Introduction to Engineering

Chemistry
Dr. Ayimgül Uzunyol
Ostim Technical University

Fall, 2024
Ankara, Turkey

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

 Lecture Presentation

Chapter 2

Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions

James F. Kirby
Quinnipiac University
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Hamden, CT
 Lecture Outline
✓ The Atomic Theory of Matter
✓ The Discovery of Atomic Structure
✓ The Modern View of Atomic Structure
✓ Atomic Weights
✓ The Periodic Table
✓ Molecules and Molecular Compounds
✓ Ions and Ionic Compounds
✓ Naming Inorganic Compounds
✓ Some Simple Organic Compounds

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

 Atomic Theory of Matter

• Some Greek philosophers like Democritus

believed that there was a smallest particle—
“atomos” (uncuttable)—that made up all of nature.
• Experiments in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries led to an organized atomic theory by
John Dalton in the early 1800s:
– The law of constant composition
– The law of conservation of mass
Atoms,
– The law of multiple proportions Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Law of Constant Composition

• We discussed this in Chapter 1.

• Compounds have a definite composition. That
means that the relative number of atoms of
each element in the compound is the same in
any sample.
• This law was discovered by Joseph Proust.
• This law was one of the laws on which
Dalton’s atomic theory was based. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Law of Conservation of Mass

• The total mass of substances present at the

end of a chemical process is the same as the
mass of substances present before the
process took place.
• This law was discovered by Antoine Lavoisier.
• This law was one of the laws on which
Dalton’s atomic theory was based.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Law of Multiple Proportions

• If two elements, A and B, form more than one

compound, the masses of B that combine with a
given mass of A are in the ratio of small whole
numbers.
• John Dalton discovered this law while developing
his atomic theory.
• When two or more compounds exist from the
same elements, they can not have the same
relative number of atoms.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1) Each element is composed of extremely small particles
called atoms.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
2) All atoms of a given element are identical to one another in
mass and other properties, but the atoms of one element
are different from the atoms of all other elements.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
3) Atoms of an element are not changed into atoms of a
different element by chemical reactions; atoms are
neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
4) Atoms of more than one element combine to form
compounds; a given compound always has the same
relative number and kind of atoms.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Discovery of Subatomic
Particles
• In Dalton’s view, the atom was the
smallest particle possible. Many
discoveries led to the fact that the atom
itself was made up of smaller particles.
– Electrons and cathode rays
– Radioactivity
– Nucleus, protons, and neutrons
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Electron (Cathode Rays)

• Streams of negatively charged particles were found to

emanate from cathode tubes, causing fluorescence.
• J. J. Thomson is credited with their discovery (1897). Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Electron

Thomson measured the charge/mass ratio of the Atoms,

electron to be 1.76  108 coulombs/gram (C/g). Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment
(Electrons)
• Once the charge/mass ratio of the electron was known,
determination of either the charge or the mass of an
electron would yield the other.
• Robert Millikan determined the charge on the electron
in 1909.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the
spontaneous emission of
high-energy radiation by
an atom.
• It was first observed by Henri
Becquerel.
• Marie and Pierre Curie also
studied it.
• Its discovery showed that the
atom had more subatomic
Atoms,
particles and energy Molecules,
and Ions
associated with it.
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 • Three types of radiation were discovered by
Ernest Rutherford:
– α particles (positively charged)
– β particles (negatively charged, like electrons)
– γ rays (uncharged)

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Modern View of Atomic Structure

The Atom, circa 1900

• The prevailing theory was

that of the “plum pudding”
model, put forward by
J. J. Thomson.
• It featured a positive
sphere of matter with
negative electrons
embedded in it. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Discovery of the Nucleus

Ernest Rutherford
shot α particles at
a thin sheet of
gold foil and
observed the
pattern of scatter
of the particles.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Nuclear Atom

Since some
particles were
deflected at large
angles, Thomson’s
model could not be
correct. This led to
the nuclear view of
the atom.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Nuclear Atom

