● CONTINUOUS DATA is

DATA MANAGEMENT obtained by measuring.

Example: family income and
Data is everywhere. It is observable or weight of an individual
measurable. Data can be accessed anywhere
and by anyone. When data is correct, valid SCALE OF MEASUREMENT
analysis and interpretation can be generated to - The gateway to the fascinating world of
produce valuable information. statistics. Known as the level of
measurement.
GENERAL FIELDS OF STATISTICS
Another way is to classify data into four levels of
measurement such as nominal, ordinal, interval,
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS and ratio.
- Basically deals with analysis of data,
then descriptive statistics part of the 1. NOMINAL LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
general field is about “describing” data is the lowest of the four ways to
in symbolic forms and abbreviated characterize data. Nominal data deals
fashions. with names, categories, or labels. Data
at the nominal level is qualitative. Colors
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS of eyes, yes or no responses to a
- The alternative technique that can be survey, and favorite breakfast cereal all
used. Has the ability to “infer” and to deal with the nominal level of
generalize and it offers the right tool to measurement.
predict values that are not really known.
2. ORDINAL LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
GATHERING AND ORGANIZING DATA ranks qualitative data. Winners in a
pageant and the academic rank of
teachers are examples of ordinal data.
DATA
- are the quantities (numbers) or qualities
3. INTERVAL LEVEL OF
(attributes) measured or observed that
MEASUREMENT deals with data that
are to be collected and analyzed
can be ordered, and in which differences
(Asaad, 2004). There are two types of
between the data do make sense. Data
data: qualitative and quantitative data.
at this level does not have a starting
point. The Fahrenheit and Celsius
QUALITATIVE DATA
scales of temperatures are both
- deals with categories or attributes.
examples of data at the interval level of
- Examples: color of eyes, ethnicity, and
measurement. It deals with
brand of ice cream.
measurement data.
QUANTITATIVE DATA
4. RATIO LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
- are numerical data. Quantitative data
deals with data that possesses all the
can be discrete or continuous.
features of the interval level, in addition
● DISCRETE DATA is obtained
to a zero value. An extension of an
through counting. Example: The
interval scale. It also pertains with
number of households in a
measurement data but ratio’s point of
particular community.
view is about absolute value. Examples
●
are weight, the time to answer a quiz,
 and the number of absences of students there are only a few observations, say less
in a class. than ten observations, the values could be
enumerated if there is a need to do so. Data
could also be presented using tables.
POPULATION VS. SAMPLE

2. THE TABULAR METHOD OF

POPULATION PRESENTATION - This is applicable to
- Can be defined as an entire group of large data sets. A FREQUENCY is the
people, things, or events having at least number of times a value of the data occurs.
one trait in common. A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION is the
organization of raw data in table form, using
COMMON TRAIT classes and frequencies.
- The binding factor in order to group a ● UNGROUPED DATA - raw data that has
cluster. not been placed in any group or
category after collection
PARAMETER ● GROUPED DATA - data which is
- Any measure obtained in gauging the classified into groups after collection. In
entire population frequency distribution of grouped data,
- The size of the entire population observations are sorted into classes of
- In the form of estimate or inference. more than one value.

SAMPLE 3. GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION - The

- The small number of observations taken graphical presentation, on the other hand, is
from the total number making up a a visual presentation of the data. A graph is
population. a tool that helps you learn about the shape
- Easier to observe or gather than the or distribution of a sample. The graph can
population. be a more effective way of presenting data
than a mass of numbers because we can
STATISTIC see where data clusters are and where there
- Any measure obtained in gauging the are only a few data values. Graphs are
sample. commonly used in oral presentations. There
- When we describe the sample. are several forms of graphs to use like the
- Simple to gather than the parameter. pie chart, pictograph, bar graph, line graph,
histogram, frequency polygon and boxplot.
REPRESENTING USING GRAPHS AND CHARTS;
AND INTERPRETING ORGANIZED DATA 1) HISTOGRAM - is a graph that displays
the data by using vertical bars of various
After the data has been collected and heights to represent the frequencies of
processed, data needs to be organized to the classes. The horizontal axis is
produce meaningful information. There are three labeled with what the data represents.
methods for presenting information from the The vertical axis is labeled either
data set. frequency or relative frequency.
Histograms use class boundaries and
1. TEXTUAL OR PARAGRAPH OR frequencies of the classes
NARRATIVE FORM - This describes the
data by enumerating some of the important
features of the data set like giving the
highest, lowest, or average values. In case
2) FREQUENCY POLYGON - is a graph intervals of time. Each point on the chart
that displays the data by using lines that corresponds to both a time and a
connect points plotted for the quantity that is being measured.
frequencies at the class midpoints. The
frequencies are represented by the
heights of the points and the class
midpoints are represented on the
horizontal axis. Frequency polygons use
class midpoints and frequencies of the
classes.

3) PIE CHART / GRAPH - is a special

chart that uses "pie slices" to show
relative sizes of data. The chart is
divided into sectors, where each sector
shows the relative size of each value.

