EM1

Electric Charge, Electric force,

and Electric field
Reference books:
1. University Physics

2. Openstax College Physics

https://openstax.org/details/books/
college-physics

2
 Why is EM important?
Most relevant to everyday life (from mechanical forces to biological
processes) among the four fundamental interactions.

Four Fundamental Forces:

Relative strength Range (meter)

Strong 10!" 10#$% • Binding quarks into hadrons
• Binding neutrons and protons
in nuclei

Electromagnetic 10!& ∞

Weak 10'% 10#$" • Transforming neutron into

proton in nuclear decay

Gravitation 1 ∞
 Some simple fact from high school physics:
Origin of charge from atoms

• Neutral object: number of positive charge = number of negative charge

• A conductor permits easy movement of charge through it, while an

insulator does not
Charge by rubbing (insulator)

Unlike charges attract, like charges repel

Charge by induction (conductor)
 A Van de Graaff generator is an
electrostatic generator which uses a
moving belt to accumulate electric charge
on a hollow metal globe on the top of an
insulated column

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Ptu07enIsY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4GwK6zfaEt4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WtZ_nQkPRhQ
Two very important facts about charges:

1. Principle of conservation of charge – the algebraic sum of all electric

charges in any closed system (no charge can escape) is constant

2. Electron charge is the fundamental (cannot be further divided) unit of charge

𝑒 = 1.602176565 35 ×10!"# 𝐶
The number of charge in a system is (integer)×𝑒
Coulomb [𝑪]

• The SI unit of charge is the coulomb [𝐶]

• An electron’s charge is
−𝑒 = −1.602×10!"# 𝐶

• Equivalently, we can define

−1𝐶 = 6.242×10"$ electrons

• The total number of charged particles in even a small piece of

matter is huge
• Recall: Avogadro’s number (𝑁% = 6.02×10&' ) of proton/s has a
mass ≈ 1𝑔
• A typical atom consists 50% of proton
(!
⇒number of proton in 1𝑔 of matter ≈
&
⇒ positive charge in 1𝑔 of matter
𝑁%
×𝑒 ≈ 50 000 𝐶
2
9
Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s Law
• Electric force between two point particles at
rest is
1 𝑞" 𝑞&
⃗
𝐹) =
4𝜋𝜖* 𝑟 &

• (For dull historical reason) 𝜖* is called the

permittivity constant and
1
= 8.99×10# 𝑁𝑚& /𝐶 &
4𝜋𝜖*

• The force acting on one particle points either toward the other particle
(opposite charge) or away from the other particle (like charge)

• Two 1𝐶 charge at 1m apart exert a force 𝐹~9×10# 𝑁! 1𝐶 is huge!!

,-" -#
• Very much like the gravitation 𝐹+ = , but much stronger.
.#
Example:

Two helium nuclei (He2+, 𝑚 = 6.64×10!&/ 𝑘𝑔 and 𝑞 = 3.2×10!"# 𝐶).

What is the ratio of electric to gravitational force?

The ratio is
1 𝑞&
𝐹0 4𝜋𝜖* 𝑟 & '1
= = 3.1×10
𝐹+ 𝐺𝑚&
𝑟&

12
Vector addition of electric forces in a plane:
Principle of superposition

By symmetry, 𝐹2 =0
1 |𝑄𝑞" |
𝐹3 = 2 cos 𝛼
4𝜋𝜖* 𝑟 &
More mathematical approach

By symmetry, 𝐹2 =0
𝑟⃗ = 0.4, −0.3
1 $(|𝑄𝑞" |
1 4 3
⇒ 𝐹𝑟3$(
̂ ==2 4𝜋𝜖* 𝑟 & cos 𝛼
0.4, −0.3 = ,−
'
0.4 + 0.3 ' 5 5
Similarly,
4 3
𝑟'(
̂ = ,
5 5