• Rutherford postulated a
very small, dense positive
center with the electrons
around the outside.
• Most of the atom is space.
• Atoms are very small;
1–5 Å or 100–500 pm.
• Other subatomic particles
(protons and neutrons in
the nucleus) were
discovered.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Atomic Weights
Subatomic Particles
• Protons (+1) and electrons (–1) have a charge; neutrons
are neutral.
• Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass
(relative mass 1). The mass of an electron is so small we
ignore it (relative mass 0).
• Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus; electrons
travel around the nucleus.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Atomic Number

• How do we determine which element an

atom is?
• Atomic Number: the number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom.
• Since atoms have no overall charge, the
number of protons equals the number of
electrons in an atom.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Atoms of an Element

• Elements are represented by a one or two letter symbol, for which the
first letter is always capitalized. C is the symbol for carbon.
• All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons,
which is called the atomic number. It is written as a subscript
BEFORE the symbol. 6 is the atomic number for carbon.
• The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom. It is written as a superscript BEFORE the symbol.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with
different masses.
• Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons,
but the same number of protons.
• The table below lists four isotopes for carbon.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Atomic Mass Unit (u)

• Atoms have extremely small masses.

• The heaviest known atoms have a mass of
approximately 4 × 10–22 g.
• A mass scale on the atomic level is used, where
an atomic mass unit (u) is the base unit.
– 1 u = 1.66054 × 10–24 g

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 • Because in the real world we use large amounts of
atoms and molecules, we use average masses in
calculations.
• An average mass is found using all isotopes of an
element weighted by their relative abundances.
This is the element’s atomic weight.
• Atomic Weight = Ʃ [(isotope mass) × (fractional
natural abundance)] for ALL isotopes.
• The masses of any atom is compared to C-12
(6 protons and 6 neutrons) being exactly 12. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Atomic Weight Measurement
• Atomic and molecular weight can
be measured using a mass
spectrometer (below).
• The spectrum of chlorine
showing two isotopes is seen on
the right. Abundances can also
be determined this way.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Periodic Table
• The periodic table is a systematic organization of
the elements.
• Elements are arranged in order of atomic number.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Reading the Periodic Table

• Boxes on the periodic table list the atomic number

ABOVE the symbol.
• The atomic weight of an element is listed below
the symbol on the periodic table.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Organization of the Periodic Table

• The rows on the periodic table are called periods.

• Columns are called groups.
• Elements in the same group have similar chemical
properties.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Periodicity

When one looks at the chemical properties of

elements, one notices a repeating pattern of
properties and reactivity.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Groups

These five groups are known by their names.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Periodic Table

• Metals are on the

left side of the
periodic table.
• Some properties of
metals include
– Shiny luster
– Conducting heat
and electricity
– Solids (except
mercury)

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Periodic Table

• Nonmetals are on
the right side of
the periodic table
(they include H).
• They can be solid
(like carbon), liquid
(like bromine), or
gas (like neon) at
room temperature.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Periodic Table

• Elements on the
steplike line are
metalloids (except
Al, Po, and At).
• Their properties
are sometimes like
metals and
sometimes like
nonmetals.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Molecules and Molecular Compounds

Chemical Formulas

• The subscript to the right of

the symbol of an element tells
the number of atoms of that
element in one molecule of
the compound.
• Molecular compounds are
composed of molecules and
almost always contain only
nonmetals. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Diatomic Molecules

• These seven elements occur naturally as

molecules containing two atoms:
– Hydrogen
– Nitrogen
– Oxygen
– Fluorine
– Chlorine
– Bromine
– Iodine
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Types of Formulas

• Empirical formulas give the lowest

whole-number ratio of atoms of each element in a
compound.
• Molecular formulas give the exact number of
atoms of each element in a compound.
• If we know the molecular formula of a compound,
we can determine its empirical formula. The
converse is not true without more information!

