Thisc anbesolved
by:
Installing software that prevents children from accessing restricted sites o n the
internet like Net-Nanny, Surfwatch, Cybersitter, etc. This software blocks
inappropriate sites and subject matter. Teachers and parents need to closely
supervise students during internet access. Firewalls can also be installed as a
security measure.
Protecting of data against accidental loss
● Periodically backing up data that will be stored in a secure, fireproof safe.
● Training users to follow proper updating procedures.
● Avoid bringing in outside disks which transmit viruses.
● Load recent antivirus programs and update them frequently.
WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
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I t is an electronic device that works under the control o f stored programs to
automaticallyaccept,storeandprocessdataintoinformation.Therefore,acomputer
has the following characteristics:
● It is electronic:- can only work when there is electricity
● It is a device:a machine
● Is controlled by programs: Works according to instructions, written in
computer language, given by the user for it to perform a specific tasks.
● Is automatic in operation: Can work with minimum o r no human
intervention.
● Can accept data: data can be entered into the computer through various
means and the computer accepts it.
● Can store data and programs: Data and programs entered into the
computer can be stored for future use.
● Can process data into information
ata and Information
D
1.Data:referstorawfactsandfigureso fanactivity.Itcanjustbealisto fnumbers,
names o r a combination o f these. Data is meaningless and needs to be processed.
Data cannot be used for decision making purposes as it is meaningless.
.Information:Itisdatathathasbeenconvertedintomeaningfulform.Ingeneralit
2
is processed data. Information can be understood and therefore can be used for
decision making purposes. Information is meaningful. To get relevant information,
dataenteredintothecomputermustberelevant,accurateandup-to-date.Ifdata
entered into the computer is wrong (Garbage In) the results will also be wrong
(GarbageOut),andisgenerallyreferredtoasGarbage-InGarbage-Out(GIGO).Itis
a rule stating that the quality o f theo utputisafunctiono fthequalityo ftheinput;
put garbage in and you get garbage o ut. Therefore the accuracy o f the results
producedbythecomputerdependso nhowaccuratetheuserentersdata,functions,
formulae and codes program procedures.
The Data Processing Cycle
omputer Generations
C
Referstostagesthroughwhichcomputersdevelopedfromthe1940stodate.These
are as follows:
1. FirstGenerationComputers(1945-1955):Thesearetheearliestcomputers
that used valves in controlling machines, e.g. EDVAC, ACE and UNIVAC
machines. These were very large computers, fitting about the size o f an
average room. They were programmed inalanguageunderstandablebythe
machine.Suchcomputersusedaloto felectricityandwereveryexpensiveto
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purchase. Only very large o rganisation could afford these computers. Such
c omputers werehuge,slow,expensiveandoften undependable.
. Second Generation Computers (1955 -1965): These are computers that used
2
transistorsinsteado fvalves.Theywerefaster,hadreducedsize,weremorereliable
and less expensive.
econd generation computers were:
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faster, more reliable, smaller, much
cheaper to build, gave o ff virtually no
heat, conduct electricity faster
Transistor
. Third GenerationComputers(1965–1980):Theseusedintegratedcircuitse.g.
3
the IBM (International Business Machines) computers. The integrated circuit, also
referredtoassemiconductorchip,packsahugenumbero ftransistorso ntoasingle
wafer o f silicon. These computers have increased the power, lowered cost, carryout
instructions in billionths of a second, andsmaller.
. Fourth GenerationComputers(1980-1990):TheFourthGenerationComputers
4
that used microprocessors and concentrated o n miniaturisation o f highprocessing
components.FourthGenerationComputersaregroupedintomainframe,mini,micro
and super computers, depending on their sizes, capabilities and memory size.
Microprocessor
. Fifth Generation Computers (1990 to date and beyond): These use natural
5
language and can flexibly interact with the human being. Such systems areusedin
medical diagnosis,mineralprospectingandingeologicalresearches.Suchcomputer
systems are capable of human intelligence and are commonly called expert systems.
ypes of Computers
T
The types o f computers are: Micro-computers, mainframe computer, super
computer & mini-computer.They can also bedigitalo ranaloguecomputers.
1. MicroComputers:Thesearecomputerswithamicroprocessorinsidethemand
o ccupy a small physical space. They are cheap, small, relatively slow and have
limited memory, often single user, easy to use and have low computing power.
Microcomputersinclude the following:
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a. D esktop Computers: These are computers with a separate CPU and monitor
andfito nadeskduringusage.Theyarerelativelycheap.Theyareeasytoadd
expansioncardso nthem.However,theytakeuplargedeskspace.Theyarenot
portable
b. PersonalComputers(PC):-Thesearemicrocomputersmadeforuseathome
for general purpose, and includes desktop computers. They are cheap, more
powerful and has good storage capacity disks.
Advantages of desktop/PCs
- Low cost
- Spare parts tend to be standardised
- Faster processors, 2.0 GHz
- Large casing allows good dissipation of any heat build-up
Disadvantages
- Not portable
- Take large desk space
- All devices need to be wired together which might be too complex
c. P
almtops: These are portable microcomputers that can fit in the palm and
pocket and are used as diaries and for other small business applications.
TheyareHandheldComputersthataresmallenough
to be carried in a pocket and include Personal
Digital Assistants (PDAs) and Cell phones. These
are mostly used as diaries, word processing, faxing,
internet browsing, calculator, contacts, etc.PDAsand
all palmtops are portable. However, they are
expensiveandhavelimitedexpansion.Theyareeven
slow to input data using them.
d. L
aptops (Notebook computers): - These are portablecomputersthatusean
internal battery for power and can be placed o n laps during usage. The
keyboard, pointingdevice,monitorandprocessorarealldesignedaso neunit.
TheyhaveLCD(LiquidCrystalDisplay)screenswhicharenotasbrightasmost
Monitors.
Laptopsaresmalllikeabriefcaseandare
portableandcanbeusedinareaswhere
there is no electricity. They have light
weight and are battery powered. They
consume less electricity. The processor
does produce too much heat. They also
donothavetrailingwiresaseverythingis
in o ne unit. They cantakefulladvantage
o f WIFI.
Laptop computer
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owever, laptops can easily get stolen,
H
they need recharging from time to time,
some find it difficult to use the laptop
keyboardandinbuiltmouse,andtheyare
evenexpensivetobuyandtorepair.They
also have limited expandability and
docking stations. Laptops are more
subject to wear and tear due to
portability. They can also be stolen easily.
e. NetbookComputer:Thesearesmallerversionso flaptops,theycanalmostfit
in a hand and do not have o ptical devices (CD/DVD drive) o n them. Their
benefits and problems are similar to those o f laptops. However, they are
cheaper and they have a weakness that they do not have optical devices.
f. T ablet Personal Computers: Type o f notebook that accepts input from an
electronic pen
Tablet PCs (a) Slate model (b) Convertible model
For schools and school children, laptops have the following advantages:
- Users can save data in their own storage area wherever they are.
- Users can get any networked software wherever they are.
- School needs fewer printers.
- Users do not need to keep using the same machine.
- Users can access school intranet from anywhere.
- Users can access Internet from anywhere.
- Users do not need to carry CD ROMs.
- It is easier to communicate with.
- Can email work to teachers even from home.
- Staff can monitor students easily.
- Students and teachers can share files and notes easily.
However, the following problems may arise:
- Work can be hacked into more easily.
- If no convenient network point, users cannot work.
- It is expensive to buy many network cards.
- If server goes down users cannot work.
- Students can use Internet inappropriately, for instance watching pornography.
- Viruses can be downloaded easily.
- Costs of updating or replacing server are high.
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* NB:-Microprocessor:Asmallexecutionchipfoundo nmicrocomputersando ther
devices used to process data and to control o ther devices. It contains registers,
Control unit and the Arithmetic and Logic Unit.
-Microcomputersperformgeneralpurposeslikeword-processing,processingsmall
amounts o f data, playing music, etc. However, these days, microcomputerscanalso
be used in large organisations because of improved efficiency in their usage.
. Mini-Computers: these are in-between mainframe computers and
2
microcomputers computers. They are bigger than micro-computers. They allow
more than o ne user. Have more computing power. They are suitable for large
business o rganisations like in banks where they process client accounts. They are
howeverlesspowerfulthanmainframes.Allowsseveralterminalswithmulti-tasking,
few printers and larger storage location. They include mid-range server and
workstations and process large amounts of data.
.MainframeComputers:thesearelargeandpowerfulcomputersystems.Theyare
3
mostly used in large o rganisations like banks and where bulk data processing is
needed such as census, industry/consumer statistics, and financial transaction
processing. They have the following features:
- they can have several CPUs,
- have very fast processor speed
- can support multiple operating systems
- have huge storage capacity
- have huge internal memory
- can operate using time sharing or batch processing
- Allows several users and can accommodate multiple processors.