The total force on Q is

1 𝑄𝑞" 4 3 1 𝑄𝑞& 4 3
⃗
𝐹= ,− + ,
4𝜋𝜖* 𝑟 & 5 5 4𝜋𝜖* 𝑟 & 5 5
𝑄𝑞 4
⃗
𝐹= 2× , 0
4𝜋𝜖* 𝑟 & 5
 and direction of the electric field? (b) Are we justified in ignoring in terms of uni
the effects of gravity? Justify your answer quantitatively. part (a) to obta
21.29 .. (a) What must the charge (sign and magnitude) of a form.
Classwork 1
1.45-g particle be for it to remain stationary when placed in a 21.35 .. CP I
downward-directed electric field of magnitude 650 N>C? (b) What as it emerges fr
is the magnitude of an electric field in which the electric force on a 21.36 . (a) Ca
proton is equal in magnitude to its weight? +x-axis) of the
21.30 .. A point charge is placed at Figure E21.30 charge is place
each corner of a square with side direction of (i
1q a 1q exerts on this c
length a. The charges all have the
same magnitude q. Two of the -8.0-nC charg
charges are positive and two are neg- 21.37 .. If tw
ative, as shown in Fig. E21.30. What 10 -10 m from
a E21.37, find th
is the direction of the net electric
field at the center of the square due to of the net elect
the four charges, and what is its mag- the proton.
nitude in terms of q and a? 21.38 .. CP A
21.31 . Two point charges are sepa-
2q 2q exists in the r
rated by 25.0 cm (Fig. E21.31). Find the net electric field these sitely charged
charges produce at (a) point A and (b) point B. (c) What would be ton is released
the magnitude and direction of the electric force this combination plate and strike
of charges would produce on a proton at A? from the first,
magnitude
15
of
Figure E21.31 when it strikes
 FE = w so eE = mg
mg (1.673 × 10−27 kg)(9.80 m/s 2 )
EXECUTE: E = = −19
= 1.02 × 10−7 N/C.
e 1.602 × 10 C
This is a very small electric field.
EVALUATE: In both cases q E = mg and E = ( m/ q ) g . In part (b) the m/ q ratio is much smaller
(∼ 10−8 ) than in part (a) (∼ 102 ) so E is much smaller in (b). For subatomic particles gravity can usually
be ignored compared to electric forces.
21.30. IDENTIFY: The net electric field is the vector sum of the individual fields.
SET UP: The distance from a corner to the center of the square is r = ( a/2)2 + (a/2) 2 = a/ 2 . The
kq kq
magnitude of the electric field due to each charge is the same and equal to Eq = =2 . All four
r2 a2
y-components add and the x-components cancel.
Eq −2kq 2kq
EXECUTE: Each y-component is equal to Eqy = − Eq cos 45° = − = =− . The resultant field
2 2a 2 a2
4 2kq
is 2
, in the − y -direction.
a
EVALUATE: We must add the y-components of the fields, not their magnitudes.
q
21.31. IDENTIFY: For a point charge, E = k 2 . The net field is the vector sum of the fields produced by each
r
charge. A charge q in an electric field E experiences a force F = qE .
SET UP: The electric field of a negative charge is directed toward the charge. Point A is 0.100 m from q2
and 0.150 m from q1. Point B is 0.100 m from q1 and 0.350 m from q2 .
EXECUTE: (a) The electric fields at point A due to the charges are shown in Figure 21.31a.
−9
q1 9 2 2 6.25 × 10 C
E1 = k 2 = (8.99 × 10 N ⋅ m /C ) 2
= 2.50 × 103 N/C 16
rA1 (0.150 m)
mC
11 + z2n = 1 + nz + n1n - 12z 2 >2 + Á , valid for the case
ƒ z ƒ 6 1.) (b) Suppose instead that the charge q were placed on the
00 cm
Classy-axisWork 2
at a coordinate y such that ƒ y ƒ V a, and then released. If
this charge is free to move anywhere in the xy-plane, what will
210.00 mC happen to it? Explain your answer.
21.68 .. CP Two identical spheres Figure P21.68
00 cm with mass m are hung from silk
threads of length L, as shown in
mC Fig. P21.68. Each sphere has the same
charge, so q1 = q2 = q. The radius of
each sphere is very small compared to L L
nm apart, is the distance between the spheres, so u u
sheets carrying they may be treated as point charges.
(a) What is the Show that if the angle u is small,
e to the sheets, the equilibrium separation
2
d between
1>3
s to attain this the spheres is d = 1q L>2pP0mg2 .
an exert on the (Hint: If u is small, then tan u ! mass m 𝑑 mass m
charge q1 charge q2
sheets to attain sin u.)
s exert on the 21.69 ... CP Two small spheres with
mass m = 15.0 g are hung by silk threads of length L = 1.20 m
from a common point (Fig. P21.68). When the spheres are given
equal quantities of negative charge, so that q1 = q2 = q, each
17
thread hangs at u = 25.0° from the vertical. (a) Draw a diagram
 Electric Charge and Electric Field 21-33

