CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 69 (2020) 646
667

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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

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Energy efficient machine tools

Dittricha,
Berend Denkena (1)a, Eberhard Abele (1)b, Christian Brecher (1)c, Marc-Andre
d e
Sami Kara (1) , Masahiko Mori (1)
a
Institute of Production Engineering and Machine Tools (IFW), Leibniz University Hannover, Hannover, Germany
b
Institute of Production Management, Technology and Machine Tools (PTW), TU Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany
c
Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering (WZL) of RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
d
Sustainability in Manufacturing & Life Cycle Engineering Research Group, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia
e
DMG Mori Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: The growing global energy demand from industry results in significant ecological and economical costs. Aim-
Available online 31 July 2020 ing to decrease the impact of machining operations, an increasing number of research activities and publica-
tions regarding energy efficient machine tools and machining processes can be found in the literature. This
Keywords: keynote paper provides an overview of current machine- and process-related measures to improve the
Energy efficiency
energy efficiency of metal cutting machine tools. Based on an analysis of the energy requirements of machine
Machine tool
Metal cutting
tool components, design measures to reduce the energy demand of main and support units are introduced.
Next, methods for an energy efficient operation of machine tools are reviewed. Furthermore, latest develop-
ments and already available energy efficiency options in the machine tool industry are discussed. The paper
concludes with recommendations and future research questions for more energy efficient machine tools.
© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of CIRP. This is an open access article under the CC BY
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

1. Introduction An increasing burden on the ecosystem in the form of carbon

emissions, the destruction of natural habitats for raw material extrac-
Worldwide electricity generation mainly relies on the use of fossil tion and global warming are only three of the repercussions of the
fuels. As a result, it accounts for about a quarter of the global green- required energy supply [145]. These effects in combination with an
house gas emissions. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on increasing ecological awareness represent major challenges for the
Climate Change (IPCC), CO2 emissions have to be decreased by industry [46], which accounted for a 38% share of the global electrical
approximately 25% until 2030 and need to reach net zero in 2070 to energy demand in 2018 [103]. Based on various studies, a share of 5
achieve the 2 °C climate goal [108]. This goal, along with the threat- to 10% of this 38% is estimated to be the respective energy demand of
ening scarcity of non-renewable resources for energy generation, is machine tools [183,204]. Furthermore, the German machine tool
in dispute with a seemingly insatiable hunger for energy and low market distribution indicates that 70 to 80% of these machine tools
energy prices. During the last 30 years, the worldwide energy are cutting machine tools [208]. In summary, cutting machine tools
demand has nearly doubled due to globalisation, a growing popula- account for 1 to 3% or 200 to 700 TWh of the global electrical energy
tion and an expanding industry [102,203] (Fig. 1). demand, trends ascending. On average, this corresponds to Ger-
many’s total electrical energy demand in 2016 [205]. In addition to
this, machine tools are often characterised by large energy losses. For
this reason and because of a fairly easy influence of their energy
demand, machine tools are a sensible starting point for energy effi-
ciency measures in the manufacturing industry, even though they
inherit long amortisation periods and high implementing costs.
As indicated by an exemplary study on the production systems
used by an automobile manufacturer, the average power range of
cutting machine tools has increased drastically in the last decades
(Fig. 2) [225]. This development is caused by a growing number of
Fig. 1. Development of the global energy demand based on [203], including all energy installed electronic components since the 1970s to meet the need for
forms generated from petroleum and other liquids, natural gas, coal, as well as nuclear high-performance machine tools. Due to ever-increasing productivity
or renewable sources.
and accuracy requirements, further growth is likely [123,225]. How-
ever, it should not be neglected that an evaluation solely based on
E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Denkena). the power rating is not appropriate. Rather, the actual energy

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2020.05.008
0007-8506/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of CIRP. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
647 B. Denkena et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 69 (2020) 646
667

Fig. 2. Power rating of machine tools based on [225].