- They are very large and expensive.
hese are very big in
T
size and extremely fast.
They have very large
memory capacity and
can be used in
educational designs.
owever, because o f
H
their size, they are not
Mainframe computers portable and are
permanently housed in
a large room. They are
also expensive to
maintain and to operate.
. Super Computers:Theseareverypowerfulcomputersthatareusedtoperform
4
detailed calculations and for design purposes, for example, modelling o f aircraft
wings, testing bombs, etc. They are the fastest and most expensive computers
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S upercomputer
*NB:- The classification o f computers as micro, mini, mainframes and super
computers have become blared due to recent technological advancements since a
microcomputer can now perform all functions that were believed to be for
mainframes.
lassification o fcomputerscanalsobemaderelatingtotheuseo fthecomputer,as
C
follows:
(a)GeneralPurposeComputers:-thesearecomputersthatcanbeusedtoperform
a number o f functions like playing music, playing games,payrollprocessingandso
o n.
(b) Special Purpose Computers: - These are computers that are designed to
perform one task only, for example, to monitor patients in hospital.
(c)Analogue Computers: these handle data in continuouslyvarying form.
(d) Digital Computers: Handle data in discrete values;that is in 0s and 1s.
(e) Embedded Computers: – Refers to use o f microprocessors in non-computer
equipment like in cameras, washing machines, watches, etc. These are normally
dedicated for a specific task they are designed for. Embedded computers are also
foundinhouseholditemslikecamera,microwave,washingmachine, videorecorder,
fridge, sewing machine, air conditioning, electronic toys, rice cooker dish washer,
Televisions, alarms, clock, radio, DVD players, etc.
Microprocessor controlled devices have the following advantages:
(a)To Manufacturer:
- Fewer breakdown and repairs. They are therefore easier to repair and service
- It is cheap as there are fewer parts to assemble
- Reliable
- Improve quality control
( b)To Customers
- Robust and therefore fewer repair bills
- Low power consumption
- Cheap to buy
- Faster processing
- More versatile
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- Efficient since they can be dedicated to a specific task
Advantages of using computers
✔ They process data at very high speed, thus large volumes o f goods can be
produced.
✔ Computers are very accurate inmakingcalculationsandthusensurethatno
calculation errors occur.
✔ Computers are very reliable to use since they rarely makes mistakes.
✔ Computers store large volumes of data for a long period of time.
✔ Computers cut labour costs as they can perform duties that need many
people.Theyreplacehumansandthuscutlabourcostso nwages,medicalaid,
retirement benefits, leave payments, etc.
✔ Computers can workfor24hoursadaywithnocomplainsashumans.They
do not get tired.
✔ Computers create employment for the community, for example, computer
teachers (tutors), programmers, computer technicians, database
administrators, etc.
✔ High quality goods are produced using computers.
✔ Ensures efficient, easier and faster communication through the internet.
Disadvantages of using computers
✔ Continuous usage can lead to health problems like Repetitive Strain Injury
(RSI), back ache, eye problems, etc.
✔ Leadtoincreaseincomputercrimeslikecomputerfraud,hacking,musicand
software piracy,datatheftusingcomputers,identitytheft,sendingo fviruses,
etc.
✔ Can lead to unemployment since computers canreplacehumanlabourasin
car assemblies.
✔ Expenses related to repairs, maintenance and safety can be high.
✔ They only work when there is electricity.
NB*
Computer c rime: the use of computer to perform unlawful activities, e.g. piracy,
hacking, etc
Software piracy: illegal copying, selling and buying copyrighted software without
certification.
Hacking:Obtainingunauthorisedaccessedtoprotectedandsecurecomputersystemsor
network, usually using intelligent methods like cracking passwords
Computer fraud: improper electronic transfer of funds from one account to another
using computers
Copyright: A document granting exclusive right to use, publish and sell software,
musical or artistic work.
End-user: A person or organisation who are the final beneficiaries ofaprogramora
device like a computer.
actors To Consider When Buying A Computer
F
-Hard disk storage c apacity: Affects the volume o f datathatcanbestoredbythe
computer.
-RAMsize:affectthenumbero fprogramsthatcanberuno nthecomputerandthe
overall speed of the computer. The bigger the RAM size the better.
-Processor Speed: Determines theamounto fdatathatcanbeprocessedatagiven
period o f time. The processor speed can beaffectedbyclockspeed,wordsize(16,
32, 64, 128 bits), bus size.
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- Applicationintendedfor:whatthecomputerwillbeusedfor,generalpurposeo r
specialised purpose.
-Method of operating the computer: single user, multi-access,etc.
- Number of Input and output devices it can handle.
LEMENTS/COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
E
The main/major elements (components) o f a computer are illustrated o n the
diagram below; namely Input Devices, Storage Devices, Processing Device and
Output Devices.
B:InternalComponentsofacomputer:referstothecomponentso faprocessor,
N
which are Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit, Registers and Clock
Internal components can also include componets enclosed inside the CPU casing
such as; buses, fans, memory (RAM and ROM), etc
ardware: These are parts o f a computer that exits in physical form, for example
H
mouse, keyboard. Hardware refers to tangible devices o f a computer. Hardware is
groupedinto:InputHardware,ProcessingHardware,OutputHardware,Storage
devices and communication hardware.
I nput Hardware
Thesearedevicesusedtoenter/feeddataintothecomputer,forexamplemouseand
keyboard. Below are some of the input hardware and their uses:
(i)Keyboard:Itisadeviceusedtoenterdataandinstructionsintothecomputerby
typing.Itisamanualinputdevice.Itissimilartothetraditionaltypewriter.Itisused
to enter alphabetic letters (A-Z-both lower case and upper case), numbers (0-9,
positive and negative) and o ther special characters like the %, $, coma, ?, and the
space. Keyboard entry o f data is manual and its excessive use without breaks will
causeRepetitive Strain Injury (RSI).
*NB: - A c haracter is any symbol, digit o r letter that can be entered into the
computer,eg.$,%,5,h,etc. Thesecharacterscanbenumeric(numbers0-9,positive
andnegative),alphabetic(lettersA-Z,bothloweranduppercase),alphanumericdata
(a combination o f both numeric and alphabetic characters) and special characters
(space, $, >, etc.).
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* NB: - Control Character: - Refers to
non-printable character code o r
numberinthecharactersetthatdonot
represent a written symbol, e.g.
carriage return, tab key, etc.Theseare
mostly used in peripheral devices
control and for communication
purposes,forexample,carriagereturn,
tab o r backspace; ando therstypedby
depressingakeyandthecontrolkeyat
the same time.
*NB:-Extended
Standard keyboard Binary-Coded-Decimal Interchange
Code (EBCDIC) an 8-bit character set
and encoding representing 256
alphanumeric and special characters
- ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange: - a code for
information exchange between computers madebydifferentcompanies;inwhicha
string o f 7 binary digits represents each character; used in most microcomputers.
Each character has its ASCII binary code that can be understood by the computer.
Keyboards can be of the following types:
(a)Conceptkeyboard:usesiconso rphrasesinsteado fstandardletters,e.g.they
can have thefollowingkeys:%,tax,CH,Total,etc.Mostarefasterformaking
menu choices. They have fewer keys. Mostly popular for use in bars,
supermarkets,fastfoodrestaurants,etc.Theyarequickandeasytouse.They
are also waterproof. The keys are tamper proof.
(b)Braille keyboard: Suitable for the blind.
(c)Standard keyboard: this is the normal, also called Qwerty keyboard.
Advantages of standard keyboards:
- Most people find them easy to use
- Enable fast entry of text data
isadvantages of standard keyboards
D
- They are manual and therefore slower than most automatic entry methods
- Errors are very common using keyboards.
- Can be difficult to use for others.
- Take up valuable desk space as they are large.
(d)Numeric keypads: mostly used to enter numbers o nly. Used o n ATMs, to
enter PIN and amount to be withdrawn. Also found o n cell and telephones,
Chip and pin devices, and o n ElectronicPointo fSaleterminals(EPOS).They
arefasterinenteringnumericdataascomparedtostandardkeyboards,very
easy to carry around if foundo ncellphones.However,theyhaveverysmall
keys which can be difficult to use. It is difficulttousethemforenteringtext
data.
( ii) Mouse: It is a pointing device used to enter data and instructions into the
computerbyclicking.Amousehaseithero ne,twoo rthreebuttons.Amousecanbe
cable or wireless. The mouse is also used to:
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- S elect options from a menu
- Position the cursor when editing text/typing
- Select an object for drawing and for editing diagrams
- Select icons/text to be formatted, deleted or edited.
- Control movement of pointer on the screen.
I t can also be used for pointing and selecting
items. Clicking is the process o f pressing and
releasing the mouse button.
Mouse
Advantages of mouse
- Itisafastmethodo fenteringdataandforselectingitemsascomparedtothe
keyboard.