EVALUATE: The directions of the forces and of the net force depend on where q is located relative to the
other two charges. In part (a), F = 0 at x = 0 and when the charge q is displaced in the + x- or − x-direction
the net force is a restoring force, directed to return q to x = 0. The charge oscillates back and forth, similar
to a mass on a spring.
21.68. IDENTIFY: Apply ∑ Fx = 0 and ∑ Fy = 0 to one of the spheres.
SET UP: The free-body diagram is sketched in Figure 21.68. Fe is the repulsive Coulomb force between
the spheres. For small θ , sin θ ≈ tan θ.
mg sin θ kq 2
EXECUTE: ∑ Fx = T sin θ − Fe = 0 and ∑ Fy = T cos θ − mg = 0. So = Fe = 2 . But
cos θ d
1/3
d 2kq 2 L ⎛ q2L ⎞
tan θ ≈ sin θ = , so d 3 = and d = ⎜
⎜ 2π ! mg ⎟⎟
.
2L mg ⎝ 0 ⎠
EVALUATE: d increases when q increases.

Figure 21.68

21.69. IDENTIFY: Use Coulomb’s law for the force that one sphere exerts on the other and apply the 1st
condition of equilibrium to one of the spheres.
(a) SET UP: The placement of the spheres is sketched in Figure 21.69a.
18
Electric Field

Q: Why the charges can push/pull each other when there is nothing in
between?

Q: How is this force at a distance actually being transmitted?

• The Coulomb’s law is called an action-at-a-distance model

• we imagine each charged particle to act directly and instantly on the
other across the distance between them.
charge ↔ charge (action-at-a-distance model)
• violate the principle of relativity (no signal can travel faster than the
speed of light) 19
 Faraday
Electric Field

• To fix this problem, we introduce a fundamental different

picture of how the electromagnetic interaction works →
field model
• the space around a charged particle is filled with electric
field
• The electric field spread out over all
space (strictly speaking, the entire
Universe!!)

• The field is a real (physical) thing that

has energy, momentum and obeys the
equation of motion that describe how it
evolves with time in response to its surroundings.
 Electric Field

• Each charge contributes to an electric field that fills all the

space
• This field then exerts a force on each particle in proportion to
the field’s local strength at that particle’s position.
• the field mediates the interaction between two particles

charge ↔ field ↔ charge

(field model)

Speed of light: 𝑐

21

21
Defining the Electric Field

• A charge distribution exerts an electrostatics force 𝐹⃗* on a charged

test particle that is proportional to that particle’s charge 𝑞* , 𝐹⃗* = 𝑞* 𝐸
where 𝐸 is a vector quantity that depends only on one’s positon
relative to the charge distribution.
• 𝐸 is called the electric field vector

• The SI units of electric field is [𝑁/𝐶]

• 𝑞* must be small enough so that it
does not change the charge
distribution
Electric Field due to a Point Charge
Example