3) PARETO CHART - is a bar graph. The

lengths of the bars represent frequency
or cast (time or money) and are
arranged with the longest bars on the
left and the shortest to the right

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Any measure indicating the center of a

Other Types of Graphs: set of data arranged in an array is known as
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY.
1) BAR GRAPH / CHART - is used to Measure of Central Tendency provides a very
represent data visually using bars of convenient method of describing a set of scores
different heights or lengths. Data is with a single value that is used to describe the
graphed either horizontally or vertically, “center” of the data. The most commonly used
allowing viewers to compare different measures of Central tendency are the mean,
values and draw conclusions quickly median and mode. But only by knowing and
and easily. using the appropriate tool can the most accurate
estimation of centrality be achieved.

Measures of central tendency are

methods that can be used to determine
information regarding average, ranking, and
category of any data distribution.

2) TIME SERIES GRACH / GRAPH /

PLOT - is a data visualization that
illustrates data points at successive
 Properties of the Median
UNGROUPED DATA
1. It may not be an actual observation in
the data set.
MEAN 2. It can be applied at the ordinal level.
- Is the set of scores or observations 3. It is not affected by extreme values
being added and divided by the number because the median is a positional
of scores. It is the arithmetic average of measure.
all the scores. It is also called the
average or arithmetic mean. When to Use the Median
1. The exact midpoint of the score
distribution is desired.
2. There are extreme scores in the
distribution.
Properties of the Mean
1. It measures stability. Mean is the most MEAN OF SKEWED DISTRIBUTION
stable among other measures of central - Wherein the mean cannot be trusted to
tendency because every score provide a measure of central tendency
contributes to the value of the mean. because it portrays an extremely
2. The sum of each score’s distance from distorted picture of the average value of
the mean is zero. a distribution of scores.
3. It is easily affected by extreme scores.
4. It may not be an actual score in the MODE
distribution. - Is the value that occurs most often in a
5. It can be applied to interval levels of data set. It provides an extremely fast
measurement. way of knowing the centrality of the
6. It is very easy to compute. distribution. It can be unimodal, bimodal,
trimodal, or multimodal. UNIMODAL is a
When to Use the Mean distribution of scores consisting of one
1. Sampling stability is desired mode. BIMODAL consists of two
2. Other measures are to be computed modes, TRIMODAL with three modes,
such as standard deviation, coefficient and MULTIMODAL with more than two
of variation and skewness. modes.

WEIGHTED MEAN Properties of the Mode

- Is the average of the means of all the 1. It can be used when the data are
groups. quantitative or quantitative.
2. It may not be unique.
3. It is not affected by extreme values.
4. It may not exist.

When to Use mode

MEDIAN 1. When the Typical value is desired.
- Is the value found at the middle when 2. When the data is measured on a
the data are arranged in an array form. nominal scale.
If there are two middle values, the
average is taken.
 distribution can only be complete if some
GROUPED DATA
information of its variability is known. To
substantiate the information provided by the
MEAN FORMULA measures of centrality, some degree of
dispersion must also be brought into light.

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY

Three measures of variability:

● RANGE - symbolized by R, describes
Where; the variability of scores by merely
𝑥i = 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 providing the width of the entire
𝑛 = no. of sample observations distribution. It can be found by simply
N = no. of observations determining the difference between the
𝑓 = frequency highest score and the lowest score.
● STANDARD DEVIATION - the life-blood
MEDIAN FORMULA of the variability concept. It provides
measurement about how much all of the
scores in the distribution normally differ
from the mean of the distribution. It
employs every score in the distribution.
Where;
It is computed with reference to the
𝐿b = lower limit boundary of the median class
mean and it requires that the scores
𝑛 = total frequency
must be in interval form.
𝑐𝑓 = cumulative frequency before median class
● VARIANCE
𝑓m = frequency of median class
𝑐𝑤 = class width
These measures give information about the
spread of the scores in a distribution.
MODE FORMULA

MEASURES OF POSITION

1. QUARTILE - are the points that divide a

Where; distribution into four equal parts.
𝑳b = lower limit boundary of the modal class Qx = k (N + 1) / 4
𝒅1 = difference between the highest frequency
and the frequency just below it 2. PERCENTILE - are the score-points that
𝒅2 = difference between the highest frequency divide a distribution into 100 equal parts
and the frequency just above it Percentile = number below the rank x 100
𝒄𝒘= class width Total number of data

MEASURES OF DISPERSION PROBABILITY AND NORMAL DISTRIBUTIONS

The measures of central tendency only NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

provide information about the similarity or - Is a continuous, symmetric, bell-shaped
typicality of scores. But to fully describe the distribution of a variable.
distribution, we need to gain information about
how scores differ or vary. The description of the
Z-TABLE
- gives the percentage for the half curve
but both the right and the left of the
mean yields the same percentage since
the said curve is symmetrical.

PROBABILITY
- determined based on the value on the z
table

CORRELATION

CORRELATION
- a statistical measure that indicates the
extent to which two or more variables
vary in relation to each other.

CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
- a statistical measure, of the degree to
which changes to the value of one
variable predict change to the value of
another.

SCATTER PLOT
- graph of plotted points that show the
relationship between two sets of data.

Types of Correlation:
● POSITIVE CORRELATION - means “As
x increases, y increases”
● NEGATIVE CORRELATION - means
“As x increases, y decreases”
● NO CORRELATION - means No
relationship exists in between the
variables

Correlation and Strength of Relationship