- It is faster to move cursor around the screen using a mouse than a keyboard.
- Usually supplied with the computer and so there are no additional costs.
- Very easy to use for most users.
- Take up very small area of the desk
- Very fast to switch between programs
Disadvantages of mouse
- Needs a flat surface on which to operate
- Can be easily stolen or vandalised
- Some people find it very difficult to use
-
(iii) Touchpad
Thesearepointingdevicesusedo nlaptops,whereo nemovesafiguretocontrolthe
pointero nthescreen.Theirusesaresimilartothoseo fmouse.Theyaidportability
sincetheyareattachedtothewholecomputersystem.Canalsobeusedwherethere
arenoflatsurfacesavailable.However,theyaredifficulttouse,e.g.whendoingdrag
and drop.
(iv) Scanner: an input device used to convert images frompaper(hardcopy)into
electrical signals for input into the computer.
The images can then be edited,
printed o r saved. Mostly used to
scanpictures,photographs,etc.they
can use OCR, convert to Word o r
pdf format directly.
latbed scanners have the paper
F
placed o n top o f them, in a similar
Scanners way to a photocopier. These are
more expensive than hand-held
scanners but they are usually able
to produce higher resolution
images. They are very accurate in
scanning. Images are stored for
later editing. Quality o f scanned
imagecandependo ntheresolution
o f scanner.
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( v) Digital Camera: A device use to capture photographs, films, videos o r a
combination of both for entry into the computer where they can be edited.
- no film is needed (saves costs for purchasing films and developing the film)
- Unwanted images can be deleted straight away
- Imagesarealreadydigitalandthereforecanbetransferredtoacomputerfor
editing immediately,
- Easier and faster to upload photos to the computer
- Produce better quality images than the traditional camera
However:
- Images need to be compressed
- Needs those who are computer literate to use it efficiently
(vi) Touch Screen: A screen display o n which you could enter data by
pointing/tapping with a finger o n intended o ption. Used o n (ATMs)-Automated
Teller Machines, cell phones, computers, etc.
touch screen is both an input and o utput
A
device.
A touch sensitive visual display unit (VDU)o r
screen has a grid o flightbeamso rfinewires
criss-crossing the screen that are used to
detect touch. Many mobile phones use touch
screens anddoawaywiththekeypadentirely.
They're o ften used o n cash machines and in
shopping centres too. Touch screens are
Touch screen robust,easytochooseo ptions.Fastertomake
selections.Userfriendly(lesstrainingneeded).
Tamper proof. However, they have limited
numbero fo ptions,leadstoRSI,screencanget
dirty by constant touching.
( vii) Magnetic Stripe Readers
Are devices to read information o n the magnetic strip found o n credit cards. The
stripe contains information like account number, sort code, expiry date and start
date.
Uses: used to read debit and creditcarddatao nATMsandEFTPOSterminals.Also
used to read security cards for entry into buildings, hotel rooms, etc.
Advantages: very fast data entry. Error free data entry sincenotypingisinvolved.
Information o n magnetic stripe is secure since no human can read it. Can prevent
access to restricted areas. Magnetic stripes are not affected by o il,water,etc.there
are no moving parts and therefore are robust.
Disadvantages: ifthemagneticstripeisdamaged,alldataislost.Theydonotwork
from a distance, need contact with the reader.
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( viii) Joystick: A device specifically used for playinggames.Canbeusedtocontrol
pointer o n screen by gripping the stickwhenmakingselections. Usedalsoinflight
simulators.
I tcanbeanalternativetoamouse.It
consists o f a base and a stick
perpendicular to the base. The stick
can be moved in any direction,
enabling the user to move an o bject
around the computer screen. A
joystick can perform a similar
function to a mouse o rtrackball,but
is o nly commonly used for playing
games, controlling aircraft,
Two types of joystick controlling motorised wheelchair.
In construction, joysticks areusedto
control machinery such as cranes.
dvantage: Easier tonavigateround
A
screen, control is in 3-dimension.
( ix)Trackerball:Itisaninputdevicewithasmallballthatcanbemovedbypassing
thepalmo fyourhandoverit.Thiswillmoveanarrowo nthescreenandtherefore
can replace a mouse.
It is used todrawdesignsandto
select o ptions from menu. Used
as an alternative to a mouse. To
o perate it the user rotates the
ball which moves the pointer o n
screen.Theyareparticularlyeasy
to use for those with limited
Tracer ball
movementintheirhandsandare
o ften used in Computer Aided
Design (CAD) for their increased
precision over a mouse.
Advantages of trackball
- It is stationery and therefore do not need a flat surface to move on
- Less likely to get damaged than mouse
- Less tiring as less movement is needed
- Can be useful in laptops
Disadvantages
- Rolling the ball is less effective than using mouse
- Can be difficult to control
- Not supplied as standard device, so extra cost is incurred
- Muscles can be strained due to repeated movement
( x) Remote Control
Device used to control the o peration o f o ther devices remotely by using infra-red
signals. Has button to select options, e.g. TV stations, volume, etc.
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Uses
- Used in home entertainment devices like TVs, DVD players, HIFIs, etc
- Remote controls for multimedia systems
- Stop/ start machinery in industrial applications
Advantages:Allowsdevicestobecontrolledfromadistance,Flexibletothedisabled,
safer to use in chemical processes.
Disadvantages: People arm problems/disabilities cannot use them, signals can be
blocked (need a line of sight)
( xi) Microphone: It is an analogue input device that recognises human voice for
data entry into the computer.
Microphones are used to input sound.
In computing, they can be used with
voice recognition software andaword
processing application to enter text.
Webcamscommonlyhavemicrophones
built-in too.
* NB:-An analogue device is a device that recognises data in continuously varying
form,e.g.microphone,wallwatches(withminute,hourandsecondhand),fuelpetrol
gauge, speedometer, etc.
A microphone is used in voice recognition systems (voice synthesis). These are
computerisedsystemsthatallowuserstocommunicatewiththecomputerbytalking
(voice input).Such systems have the following advantages:
- The systems are over 90% accurate.
- They are appropriate for the handicapped, especially those without hands.
- They are very fast in entering data and in giving instructions to the computer.
- They are speaker independent.
- They can recognise natural language.
Disadvantages:
- Older systems are speaker dependent.
- They allow the user to speak slowly, using specific words that were
programmed for it to understand.
NB:Multimediaspeakers,soundcards,amicrophoneandvoicerecognitionsoftware
are needed in voice recognition systems.
( xii) Light pen: A ballpointshapeddeviceusedtoenterdatabywritingo nanink
pad. It is also used to make alterations o n the screen to the drawings, to write
directly on the screen and to select commands.
Light pen
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( xiii) Kimball Tags: Thesearepunchedcardswithamagneticstripwhichcontains
details of a product, mostly clothes in a shop.
( xiv) Graphics tablet: Devicesusedtoprovideinterfacefordrawingo nthescreen
and links with the light pen. Can also be used with a stylus. Can be used for drawing
( xv) Webcam: A digital video camera designed to take digital photographs and
transmitthemovertheinterneto rtothecomputer.Theydonothaveownmemory.
Laptops have their own web cam.
Uses: viewing each o ther when chatting o n internet. For video conferencing. For
taking personal images.
Advantages: can be left o n and o nly activated when required.Peoplecanseeeach
o ther when chatting.
( xvi)Sensor:aninputdevicethatautomaticallyrecordsphysicaldatabysensingthe
environment it is supposed to record, e.g. humidity sensor.
( xvii) Magnetic Stripes: Magnetic stripes can be seen o n train tickets o r bank o r
credit cards.
( a) Card with magnetic strip (b) Magnetic strip reader
These stripes hold a small amount o f data (64 characters) and can be read by a
magneticstripereader(cardreader)thatisconnectedtoacomputersystem.These
provideaquickandaccuratewayo fenteringdetailsintoacomputersystemandare
simple to operate.
( xviii) Smart Card Readers: Similar to magneticstripreadersexceptthattheyare
usedtoreaddatastoredo nachip.Mostbankcardsandcreditcardsarenowsmart
cards. Also used o n royalty cards, ID cards, electronic passports and transport
passes.
Cards have their own processor andmemory
thatcanholdupto64KBo fdata.Thedatathat
is stored can be updated and the processor
can process simple programs.
Smart cards
- Smart cards are simple to produce
- Not easily damaged
- Store a fairly large amount of information
- Automatic input devices, reduce paperwork
However:
- Data can be changed by magnetic fields
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- T he strip can be damaged by scratching
- Limited storage capacity
- Not very secure as thieves can alter the data.
(xix) Barcode Reader: These are devices at Electronic Point of Sale terminals
( EPOS)thatreadbarcodeso nproductsforautomaticdataentryintothecomputer.
Mostly used in library systems, luggage handling systems at airports, warehouse
stock control, etc.
Barcodes are numbered vertical lines
and spaceso fvaryingsizeo nproducts
thatprovidedataforsuchaproductto
the computer when read by barcode
readers.