𝑞 = −8.0 nC
 S r = 2x 2 + y 2 = 211.2 m22 + 1-1.6 m22 = 2.0 m
c-field vector E 21
tion. We use Eq. The unit vector rN is then
the source point Example 21.7 Sr Electron xın " y≥nin a uniform field S S
mple is at the ori- rN ! ! EXECUTE: (a) Although E is upward (in the + y-direction), F is The velocity is downward,
r r downward (because the electron’s charge is negative) and so Fy tron’s kinetic energy is
When the terminals of m2ı
11.2 a battery are connected
n " 1-1.6 m2≥n to two parallel con- E = 1.00 * 10 4
N>C. (a)Because
If an electron (charge -the
e =electron’s
- 1.60 *acceleration is
ducting plates with
! a small gap between them, ! 0.60ı n # 0.80≥charges
the resulting n is negative. Fy is constant,
2.0 m S 10 -9 C, massconstant:
m = 9.11 * 10 -31 kg) is released from rest at the K = 12 mv2 = 12 19.11
on the plates produce a nearly uniform electric field E between the upper plate, what is its acceleration? (b) What speed and kinetic
Then, from
plates. (In theEq. (21.7),
next section we’ll see why this is.) If the plates are -19
* 10 4 N>C2 = 1.6 * 1
energy does it acquireFwhile
y 1 -1.0
-traveling
eE cm*to10the lower
1.60 C211.00
plate?
1.0S cm apart
1 and q are connected to a 100-volt battery as shown in a =
(c) How long doesy it take = =
E !21.20, the rN m to travel
m this distance? 9.11 * 10 -31 kg (c) From Eq. (2.8) for co
Fig. 4pP0 r 2 field is vertically upward and has magnitude
= - 1.76 * 10 15 m>s2 vy - v0y 1-
1-8.0 * 10 -9 C2 SOLUTION t = =
21.20 A uniform
! connected
plates
#
9 electric
m >C 2 battery. (The 2separation
19.0 * 10toNa 100-volt2 2field between two parallel conducting
10.60ıof
n # 0.80≥n2
the (b) The electron starts from rest, so its motion is in the ay
12.0 m2 IDENTIFY and SET UP: This example involves the relationship
plates is exaggerated in this figure relative to the dimensions of y-direction only (the direction of the acceleration). We can find the
between electric field and electric force. It also involves the rela- = 3.4
! 1-11 N>C2ın " 114 N>C2≥n
the plates.) electron’s speed at any position y using the constant-acceleration
tionship between force and acceleration, the definition of kinetic
Eq. (2.13), vy2 = v0y2 + 2ay1y - y02. We have v0y = 0 and
The thin arrows represent
S energy, and the kinematic relationships among acceleration, dis- EVALUATE: Our results sho
EVALUATE: Since q is negative, E thepoints from
uniform the field
electric field. point to the tance, velocity, y0 and= 0,time. y = -21.20
so atFigure 1.0 cmshows= - 1.0
our * 10 -2 m we
coordinate sys-have atomic particles such as e
charge (the source point), in the direction opposite to rN (compare tem. We are given the electric field, so we use Eq. (21.4) to find the
acceleration, speed, kinetic
Fig. 21.17c). We leave the calculation of the magnitude and direc- force on the electron ƒ vy ƒ = 22ayy = 22121.5 - 1.76Electric-Field 2
21 - 1.0 * 10 -2703
* 10 15 m>sCalculations m2
and Newton’s second law to find its accelera- ferent values from those typ
tion of E to you (see–Exercise – –21.36).
– – – – –
S
x 6
S
O tion. Because the field is uniform, = 5.9
the *force
10 ism>s
constant and we can balls and automobiles.
E S
use the
S
constant-acceleration formulas from Chapter 2 to find6 the
-direction), F is The velocity is downward, so vy = - 5.9 * 10 m>s. The elec-
S S
EXECUTE: (a) Although E is upward F 5 2eE (in the 1.0+ ycm
100 V downward (because the electron’s charge is negative) and electron’s
so Fy velocity
tron’s and travel
kinetic energy time.
is We find the kinetic energy
1 2
using K = mv .
acceleration is 2 Test Your1 Understanding of Section 21.4 (a) A negative point charge
eld is negative. + Because
+ + Fy+ is constant,
+ + the + electron’s
+
constant: movesKalong = 2 mv 2
= 12 19.11 path
a straight-line
-31
* 10directly
kg215.9
toward
6
m>s22 positive point charge.
* a10stationary
y
wo parallel con- E = 1.00 * 10 4 N>C -eC211.00