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Picturing Molecules

• Structural formulas show the order in which

atoms are attached. They do NOT depict the
three-dimensional shape of molecules.
• Perspective drawings, ball-and-stick
models, and space-filling models show the
three-dimensional order of the atoms in a Atoms,
compound. Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Ions and Ionic Compounds

Ions

• When an atom of a group of atoms loses or gains

electrons, it becomes an ion.
• Cations are formed when at least one electron is lost.
Monatomic cations are formed by metals.
• Anions are formed when at least one electron is
gained. Monatomic anions are formed by nonmetals, Atoms,
Molecules,
except the noble gases. and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Common Cations

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Common Anions

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Polyatomic Ions

• Sometimes a group of atoms will gain or

lose electrons. These are polyatomic ions.
• A polyatomic cation:
– Ammonium ≡ NH4+
• A polyatomic anion:
– Sulfate ≡ SO42–

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Ionic Compounds
• Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally
formed between metals and nonmetals.
• Electrons are transferred from the metal to the
nonmetal. The oppositely charged ions attract
each other. Only empirical formulas are written.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Writing Formulas

• Because compounds are electrically neutral,

one can determine the formula of a compound
this way:
– The charge on the cation becomes the subscript on
the anion.
– The charge on the anion becomes the subscript on
the cation.
– If these subscripts are not in the lowest
whole-number ratio, divide them by the greatest Atoms,
common factor. Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Naming Inorganic Compounds

Chemical Nomenclature

• The system of naming compounds is called

chemical nomenclature.
• We will learn how to name:
1) Ionic compounds
2) Acids
3) Binary Molecular Compounds
4) Simple Organic Compounds
– Alkanes
– Alcohols Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Inorganic Nomenclature

• Write the name of the cation. If the cation can

have more than one possible charge, write the
charge as a Roman numeral in parentheses. If it
is a polyatomic cation, it will end in -ium.
• If the anion is an element, change its ending to
-ide; if the anion is a polyatomic ion, simply
write the name of the polyatomic ion.

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature

• When there are two oxyanions involving the

same element
– the one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite.
– the one with more oxygens ends in -ate.
• NO2− : nitrite; NO3− : nitrate
• SO32− : sulfite; SO42− : sulfate

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature

• Central atoms on the second row have a

bond to, at most, three oxygens; those on the
third row take up to four.
• Charges increase as you go from right to left.
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature

• The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite:

ClO2– is chlorite.
• The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate:
ClO3– is chlorate.
• The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo-
and ends in -ite: ClO– is hypochlorite.
• The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and
ends in -ate: ClO4– is perchlorate. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Acid Nomenclature
• If the anion in the acid
ends in -ide, change the
ending to -ic acid and add
the prefix hydro-.
– HCl: hydrochloric acid
– HBr: hydrobromic acid
– HI: hydroiodic acid

• If the anion ends in -ite, change the ending to -ous acid.

– HClO: hypochlorous acid
– HClO2: chlorous acid
• If the anion ends in -ate, change the ending to -ic acid.
– HClO3: chloric acid
Atoms,
– HClO4: perchloric acid Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Nomenclature of
Binary Molecular Compounds
• The name of the element
farther to the left in the
periodic table (closer to the
metals) or lower in the
same group is usually
written first.
• A prefix is used to denote
the number of atoms of
each element in the
compound (mono- is not
used on the first element
listed, however).
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Nomenclature of Binary Compounds

• The ending on the second element is changed

to -ide.
– CO2: carbon dioxide
– CCl4: carbon tetrachloride
• If the prefix ends with a or o and the name of
the element begins with a vowel, the two
successive vowels are often elided into one.
– N2O5: dinitrogen pentoxide
– CO: carbon monoxide

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Some Simple Organic Compounds

Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds:
Alkanes

• Organic chemistry is the study of carbon.

• Organic chemistry has its own system of nomenclature.
• The simplest hydrocarbons (compounds containing only carbon
and hydrogen) are alkanes.
• The first part of the names just listed correspond to the number
of carbons (meth- = 1, eth- = 2, prop- = 3, etc.).
Atoms,
• It is followed by -ane. Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds:
Alcohols

• When a hydrogen in an alkane is replaced with something

else (a functional group, like –OH in the compounds
above), the name is derived from the name of the alkane.
• The ending denotes the type of compound.
– An alcohol ends in -ol. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds:
Alcohols
• When two or more
molecules have the same
chemical formula, but
different structures, they
are called isomers.
• 1-Propanol and 2- propanol
have the oxygen atom
connected to different
carbon atoms, but both
have the formula C3H8O. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.