If the barcode reader fails to read the
barcodes, data is entered manually
Barcodes
through the keyboard by entering the
numbers below the barcodes.
Barcodes have the following advantages:
- They are cheap and easy to use.
- They are very accurate in entering data.
- Theyareaveryfastmeanso fenteringdatasincetheyareanautomaticdata
entry method.
- Customers can be served quickly.
- Automatic re-ordering of goods in supermarkets is possible.
- Automatic stock taking is possible.
- Need for fewer people in the stores thereby cutting labour expenses.
- Out of date items can be automatically identified.
- There is no need for supermarket workers to remember prices.
- It becomes easier to do price changes.
Information found on barcodes includes:
- Product name,
- Check digit,
- Product number,
- Country of origin,
- Manufacturer’s number,
- Weight.
*NB:-ThePRICEo f an item isNOT FOUNDo n the barcode.
ow does the computer system c hecks that the barcode has been read
H
correctly?
Either the computer performs the following:
Calculatesthecheckdigit;remainder=0ifbarcodehasbeenreadcorrectlyORuses
the weights and modulus 11 and use remainder
Areas where barcodes are used:
- Library book systems
- Passport and ID card systems
- Equipment checking systems
- Automatic stock taking in supermarkets
(xx)Video digitiser
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videodigitisertakesanimagefromavideocamerao rtelevisionanddigitisesitso
A
it canbereadby,andstoredo n,acomputer.Videosequencescapturedusingvideo
digitisers are often used in multimedia presentations.
( xxi) Stylus:device used to write on sensitive padso r screen for data entry into the
computer. Often purchased with touch screens
OCUMENT READERS
D
Thesearedevicesusedforenteringdataautomaticallyintothecomputerbyreading
through documents. These include:
(i)OpticalMarkRecognition(OMR):TheOpticalMarkReadersuselightsensitive
devices to sense pencilmarkso napieceo fpaperforautomaticdataentryintothe
computer. Lightisreflectedfromthedocumento ntotheOpticalMarkReaderwhich
records the o utput. It then records low intensity/zero intensity at certain points.
OMRismostlyusedinmarkingmultiplec hoiceexamsatZJCand‘O’Level,reading
pupils’ registers,playinglotto,etc.AnOpticalMarkReaderisthedevicethatisused
for automatic data entry in OMR systems.
- OMR is fast in entering data
- It is also accurate and reliable in entering data.
- Has better recognition than OCR
- Can be prepared where data originates, without machines
- Errors can be corrected easily
However:
- Mark readers are relatively slow
- Verification of data is difficult
- Document may be difficult to design
- Forms must be completed clearly for data to be recorded accurately
- Papers need to be clean
( ii) Optical Character Recognition(OCR):Itistheuseo flightsensitivedevicesto
recognisealphabeticcharactersandnumberso nasheeto fpaperforautomaticdata
entryintothecomputer.Mostlyusedbyinsurancecompanies,inbillingsystemsand
processingo fBankGiro-forms.AnOpticalCharacterReaderisthedevicethatisused
forautomaticdataentryinOCRsystems.Itrecognisesprintedo revenhangwritten
test form input into the computer
- Can convert large amount of text into digital form at once
- Less tiresome since it is an automatic data entry method
- Faster in entering text into the computer
- Accurate in data entry
However:
- A lot of data entry errors can be found
- May not work well with tables and diagrams
- Do not work well with handwritten text
( iii) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): A method o f automatically
entering data into the computer by reading characters o n documents past a
magnetised field with iron oxide, e.g. reading numbers on the bottom of a cheque.
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dvantages
A o f using
magnetic ink o n cheques
include:
- Bundles o f cheques
can be processed
very quickly.
- It is verydifficultto
forge a cheque.
- Theinkcanberead
by the reader even
if the cheque gets
marked or dirty.
A Magnetic Ink
CharacterReaderisthe
device that is used for
automatic dataentryin
MICR systems
- MICR provides high level of security to data
- Automatic and therefore faster data entry
- Document can still be readable even if folded
However;
- Readers and printers are relatively expensive
- The system can only accept limited characters
- Very expensive data entry method
actors To Consider When Purchasing Hardware
F
The following must be considered:
- Volume of data to be handled.
- Number of users.
- Location o f user (in o ne o ffice, separate o ffice o r in completely different
locations).
- Type of users (used by the public or by technical specialists).
- Nature of the system (batch, online, etc).
- Security features.
- Software type, etc.
UTPUT DEVICES
O
Thesearedevicesusedtodisplayandproducedataandinformationheldinsidethe
computer, for example: screen, printer and graph plotters. These are described
below:
( i)Printers:Aprinterisadevicethatisusedtoproducehardcopieso fdataheldin
the computer. Hardcopy is a document printed o n paper. Output from the printer
appears as displayed o n the computer screen, thus What You See IsWhatYouGet
(WYSIWYG).
Types of Printers
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rinters can be classified intoimpact and non-impact printers.
P
(a) Impact Printers: these are printers whose write heads hit ink ribbon against
paper during printing, e.g. dot matrix printer, chain printer, daisy wheel, printer, drum
printer, etc. Thus, thereiscontactbetweenthepaperandthewriteheadsduringthe
printing stage. Examples include drum printers, dot matrix printers, daisy wheel
printers and chain printers. Impact printers have the following advantages:
● they arevery cheap to buy.
● They are cheap to repair and to maintain.
● They can use continuous paper.
● They are economic in terms of ink usage.
owever, Impact printers have the
H
following disadvantages: They produce
a lot o f noise. They are very slow in
printing since most are line printers.
They produce poor quality printout.
dot matrix
Dot Matrix printer
- Produces NLQ (Near Letter Quality) output, in form of small dots.
- They are robust
- Less likely to be affected by dust
- Can print multi-part stationery
- Purchasing and running costs are very low
Weaknesses
- Low resolution
- Noisy
- Slow printing speed: this is because they can be character based or line based
printers.
Daisy wheel printer
- Uses a print wheel to produce characters
- Can print about 100 characters per second
( b) Non-Impact Printers:These are printers that donot produce contact between
paper, write heads and ink cartridge during printing. Non-impact printers include:
inkjet printer, laser printer, thermal printer, etc.
Laser printers
Most of the printers use light and are therefore called laser printers.
The advantages o f laser printers are
as follows:
● Theyprintatveryhighspeeds
since they are page printers.
● Theyproducehighqualitytext
and graphics.
● They produce less noise than
LaserJet printers dot-matrix printers (they are
quiet in their operation).
● Have paper trays both for
input and o utput and
thereforeneednosupervision
o nce setup.
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● The toner is not water-soluble
The disadvantages of laser printers are as follows:
● they are very expensive to buy,
● they are large and therefore take up a lot of desk space,
● they are quite complex and therefore repair bills can be very high,
● Multipart stationery cannot be used,
● Cannot be used with continuous stationery since they are page printers.
● Toner is toxic and therefore should be disposed of carefully after use.
I nkjet printers
uses print head to propel droplets of ink on a sheet of paper.
Advantages:
● relatively high resolution
● Good colour production
● Low cost/heap to buy
● Usually small size
Disadvantages
● Slow printing speed
● Ink is expensive
● Has a water soluble ink which may be spilt
● Running costs are expensive
* NB: - Printers can also be classified as page printers (these print o ne page at a
given time and are therefore faster), line printers (print o ne line at a time, very
slow) and character printers (print one character at a time).
Factors to consider when purchasing a printer:
- Price
- Printing speed
- Reliability and easiness of maintenance
- Print quality
- Range of capabilities
- Noise level
- Compatibility with computers
( ii)Screen/Monitor:itisatelevisionshapeddeviceusedtodisplaycontentso nthe
computerassoftcopy.Softcopyreferstodataviewedo nthescreen.Thescreencan
also be called the Visual Display Unit (VDU). The screen can differ in terms o f
resolution,thatislowresolutionscreensdisplaylessnumbero fdotsperincho nthe
computerandthereforethedisplaywillbeo fpoorquality.Highresolutionmonitors
are needed mostly in graphics packages where colour and many dotsperinchare
needed.
Monitors are of two main types:
- LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
Relativelythinanddonotuseabeamo felectrons.Theyeasilyfito nwallsand
desks, light weight, compact and can fit o n laptops, little light is reflected,
absence o f flicker o nthescreen.However,imagescanbeviewedfromfewer
angles, can display limited range of colours.
- CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
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hese are the o lder and bulker versions. To display content, an electricgun
T
firesabeamo felectronsfromtherearo ftheCRT.Theyarecheap,imagescan
be viewed from a wider angles, and has a wider range o f colour and
brightness. However, they are bulky and difficult to fit o n a desk, they are
heavy and difficult to mount on walls, and too much reflection can affect eyes.