= -1.60* *10 4 N>C2 Which aspect(s) of = the
1.6electric
* 10 -17force
J on the negative point charge will remain con-
Fy. (a) -IfeE
an electron
1 - 1.60(charge
* 10 -19
resulting charges 10 -9 C, mass m ay = 9.11=* 10 -31= kg) is released from rest at the stant as it moves? (i) magnitude; (ii) direction; (iii) both magnitude and direction;
S
d E between the m m 9.11 * 10 -31
kg (iv)(c)neither
From magnitude
Eq. (2.8) for constant
nor acceleration,
direction. vy =point
(b) A negative v0y +charge
ayt, moves along a circular
upper plate, what is its acceleration? (b) What speed and kinetic
If the plates are * 10 15 orbit around a positive point charge. Which aspect(s) of the electric force on the negative
energy does it acquire while = - 1.76traveling cm2 to the lower plate?
1.0m>s vy - v0y 1 - 5.9 * 10 6 m>s2 - 10 m>s2
ery as shown in point charget = will remain = constant as it moves? (i) magnitude; (ii) direction; (iii) both
(c) How long does it take to travel this distance?
has magnitude (b) The electron starts from rest, so its motion is in the ay
magnitude and direction; (iv) neither * 10 15 m>s
- 1.76 magnitude nor2
direction. ❙
y-direction only (the direction of the acceleration). We can find the
SOLUTIONelectron’s speed at any position y using the constant-acceleration = 3.4 * 10 -9 s
allel conducting
tion of the IDENTIFY and Eq. SET (2.13), 2
UP: vThis v0y2 + 2ainvolves
y = example y1y - y0the 2. We have v0y = 0 and
relationship 21.5 Electric-Field Calculations
EVALUATE: Our results show that in problems concerning sub-
imensions of between electric
y0 = field0, so and
at y electric
= - 1.0force.
cm =It -also * 10 -2 m
1.0 involves thewerela-
have atomic particles such as electrons, many quantities—including
tionship between force and acceleration, the definition of kinetic Equation (21.7) gives the electric field caused by a single point charge. But in ActivP
acceleration, speed, kinetic energy, and time—will have very dif-
resent energy, and theƒ vy ƒ kinematic
= 22ayyrelationships
= 221 - 1.76 among
15 2
m>s 21 - 1.0
* 10acceleration, -2
dis-* 10 m2 most realistic situations that involve electric fields and forces, we encounter charge Dipol
ferent values from those typical of everyday objects such as base- ActivP
field. tance, velocity, and time. Figure = 5.9 21.20
* 10shows
6
m>sour coordinate sys- that and
balls is distributed
automobiles. over space. The charged plastic and glass rods in Fig. 21.1 have
tem. We are given the electric field, so we use Eq. (21.4) to find the electric charge distributed over their surfaces, as does the imaging drum of a laser
– – force on the electron and Newton’s second law to find its accelera- printer (Fig. 21.2). In this section we’ll learn to calculate electric fields caused by
x
tion. Because the field is uniform, the force is constant and we can various distributions of electric charge. Calculations of this kind are of tremen-
Test Your Understanding of Section 21.4 (a) A negative point charge
S
1.0 cm
use the constant-acceleration formulas from Chapter 2 to find the douscharge.importance for technological applications of electric forces. To determine
2eE moves along a straight-line path directly toward a stationary positive point
electron’s velocity and travel time. We find the kinetic energy
Which aspect(s) of the electric force on the negative point charge will remain con- the trajectories of atomic nuclei in an accelerator for cancer radiotherapy or of
using K = 12 mv2.
+ + stant as it moves? (i) magnitude; (ii) direction; (iii) both magnitude andcharged direction;particles in a semiconductor electronic device, you have25 to know the
(iv) neither magnitude nor direction. (b) A negative point charge movesdetailed along a circular
nature of the electric field acting on the charges.
orbit around a positive point charge. Which aspect(s) of the electric force on the negative
Electric Field Lines
More examples of electric field