- Plasma Display Panels:
Flat panel display used for television displays
Advantage of Monitors
- Its output is immediate and visual
- High speed of display
- No noise
- No wastage of paper
- Can display text, graphics, etc
-
Disadvantages
- When the display changes, the previous output is lost.
- Needs a separate device to produce hardcoy
( iii)GraphPlotter:Thisisadeviceusedtoproducehighqualitydrawingsinvarious
papersizesandisusedinComputerAidedDesign(CAD).Aplottercanbeusedto
producehighquality,accurate,A3sizeo rbiggerdrawings.Theyareusuallyusedfor
ComputerAidedDesign(CAD)andComputerAidedManufacture(CAM)applications,
such as printing o ut plans for houses o r car parts. They print sharper and more
precise drawings.
Graph plotter
( iv) Data/data projector
An o utput device that uses lenses to project intense light o n the wall. Can be
multimedia projectorando fferwider/biggerscreendisplayo nthewall.Ideallythe
surface should be a whiteboard. Suitable for presentations to a wider audience.
However, it is more expensive to buy and has a fragile bulb.
( v) Speakers: produce sound from music files o n the computer. They are used in
conjunction with multimedia files.
(vi) Braille Printer:prints Braille which is readableto the blind people.
( vii) Actuators: these are o utput/control devices which turns o n o r o ff some
devices in control systems. Some o f the control devices include electric heater
(supplier heat), electric motor (provide movement/rotation), motorised pump,
buzzers, lights, heaters, actuators, etc
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ROCESSING DEVICE
P
A device used to convertandtomanipulatedataasperuserrequirement.Thesole
processing device o f a computer is the processor, which is inside the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) casing. Processing involvessortingo fdata,updatingrecords,
searching certain records, adding a sequence of numbers, and others.
The processor has the following functions:
- It controls the transmission of data from input device to memory
- It processes the data and instructions held in main memory
- It controls the transmission of information from main memory to output device.
- Controls the sequence of instructions,
- Give commands to all parts of the computer,
- Fetches the next instruction to be executed
- Decodes instructions
- Executes decoded instructions
ost of the computers have
M
micro-processors (small execution chip
found in microcomputers). With
MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating
System) computer chips progressed
from286,386and486processors.Intel
Corporation then developed Pentium
processors, ranging from Pentium 1,
Microprocessors Pentium2,Pentium3,Pentium4andso
on, with each processor being faster
then the preceding one. Pentium 4
processors have a speed of about 2.6
GHz. Newer chips are faster in
processing.
hespeedo faprocessordeterminesthespeedandfunctiono facomputer.Untilthe
T
1980s, most computers had o ne processor, but recent o nes have two o r more
processors (called co-processors), those with two processors are called dual
processors.Twoo rmoreprocessorsshareloadsandthereforeperformo perations
faster. The speed o f a computer is also determined by the c lock speed for each
microprocessor. This speed ismeasuredinMegahertz(MHz).Thegeneralstructure
o f the CPU or Processor is as illustrated below:
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he processor comprises o f:
T
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and
the Control Unit (CU) and Registers
(a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
- Carries o ut arithmetic o perations
like add, subtract, divide, etc.
-Performs logic o perations, like AND,
OR,..etc
(b) Control Unit (CU)
- It coordinates and controls all
hardware operations,
- It carries o ut the Fetch-Execute
Cycle.
(c) Registers: High-speed storage
area in the CPU used to temporarily
hold small units o f program
instructions and data immediately
before, during and after executionby
the CPU.
B: Memory (Main memory): Stores programs and data for programs currently
N
runningo nthecomputer.MainMemoryisveryclosetotheprocessorsandtherefore
the two can coordinate their activities very fast.
-ALUo perationso ndataarefirstloadedintotheaccumulatorregister,amemory
which stores instructions, data being processed and results of an operation.
Thefunctiono fthemicroprocessoristofetch,decodeandexecuteinstructions.This
is also called the Fetch-Execute cycle.
The Fetch-Execute Cycle
Step 1. Fetch instruction: In the instruction
phase, the computer’s control unit fetches the
instruction to be executed from memory.
Microprocessor gets softwareinstructiontellingit
what to do with data.
Step 2. Decode instruction:Thentheinstruction
is decoded so the central processor can
understand what is to be done. Microprocessor
determines what the instructions mean.
Step 3.Executetheinstruction:Intheexecution
phase, the ALU does what it is instructed to do,
making either an arithmetic computation o r a
The Fetch-Execute Cycle logical comparison. Microprocessor performs the
instruction.
Step 4. Store results:Thentheresultsarestored
in the registers or in memory.
Step 3 & 4 are c alled the executionphase.The
time it takes to complete the execution phase is
called the EXECUTION TIME (E-time).
After both phases have been completed for o ne
instruction, they are again performed for the
second instruction, and so on.
Buses
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● A bus is a pathway through which dataandsignalsaretransferredfromo ne
device to another in the computer system.
● They are a set o f parallel wires connecting two o r more components o f the
computer.
● Buses can be internal or external.
● Buses can be generally referred to as system bus and this connect the CPU,
memory and I/O devices.
● Each bus is a shared transmission medium, so that o nly o ne device can
transmit along a bus at any one time.
● Multiple devices can be connected to the same bus
● The main types of buses are:
-Data bus:
● Used for carrying data from memory to the processor and between I/O ports.
● Comprises of either 8, 16, 32 or 64 separate parallel lines
● Provide a bi-directional path for data and instruction’s between computer
components. This means that the CPU can read data from memory and input
ports and also send data to memory and output ports.
● The width of the bus determines the overall system performance. For
example, if the data bus is 8 bits wide, and each instruction is 16 bits long,
then the processor must access the main memory twice during each
instruction cycle
-Address bus:
● Used for transferring memory addresses from the processor when it is
accessing main memory
● They are used to access memory during the read or write process
● The width o f the address bus determines the maximum possible memory
capacity of the computer.
● Thisauni-directionalbus(oneway).TheaddressissendfromCPUtomemory
and I/O ports only.
- Control bus:
● The purpose o f the control bus is to transmit command, timing and specific
status information between system components. Timing signals indicate the
validityo fdataandaddressinformation.Commandsignalsspecifyo perationsto
beperformed.Specificstatussignalsindicatethestateo fadatatransferrequest,
o r the status of request by a components to gain control of the system bus
● This is a bi-directional bus used for carrying control signals (Signals can be
transferred in both directions).
● They carry signals to enable outputs of addressed port and memory devices
● Control signals regulate activities on the bus.
● Control buses transmit command, timing and status information between
computer components.
an
F
A fan is used to cool the processor. It blows away hot air to that the processor
remains cool.
TORAGE MEDIA
S
These are devices used to store data and programs for future use.
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ethods of storing data:
M
Refers to ways files and records are stored o n a storage media, that is the
arrangement of data. These include:
- Serial Storage: Data is stored as they o ccur without following any o rder, as o n
magnetic tapes.
-SequentialStorage:Dataisstoredusingapredefinedo rder,eitherinascendingo r
descending order of a key field, as occurs on magnetic tapes.
- Direct (Random) Storage: Data is stored in a randomwayusinganindex,aso n
diskettes, hard disks, CD-ROMs, etc.
ethods of Accessing Data
M
These are methods used to retrieve data held on storage media. These include:
(1) Serial Access: Data is retrieved in theo rderitisstored,readingfileso neafter
anotherfromthefirstuntiltherequireddataisfoundinanunsortedlisto frecords.
Itisveryslowandtimewastinginaccessingrecordsfarawayfromthefirstposition
but is faster to access data at first position of the disk. It is used in magnetic tapes.
(2)SequentialAccess:Dataisretrievedintheo rderstored,fromthefirstuntilthe
required data is found, using a key field in a sorted list o f records, as in magnetic
tapes.
(3) Direct (Random) Access:Dataisretrievedbygoingdirectlytotheneededfile,
asappliedinharddisks,diskettes,CD-ROM,DVD-ROM,MemorySticks,etc.Itisavery
fast method of accessing data.
torage Capacity
S
Refers to the amount (volume) o f data a device can store. The following storage
measurements can be used:
Bit: The smallest unit of data a computer can store,either a 1 or a 0.
Nibble: refers to half a byte, that is, a group of4 bits.
Byte: a group o f 8 bits representing a character. For example, the letter C is
represented by the byte 01000011.
Size Equal to
8 bits 1 byte
1024 bytes 1 kilobyte
1024 kilobytes 1 megabyte
1024 megabytes 1 gigabyte
1024 gigabytes 1 terabyte
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ilobyte (KB):this refers to 1024 bytes.
K
Megabyte (MB):1 MB is equivalent to 1 048 576 bytes.
Gigabytes (GB):1024 megabytes (approximately 1 billionbytes)
Terabytes (TB):refers to1 099 511 627 776 bytes(approximately 1 024 GB)
* NB:-Formatting(initialising)adisk:thisistheprocesso fcreatingnewtracksand
sectors o n the disk that will be used in storing data. When a disk is formatted,
existingtracksandsectorsaredestroyed,includingthedatastoredo nthem,andnew
o nes are created. After formatting, the disk will be blank. Formattingisdoneusing
theFATo rtheNTFSfilesystem.FAT(orFAT16)standsforFileAllocationTable:-It
is a file system used by MS-DOS and Windows o perating systems to o rganise and
managefiles.ItisadatastructurethatWindowscreateswhenyouformatavolume
byusingFATo rFAT32filesystem.Windowswillstoreinformationabouteachfilein
aFATsothatitcanretrievethefilelater.FATuses16bitfilingsystem.FAT32uses32
bit values and uses drive space more efficiently and supportsdriveso fupto2TB.
Storage media is grouped inprimary storageandsecondarystorage:
. PRIMARY STORAGE (MAIN MEMORY, MAIN STORE, IMMEDIATE ACCESS
1
MEMORY, INTERNAL STORAGE)
Referstoagroupo fchipsinsidetheprocessingunitwheredataisheldtemporarily
whilst processing takes place. Main memory is veryfastandreliabletouse.Datais
instantly accessed due to its proximity to the processor.
Main storage is used for:
- Storage of instructions waiting to be obeyed by the computer.
- Storage of programs currently being run on the computer.
- Storage of data currently being processed.
- Storage of input data before processing.
- Storage of output data, waiting to be saved or output to the printer.
- Acts as a working area for data currently being processed.
Main memory is grouped in toRAMandROM.
( a) RAM (Random Access Memory):
A memory chip inside CPU casing used to store data and programs temporarily
during processing.
RAM Chips
The uses of RAM are:
- To store programs currently running on the computer.
- Storage of data being processed in the computer.
- Storage of output data.
- Acts as a working area for data and programs.
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AM is volatile, which means that it loses itscontentswhenpowerisswitchedo ff.
R
RAM is in two forms; that is, dynamic and static RAM. Static RAM is a Random
Access Memory chip whose contents do not change as long as thereiscontinuous
powersupply.DynamicRAMisRandomAccessMemorychipwhosecontentscanbe
lostevenifthereiscontinuouspowersupply.DynamicRAMneedstoberefreshedto
prevent loss of data.
Thesizeo fRAMalsoaffectsthespeedo fo perationo facomputerandthenumbero f
programsthatcanberuno nit.RAMsizecanbe16MB,32MB,64MB,126MB,256
MB, 448 MB, 1 GB, etc. The bigger the RAM size, the better the efficiency o f the
computer and the bigger the number of programs it can run at a given time.
( b) ROM (Read Only Memory): ROM is a semi-conductor circuit (chip) whose
contentscano nlybereadfromandcannotbeerasedo rmodified.ROMcontentsare
fixedduringmanufacturing,thatis,theyarehard–wired.Thesecontentscano nlybe
read from and cannot be modified.
The uses of ROM are:
- Stores the Basic Input-Output System (BIOS-refers to software that test
hardware at start-up, starts the o perating system and support data transfer
between devices.) of the computer.
- Stores control programs for the o peration o f the computer and its
peripherals.
- Stores translator programs.
ROM is grouped into:
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM): This is a ROM chip whose contents
can be changed but only once. It is re-programmable only once.
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM): This is a Read Only
Memory chip whose contents can be erased and modified several times.
Electrically Erasable Read OnlyMemory(EEPROM):ThisisaReadOnlyMemory
chip whose contents can be erased and modified several times using electricity.
*NB:- Firmware (microcode):-refers to coded instructions that are stored
permanently in read-only memory, for example BIOS.
econdary Storage (Backing Storage/Auxiliary Storage/External Storage)
S
These are devices used to store data and programs for future use o utside the
computersystems.Itisasupplementtomainstorage.Backingstorageisnon-volatile.
Backing storage is grouped intomagnetic storage,solid state and optical storage.
agnetic Storage
M
These store data o n magnetised field o f iron oxide and includemagnetictapes,zip
drives, diskettes, hard drives and flash drives.
( a)MagneticTapes:Theyaresimilartoanormalcassettetapeinshape.Theystore
data in serial and sequential o rder. They are mostly used to backup data. Their
storage capacity can be up to 20 GB. Data is also accessed in serial o r sequential
o rder. They can be used as off-line storage media.
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agnetic tapes have the following
M
advantages:
● Data can be arranged in an o rdered
sequence.
● They are re-usable, that is can be
overwritten several times.
● Suitable for high hit rate processing
systems like payroll, billing systems,
etc.
Magnetic tape ● They last for a very long period o f
time, and thus can be used to keep
historical records.
● They are very cheap to buy.
● Theystoreverylargevolumeso fdata,
o f up to 20 GB.
● They are small, robust, and portable
and provide low cost storage perGB.
However, they have the following disadvantages:
● It takes too long to find (search for) a needed record in a long list o f data
records. It is very difficult to update record held in a magnetic tape.
● It takes too long to update records, time wasting.
● They are prone to humid (moist) conditions.
● They are very slow to write to and read from
( b) Hard Disk (Hard Drive): These are disks used to store large volumes o fdata
andprograms,includingo peratingsystemsandareresidentintheCPUcasing.Data
isstoredo ntracksinarandomwayanddataretrievalisinarandomway.Harddisks
canstoredatao fupto300GB,butrangesfrom2GB,8GB,20GB,40GB,80GB,120
GB, etc. a hard disk can be internal o r external. External hard disks have a larger
storge capacity and can be used to back-up the system
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ses of Hard Disk:
U
● Creating backups for data.
● Storing communication and applications
software.
● Storing o f the o perating system from
which the computer will boot.
● Transferring large volumeso fdatafrom
o ne computer to another.
Hard disks have the following advantages:
● Itiseasiertoaccessdatastoredo nhard
disks.
● They have a long life span, o f about 5
years or more.
● Provides direct access to data.
● It is easier and faster to updatedatao n
ard disc: Internal Structure(Above) &
H
hard disks.
External Appearance (Below) ● They are more robust.
● Have large storage capacity, about 300
GB or more.
● Very reliable to use
Disadvantages of Hard Disks:
● Are fixed inside the CPU casing and therefore cannot be repaired o nce
damaged.
● All data can be lost if it crashes
● Can easily crush if computer is not switched off properly.
● They are expensive to buy.
( c) Diskette (Floppy Disk): A 3.5 inch andplasticmagneticdiskenclosedinastiff
envelope with a radial slit; used to store data o r programs. They have a storage
capacity o f 1.44 MB. They are used as backing storage for small volumes o f data.
Data is stored o n tracks in a random way. Direct access to data is provided. Its
features are shown below:
Diagram of a Diskette:
Notes on Diagram
Rigidplasticc ase:-protectsthediskinsidefrom
damage.
Write protect Window: When it is o pen, data
cannotbewritteno ndisk,unlessitisclosed.Itisa
method o f preventing data o n disk from being
modified.
Disk Label: this is where the user writes some
information, for example his/her name, disk
contents, etc.
High Density Window:-indicatesthatadiskcan
store data o n two sides, thus allowing more data
to be stored o n them. 1.44 MB disks are double
density disks.
Uses of diskettes are:
● Creating backups for small amounts of data.
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Transferring small amounts of data from one computer to another.
●
● Booting up the computer in case of system failure, for system recovery.
● Storage of small programs and data.
Advantages of Diskettes:
● They are portable (easy to carry around as they can fit in a shirt pocket.).
● Conceals less electricity.
● Most are high Double Density Diskettes.
Disadvantages of Diskettes:
● have very short life span (not durable).
● Can be affected by humid conditions.
● Can easily be affected by dusty conditions.
● Can easily be damaged if placed close to the screen for a long time.
● Takes long to read data into memory than from a hard disk.
● Hold very small amount of data, 1.44 MB.
Caring for diskettes:
● Do not place them near magnetised field or near the computer screen.
● Keep them free from dust.
● Keep of dry place.
● Do not expose them to direct sunlight.
( d) Zip Drives: Similar to diskettes in shape but does not flop. Data is stored in a
random way. Data is accessed in a random way. Storage capacity is 100 MB.
Advantages of Zip Drives:
● They are portable (easy to carry
around as they can fit in a shirt
pocket.).
● Conceals less electricity.
● Relatively cheap
● Most are high Double Density
drives.
● More durable than diskettes
● Good for archiving data
Disadvantages of Zip Drives:
● Hold small amount o f data o f
about 100 MB.