32
Superposition of Electric Fields
Electric dipole
Field of an electric dipole
We can prove that the electric field
generated by an electric dipole is
given by

1 3 𝑝⃗ ⋅ 𝑟̂ 𝑟̂ − 𝑝⃗
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜖* 𝑟'

where 𝑟⃗ ≫ 𝑑.

Example: Assume 𝑝⃗ = 𝑝𝑦Z

1. If 𝑟⃗ = 𝑦𝑦,
Z we have 2. If 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥 𝑥,
Z we have
1 3𝑝 − 𝑝 1 𝑝 1 −𝑝𝑦Z 1 𝑝
𝐸= 𝑦Z = 𝑦Z 𝐸= =− 𝑦Z
4𝜋𝜖* 𝑦' 2𝜋𝜖* 𝑦 ' 4𝜋𝜖* 𝑦 ' 4𝜋𝜖* 𝑦 '

37
Electric dipole under an external electric field

The magnitude of the torque is:

𝜏⃗ = |𝑝×𝐸|
⃗ = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜙

The external electric field rotates the electric dipole and eventually
the dipole will align with the electric field.
Electric Polarization
• Understanding dipoles can help us resolve a mystery associated with
electrostatic behavior you may have experienced.

• Question: How can a charged object attract (but never repel)

something that is electrically neutral?

39
Water molecules

+
• Permanently polarized
• Polar molecule
• Each dipole rotates and aligns −
(like a compass needle) with the
external field

− +
+ +
+
−

+
+ − +
+
+ − +
+
+ − +
 For other molecules 𝐸!"#

Polarize a neutral atom by (external)

electric force
𝑝⃗
𝑝⃗ = 𝛼𝐸034
𝛼 is called the polarizability
Typically, 𝛼~10!5* 𝐶 & 𝑚/𝑁

It remains neutral!
Advanced examples of electric field

42
Field of a charged line segment
Field due a ring of charge along its axis
Field of a uniformly charged disk
Field of two oppositely charged infinite sheets
Shell Theorem (we won’t go through the mathematical proof here)

A spherical shell of radius 𝑅 and charge 𝑞

𝑞
𝑅

Inside the shell (𝑟 < 𝑅): Outside the shell (𝑟 > 𝑅):
𝐸=0 𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜖* 𝑟 &
(likes a point charge 𝑞 at the
center of the shell)

49
Example:
Consider a uniform solid sphere of radius 𝑅 and total 𝑅
charge 𝑄, what is the electric field 𝐸 𝑟⃗ ?

Case 1: 𝑟 > 𝑅
Applying the shell theorem, the sphere behaves as a
point charge 𝑄 at the origin:
1 𝑄
𝐸 𝑟⃗ = &
𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜖* 𝑟

Case 2: 𝑟 < 𝑅
Applying the shell theorem, only the charge inside 𝑟 𝑟
contribute:
1 𝑞 𝑟 1 𝑄
𝐸 𝑟⃗ = = 𝑟𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜖* 𝑟 & 4𝜋𝜖* 𝑅 '
where 𝑞(𝑟) is the charges enclosed by the sphere of
radius 𝑟, i.e. The shell contributes
𝑞 𝑟 𝑄 𝑟' nothing at the point 𝑟⃗
= ⇒𝑞 𝑟 =𝑄 '
4 ' 4 ' 𝑅
𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑅
3 3 50
Classwork 3:
What is the electric field at the
𝑦 origin?

𝑄$

𝑄%

𝑎 ×
× 𝑥
𝑏

51
1. Inside the spherical shell of charge 𝑄* :
By Shell theorem:
𝐸* = 0

2. Outside the spherical shell of charge 𝑄+ :

By Shell theorem, the electric field due to the spherical shell
is the same as a point charge located at the center
𝑄+
𝐸+ = +
(−𝚤)̂
4𝜋𝜖, 𝑏

The total electric field at the origin:

𝑄+
𝐸-.- = 𝐸* + 𝐸+ = − +
𝚤̂
4𝜋𝜖, 𝑏

52
 Challenging class work
d

iling hook 21.90 .. CALC Positive charge Figure P21.90

rm electric Q is distributed uniformly along
y
hang at rest the positive y-axis between
21.82). (a) y = 0 and y = a. A negative a
as positive point charge - q lies on the posi-
tive x-axis, a distance x from the Q
which an origin (Fig. P21.90). (a) Calcu-
m around late the x- and y-components of x
O
ts orbit? the electric field produced by the 2q
nd charge charge distribution Q at points on
ary sphere the positive x-axis. (b) Calculate the x- and y-components of the
sphere is force that the charge distribution Q exerts on q. (c) Show that if
he spheres x W a, Fx ! - Qq>4pP0x 2 and Fy ! + Qqa>8pP0x 3. Explain
why this result is obtained.
1.00 mm. 21.91 .. A charged line like that shown in Fig. 21.24 extends
e that each from y = 2.50 cm to y = - 2.50 cm. The total charge distributed
know that uniformly along the line is - 7.00 nC. (a) Find the electric field
 that for x a, r = x − a ≈ x.) The charge distribution looks like a point charge from far away, so the force
takes the form of the force between a pair of point charges.
21.90. IDENTIFY: Use Eq. (21.7) to calculate the electric field due to a small slice of the line of charge and
integrate as in Example 21.10. Use Eq. (21.3) to calculate F .
SET UP: The electric field due to an infinitesimal segment of the line of charge is sketched in Figure 21.90.
y
sin θ =
x2 + y 2

x
cosθ =
x2 + y2

Figure 21.90
Slice the charge distribution up into small pieces of length dy. The charge dQ in each slice is
dQ = Q (dy/a ). The electric field this produces at a distance x along the x-axis is dE. Calculate the
components of dE and then integrate over the charge distribution to find the components of the total field.
1 ⎛ dQ ⎞ Q ⎛ dy ⎞
EXECUTE: dE = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
4π !0 ⎝ x + y 2 ⎟⎠ 4π !0 a ⎜⎝ x 2 + y 2 ⎟⎠

dE x = dE cosθ =
Qx ⎛ dy ⎞ You don’t need to know how
⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
4π !0 a ⎝ ( x + y ) ⎠
2 3/2
to evaluate these integrals in
dE y = − dE sin θ = −
Q ⎛ ydy ⎞ this course
⎜⎜ 2 ⎟
4π !0 a ⎝ ( x + y 2 )3/2 ⎟⎠
a
Qx a dy Qx ⎡ 1 y ⎤ Q 1
E x = ∫ dE x = − ⎢ ⎥ =
4π !0a Ñ0 ( x 2 + y 2 )3/2
=
4π !0a ⎢ x 2 x 2 + y 2 ⎥⎦ 0 4π !0 x x2 + a2
⎣
a
Q a ydy Q ⎡ 1 ⎤ Q ⎛1 1 ⎞
E y = ∫ dEy = − ⎢ ⎥ =−
4π ! 0a Ñ0 ( x 2 + y 2 )3/2
= − − ⎜ − ⎟
4π !0a ⎢ ⎜
4π !0a ⎝ x ⎟
⎣ x 2 + y 2 ⎥⎦ 0 x2 + a2 ⎠
21-44 Chapter 21

(b) F = q0 E
− qQ 1 qQ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
Fx = −qE x = ; Fy = − qE y = ⎜ − ⎟
4π !0 x x 2 + a 2 4π !0a ⎜⎝ x x2 + a2
⎟
⎠
−1/2
1 1 ⎛ a2 ⎞ 1⎛ a2 ⎞ 1 a2
(c) For x a, = ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ = ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ = − 3
2
x +a 2 x ⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠ x ⎜⎝ 2 x ⎟⎠ x 2 x

qQ qQ ⎛ 1 1 a 2 ⎞ qQa
Fx ≈ − , F ≈ ⎜ − + ⎟ =
4π !0a ⎜⎝ x x 2 x3 ⎟⎠ 8π ! 0 x3
y
4π !0 x 2
qQ
EVALUATE: For x a, Fy Fx and F ≈ Fx = and F is in the − x-direction. For x a the
4π P0 x 2
charge distribution Q acts like a point charge.
21.91. IDENTIFY: Apply Eq. (21.9) from Example 21.10.
SET UP: a = 2.50 cm. Replace Q by Q . Since Q is negative, E is toward the line of charge and
1 Q
E=− iˆ.
4π !0 x x + a
2 2

1 ˆ Q1 7.00 × 10−9 C
EXECUTE: E = − i =− iˆ = (−6110 N/C) iˆ. 55
4π !0 x x 2 + a 2 4π !0 (0.100 m) (0.100 m)2 + (0.025 m) 2