● Not as compact as USB flash drive
● Slow data transfer rates
Zip drive
Solid State Storage Media
hese are storage devices with no movable parts. They are based o n electronic
T
c ircuits withnomovingparts(noreelso ftape,nospinningdiscs,nolaserbeams,
etc.).Solidstatedevicesuseaspecialtypeo fmemorycalledflashmemory.Examples
o f solid state devices include flash memory, USB memory stick, memory cards, etc.
solid statedevicestakestheformo fsolidstatedrives(SSD),solidstatecards(SSC),
solid state modules (SSM), etc
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(a) Flash Memory
lash memory is a type ofEEPROM. Flash memory isnon-volatile(like ROM) but
F
the data stored in it can also beerasedo rc hanged(like RAM). Flash memory can be
found in many data storage devices. You might wonder why, since flash memory is
non-volatile, normal computers don’t use it instead of RAM. If they did we would
have computers that you could turn off, turn back on again and no data would be
lost – it would be great
The reason is speed – saving data to flash memory is very slow compared to saving it
to RAM. If a computer were to use flash memory as a replacement for RAM it would
run very slowly.
However some portable computers are starting to use flash memory (in the form of
solid-state ‘discs’ as a replacement for hard-drives. No moving parts mean less to go
wrong and longer battery life.
(b) Memory Cards
any of our digital devices (c ameras,mobile phones,MP3 players, etc.) require
M
compact,non-volatiledata storage. Flash memory cardsprovide this and come in a
variety of shapes and sizes.
One of the most common formats used by digital cameras is the SD Card. The cards
store the digital images taken by the camera. Mobile phones contain a Subscriber
Identity Module (SIM) card that contains the phone’snumber, the phonebook
numbers, text messages, etc. Many phones also have extra memory cards to store
music, video, photos, etc. (e.g Tiny Micro-SD cards).
emory Cards: memory card is like a portable harddisk that fits into personal
M
computer card slot.
hey o ffer direct access to data, are
T
portable, can fit even o n tablet
computers like cell phones, have large
storage capacity of up to 8 GB.
They can get lost easily. Virus spread
quickly through them.
Memory cards
(c) Smart Cards
any credit cards (e.g. ‘c hip-and-pin’ cards), doorentry cards, satellite TV cards,
M
etc. have replaced the very limited storage of the magnetic strip (the dark strip on
the back of older cards) withflash memory. This ismorereliableand has a much
larger storage capacity.
Cards with flash memory are calledsmart cards.
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‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes-ZIMSEC Syllabus
( d) USB Memory Sticks:
These are smalldrivesthatcanbepluggedo ntheUniversalSerialBus(USB)o fthe
CPU. Provide direct storage and access to data.
Memorysticks(or‘thumb-drives’)havemademanyo therformso fportablestorage
almost o bsolete (why burn a CD o r DVDwhenyoucanmoreeasilycopyyourfiles
o nto a memory stick). Memory sticks are non-volatile, random-access storage
devices.
ach o f these small deviceshassomeflashmemoryconnectedtoaUSBinterface.
E
Plug it into your computer and it appears as a drive. You can then addfiles,erase
files, etc. You can use it tomove any type of filebetween computers.
S toragecapacityrangesfrom1GB,2GB,4GB,
8 GB and 32 GB.
Advantages of Memory Sticks:
● have a long life span about 3 yrs.
● Have large storage capacity about 32
GB or more.
● Provide direct access to data.
● Very cheap to buy.
● Portable since they can fit in a pocket.
Disadvantages of Flash Drives:
Memory stick ● Oldermachineshavenosocketstoplug
in memory sticks.
● They need software/drivers installed
for them to work.
● They can get lost easily. Virus spread
quickly through them.
. Bus: A communication line used for data transfer among the components o f a
1
computer system
2. USB: - An external bus that supports Plug and Playinstallationo fdevices.Using
USB, you can connect and disconnect devices without shutting down o r restarting
your computer. You can use a single USB port to connect up to 127 peripheral
devices, including speakers, telephones, CD-ROM drives, joysticks, tape drives,
keyboards,scanners,andcameras.AUSBportisusuallylocatedo nthebacko fyour
computer near the serial port or parallel port.
3. USB port: An interface o n the computerthatenablesyoutoconnectaUniversal
Serial Bus (USB) device. USB is anexternalbusstandardthatenablesdatatransfer
rates of 12 Mbps (12 million bits per second).
Optical Storage Media:
efers to devices that use light to store data o n them and these include Compact
R
Disks, Digital Versatile Disks, Video Compact Disks, etc
1. CD (Compact Disk): It is spherical discthatuseslaserbeamtechnologytoread
andwritedata.Itstoresdatao ntracksinarandomway.Dataretrievalisinrandom
o rder. Storage capacity is 750 MB.Writingo fdatao nCDisdonebyadevicecalled
CD writer/burner.
Compiled by: Kapondeni T. Cell:0772 245 866 Page157of163 Date: 21-Oct-2020
‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes-ZIMSEC Syllabus
Uses of compact disks:
● Transferring data from one computer to another.
● Creating backup storage for programs and data.
● Booting the computer when loading the
o perating system o r restoring damaged system
files (system repair).
Advantages of CDs:
● Provide fast and direct access to data.
● Has large storage capacity of about 750 MB.
Compact disc ● Produces high quality sound and pictures.
● It is a multi-media device.
Disadvantages of CDs: Can be affected by direct
sunlight.Lessdurable.Theycaneasilygetscratched.Not
so easy nor fast to save data on them
Types of CDs
1. CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) a common form o f o ptical
Disks on which data, once it has been recorded, cannot be modified.
2. CD-W(CD-Writeable)ano pticaldiskthatcanbewrittenupon,buto nlyo nce.
Often called WORM (Write Once Read Many) disks.
3. CD-RW (CD-Rewriteable) o n o ptical disk that allows personal computer
users to replace their diskettes with high-capacity CDs that can be written
upon and edited over.
dvantages to schools of storing learning materials on a CD-ROM other than
A
using the Internet
● No danger of accessing doubtful websites.
● Does not take as long to find required information.
● Do not have to have a modem.
● Do not need for a telephone line.
● Once CD ROM is bought there is no additional expenditure.
● Do not have to remember user id/password.
● Usually quicker to load material.
● Information on CD is more reliable
DisadvantagestoschoolsofstoringlearningmaterialsonaCD-ROMotherthan
using the Internet
● CD ROM can be lost easily.
● CD ROM can be damagedeasily.InternetisuptodatewhileCDROMissoon
o ut of date.
● CD ROMs are expensive to replace and to update.
● Less information can be stored on the CD-ROM as compared to the internet.
. DVD (Digital Versatile Disc): Are spherical in shape that can store data o n 2
2
sides. Stores data o n tracks in a random way. Data retrieval is in random o rder.
Storage capacity is about 4 GB. Writing o f data o n DVD is done by a device called
DVD writer/burner. There are several formats on the market, such as:
DVD-ROMs - read only, the data is written to thembefore they are sold.
DVD-R -meaningDVD-Recordable,theusercanwritedatatotheDVDo nceo r
fill it over time using multi-session.
DVD-RW - meaning DVD-ReWritable, theDVDcanbewrittenandre-writtento.
Unlike multi-session discs, existing data can be overwritten.
Compiled by: Kapondeni T. Cell:0772 245 866 Page158of163 Date: 21-Oct-2020
‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes-ZIMSEC Syllabus
Uses of DVDs:
● Transferring larges volumes of data from one computer to another.
● Creating backup storage for programs and data.
● Booting the computer when loading the o perating system o r restoring
damaged system files (system repair)
Advantages of DVDs:
● Provide fast and direct access to data.
● Has large storage capacity of about 4 GB.
● Produces high quality sound and pictures.
● It is a multi-media device.
Disadvantages of DVDs:
● Can be affected by direct sunlight.
● Less durable.
● They can easily get scratched.
Caring for DVDs, VCDs and CDs:
● Do not expose them to direct sunlight.
● Do not touch the recording surface.
● Use soft marker for labelling and not ball point.
● Keep the free form dust conditions.
* NB: - Virtual Memory – Refers to temporary storage (on hard disk) used by the
computer to run programs that need more memory(RAM)thanthecomputerhas.
For example, programs could have access to 4 gigabytes o f virtual memory o n a
computer's hard drive, even if the computer has only 32 megabytes of RAM.
COMPUTER APPLICATION IN EDUCATION
i. The use Internet allows unlimited access of information on all subjects
ii. Distance learning made easier through chartrooms, digital interactive television,
CD-ROM(storageo fencyclopaedia,learningmaterials(content)).Learningmaterials
like the encyclopaedia can be stored o n the CD ROM as it will have the following
advantagesas compared to a printed (manual) encyclopaedia:
● Cannot write to it so cannot be changed.
● Can use sound, text as well as video for students to understand better.
● Search of data is quicker.
● Can printout data conveniently.
● It takes up less space.
● Is more portable.
owever,theelectronicencyclopaediahasthefollowingdisadvantagesascompared
H
to a manual one:
● Users need a suitable multimedia computer for them to use it.
● The computer could crash and access to data will not be possible.
● Can lead to electricity expenses.
● Cannot be read in awkward locations.
● Takes time to start up the computer.
● The disk can be stolen easily.
● You can’t add notes to a Recordable Compact Disk
iii. Peoplewithcommunicationdifficultiesliketheblindanddeafareassisted,e.g.in
voice recognition systems.
Compiled by: Kapondeni T. Cell:0772 245 866 Page159of163 Date: 21-Oct-2020
‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes-ZIMSEC Syllabus
iv.Computerscanbeusedtoorganiseeventsinschools,forexample,parents’visits,
timetable, etc.
v. Used to store students data, exams, teachers records, etc.
vi. Used as teaching aids in all subjects. Enables interactive teaching
vii. For marking multiple choice examinations on scanner sheets
viii. For storage of student data pertaining to subjects, teachers and subjects taken.
ix. Used as a subject for student to learn, e.g. Computer Science, Information
Technology, etc.
x. Used for carrying o ut researches and experiments which may be dangerous for
human beings to do.
xi. Computers can also be used in Computer Aided Learning (CAL) and Computer
Aided Instruction (CAI).
CAI: a teaching system that o perates o n drill andpracticeprinciple,forinstance,in
teachingcomputers,astudentispresentedwithawordanditsmeaning.Thestudent
studies it and will be asked its meaning at a later stage.
CAL:Thiswherebyalessonisrehearsedbeforethecomputerandthenplayedback
totheclasswhentheteacherisnotphysicallypresent.Thecomputeristherebyused
toteachthepupil.Forexample,thecomputerpresentatopicjustlikeateacherdoes
inalesson.Pupilsareaskedquestions.Iftheyfail,thelessonisrepeated;o therwisea
new topic will be presented. CAL has the followingadvantages:
● This system allows pupilstostudyattheirownpace,repeatingsectionsthey
do not understand.
● Material is presented in a consistent way making learning easier.
● Few teachers are required.
● Computers are endlessly patient and can repeat sections that pupilsdidnot
understand without hesitation.
x ii. Used for typing and printing examination papers and keeping of student results.
Someschoolshavepupilswhoareeitherblindo rpartiallysighted.Computerscould
be used to help these pupils to learn in the following ways:
● Use of sound (voice) output and speech synthesiser.
● Use of speech (voice) input, recognition or microphones.
● Type using large characters (large font size) on the screen.
● Use of Braille keyboards, touch screens, touch pads.
● Use of bright colours to improve visibility.
● Use of scanners to input information and output speech.
● Use of printers which give output in Braille
Xiii: Electronic Registration (e-registration) of students
xiv. E-marking of student examinations
COMPUTER APPLICATION IN BANKS
Uses of computers in banks:
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‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes-ZIMSEC Syllabus
i . Used for storage o f client account details like, account name, account number,
address, sex, date o f birth, national identification number, balance, withdrawal,
deposit, overdraft, interest, etc.
i i.Usedforc ashdisbursementattheAutomatedTellerMachine(ATM).AnATMis
a computerised, special purpose cash disbursement machine o utside banking halls
used even when banks are closed. Services offered at the ATM include:
● Balance enquiry,
● mini-bank statement,
● facility to change PIN code,
● cash withdrawal, etc
PIN (Personal Identification Number) - a secret number used by individual
account holders to access bank account and get service at the ATM. The account
holder needs a debit card for him/her to access bank services at the ATM.
The Account holder inserts the debit card into the hole o n the ATM, whichinturn
request the user’s PIN. The user enters the PIN and then presses enter. The ATM
validates thePIN,andifitiscorrect,allowstheusertoselectservicerequiredfrom
the list o f o ptions available. If the user enters the wrongPINforthreeconsecutive
attempts, the ATM would not eject the debit card, assuming that you are not the
owner of the card and no service shall be given.
i ii. Clearance of c heques: The mainbranchreceiveschequesfromo therbranches
and processes them using the batch processing method. MICRisusedtoreaddata
from the cheques into the computer.
i v. Electronic Funds Transfer at Point o f Sale (EFTPOS): This is a method o f
transferring money from o ne account to anotherelectronicallywithouthandlingo f
cashatthePointo fSaleterminalinshops.ThePointo fSaleterminalswillbeo nline
the bank’s database, enablingtheshoptodeductcashfromthecustomer’saccount
and transfer it totheshop’saccount.Forthistoo ccurthecustomerissupposedto
producethedebitcard,whichiswipedo nthecardreaderwhichinturnrequeststhe
client to enter the PIN. Some cash back is available at the POS.
lectronic banking (e-banking): the process o f carryingo utallbanktransactions
E
electronically o n the internet (internet banking) and by use o f cell phones. This is
almost similar to tele-banking.
ForInternetbanking,creditcardsarerequiredforclientstogetaccesstothebank
accounts. Data about credit cards is stored o n the magnet strip and this includes:
Date o f issue, Bank code, Branch code, Account number, Card number and Expiry
date.Informationenteredbyaclienttoaccessbankingservicesfromhomeincludes:
Account Number, Account name and password.
Inhomebanking,userscanstopacheque, enquiretheiraccountbalances,transfer
money between accounts, pay bills, o rder a cheque book, look at account
transactions for a given period, request a change o f pin o r password, amend o r
createstandingo rders/directdebits,printstatementsandchangepersonaldetails.It
is impossible to withdraw cash or pay in cash.
In home banking, the following advantages are realised by customers:
● Do not have to waste time travelling long distances to banks.
Compiled by: Kapondeni T. Cell:0772 245 866 Page161of163 Date: 21-Oct-2020
‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes-ZIMSEC Syllabus
● D o not havetospendmoneyo ntravellingexpensestravellinglongdistances
to banks.
● No embarrassment of having to ask for loans face to face.
● Can do bank transactions even when banks are closed.
● Do not have to waste time waiting for a response to telephone banking.
However, home banking has the following disadvantages:
● Less personal touch is involved hence no socialisation with friends and
neighbours.
● More expensive phone bills are to be paid.
● Lack of exercises as user just sits on the computer.
● Hackers can access personal details and transfer money to their accounts.
● YouhavetohaveacomputerandanInternetaccesso fwhichlesspeoplecan
afford.
● Users are unable to withdraw cash
hen purchasing the goods, the supermarkets and any o ther shops check the
W
following on the credit card:
● Check if the card is valid.
● Check if credit limit is not exceeded.
● Check if credit card is not reported as stolen.
● Check if expiry date has not been exceeded.
heintroductiono fATMs,EFTandelectronicbanking,includinginternetbankinghas
T
the following advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages to Bank workers
● Their workload is reduced, for instance the burden o f counting cash and
service many clients can be done the ATM.
● Reduction in mistakes, for instance counting cash and updating wrong
accounts as the computers validate details during entry.
● Reduction in working hours.
● Increased salaries.
● Better working conditions
Disadvantages to Bank Workers
● Some lose their jobs due to computerisation.
● Leads to de-skilling where some jobs are taken as redundant, for example
clerical jobs.
● Some workers will be transferred
Advantages to Bank clients
● Customers get faster service as they are served quickly.
● Customerssavetimespendintravellingtobankinghallsbyuseo fcellphones
and internet bank.
● Customersnolongercarryaroundlargeamountso fcashasallpaymentsare
done electronically and this reduces robbery cases.
● Clients getbankservicesatATMsevenduringpublicholidays,weekendsand
after hours.
● Customers are provided with 24 hour services.
● Customers save money used to pay travelling expenses to banks.
Disadvantages to Bank clients
Compiled by: Kapondeni T. Cell:0772 245 866 Page162of163 Date: 21-Oct-2020
‘O’ Level Computer Studies Notes-ZIMSEC Syllabus
C
● ustomers can lose money through credit card fraud.
● Customers may forget their PIN and fail to get service at ATM.
● Debit cards and credit cards can be stolen and used illegally thereby
customers will lose their money.
● Therearecaseso fphantomwithdrawals:unexplainedcashwithdrawalsfrom
bank accounts.
J OBS IN THE COMPUTER INDUSTRY
IT personnel
The personnel/ jobs found in the computer industry includes the following:
- Data c apture c lerk: entering data into the computersystem.Aloto ftyping
skills is required.
- DatabaseAdministrator:Managesthedatabaseo fano rganisation,allowing
o r controlling access, updating and use of the database among users
- Hardware Technician: for troubleshooting and repairing o f computer
hardware like printers, replacing parts, etc.
- Network Technician: for troubleshooting the network and for network
maintenance
- Network Administrator: giving access rights to thenetwork
- Systems Analyst: investigating system and recommends the best solutionto
computer systems.
- Programmer: designs, codes and test computer programs
- IT Manager: Manager information systems within ano rganisation
- Computer Teacher/Lecturer: teaches computer studies and computer
sciences in schools, colleges and universities.
Compiled by: Kapondeni T. Cell:0772 245 866 Page163of163 Date: 21-Oct-2020
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