efficiency must be evaluated, since an increased power demand

paired with a high cutting performance does not necessarily lead to
efficiency losses. For this purpose, an evaluation basis is required,
which is set out in the beginning of this paper. Based on this evalua-
tion approach, measures to increase the energy efficiency of cutting
machine tools during their life span are presented. The measures are
structured according to two approaches, namely, optimising the Fig. 3. Typical structure of a cutting machine tool based on [59,77,200].
main and support units of the machine tool concerning their energy
requirements, and energy saving through operational efficiency
measures, e.g. by adjusting process parameters. Based on an energy materials, namely retraction pumps, oil mist extraction systems, chip
demand breakdown of typical metal cutting machine tools, critical conveyors, filter systems and heat exchangers.
components with a high energy savings potential are identified. Because of the large variety of machine tool types, different speci-
These units are examined in more detail, followed by an in-depth fications must be taken into account depending on the desired
description and evaluation of specific measures to increase their machining process, e.g. milling, drilling, turning or grinding, work-
energy efficiency. The second part of the paper describes approaches piece spectrum, e.g. size or material, and machining operation. None-
and process strategies for energy efficient operation of machine tools. theless, the individual main and support units are not fundamentally
Since excellent reviews about the manufacturing system level, such different from each other even for distinct machine tool configura-
as the energy efficient production scheduling, already exist, these tions. Therefore, the typical structure of a machine tool from Fig. 3 is
aspects are excluded from this paper. To illustrate the practical signif- applicable in most cases and consequently chosen for this paper.
icance of energy efficiency in industry, an overview of energy effi-
ciency measures that have already been implemented by machine 2.2. Energy efficiency
tool manufacturers follows. In this context, different case studies are
presented to determine the energy savings potential for practical To improve the energy efficiency of a machine tool, the term
production scenarios. The paper concludes with a summary of the energy efficiency has to be defined first. In common linguistic usage,
main findings and gives an outlook for future research. efficiency is defined as the relationship between output and input
[65]. Analogously, several authors have defined energy efficiency and
energy efficiency indicators [46,130,135,188]. The ISO 14955 stan-
2. Definitions dard for the environmental evaluation of machine tools defines
energy efficiency as the “ratio or other quantitative relationship
The evaluation of energy efficiency measures depends strongly on between an output of performance, service, goods or energy, and an
the drawn system boundaries and the definition of energy efficiency input of energy” [109]. This statement is in line with Patterson's defi-
itself. Therefore, system boundaries are defined and a calculation rule for nition from 1996, which fundamentally describes energy efficiency
energy efficiency of machine tools is proposed in the following chapter. for the industrial sector as the relationship between useful process
output and energy input into a process [163].
2.1. System boundaries On the component level, various definitions for energy efficiency
of individual systems are already established, which again deviate
The measures described here relate to cutting machine tools and from the suggested energy efficiency indicator for the entire machine
their main and support units as well as their operation. Upstream tool. For example, the energy efficiency of a motor is the ratio of
and downstream processes such as raw material extraction or recy- mechanical output power to electrical power input, the energy effi-
cling are neglected. Further, only measures that directly influence the ciency indicator for a cooling unit is defined as the ratio of provided
operation are considered. For this reason, mechanical design meas- cooling capacity to electrical power input. On the system level, the
ures such as lightweight construction of machine tool components choice of reference and machining operation has a decisive impact on
are excluded from the scope of the paper. the resulting energy efficiency measures. A consideration of addi-
As can be seen in Fig. 3, the main units include the machine frame tional operating states of the machine tool, such as start up or idle
as well as rotary and feed axes. Machine axes, in turn, consist of drives, mode, introduces additional layers of complexity in determining the
including motors and inverters, guideways and bearings. Apart from energy efficiency. Hence, a well-defined frame of reference is crucial
the main spindle, the drive components usually actuate rotary tables, to achieve an objective assessment of a machine tool’s energy effi-
slides or other auxiliary systems, e.g. for tool or pallet changes. Addi- ciency and to ensure comparability between different machine tools.
tionally, the main components include the performance and informa- Therefore, an assessment standard is developed in the following. Put-
tion controls as part of the machine control system [200]. Support ting Patterson’s definition of energy efficiency into the context of this
units usually include various auxiliary systems to supply all sorts of paper, i.e. applying the definition to metal cutting machine tools, the
media, i.e. coolant, cutting fluid, lubricant, mineral oil or compressed energy input into a process corresponds to the electrical energy
air, to the machine tool. Accordingly, typical auxiliary components are drawn by the machine tool over the course of the machining opera-
the machine cooling, the cutting fluid supply, as well as hydraulic and tion. The electrical energy in turn is the product of the operation time
pneumatic systems. Moreover, support units further cover subsystems and the electrical power demand. Thus, the total power demand PTotal
for the recirculation and preparation of the introduced auxiliary is chosen as input for energy efficiency calculation. The power
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667 648

demand for the cutting movement itself is selected as useful output, is determined by the machine tool’s features, e.g. size, arrangement
which is represented by the spindle power demand PSpindle. In sum- of axes, moving masses and degree of automation. The variable part
mary, this results in the following term for the assessment of the of the overall energy demand, which encompasses all energy
energy efficiency of machine tools: demands that are required for the actual processing of the material,
PSpindle consequently depends on part characteristics, tool features, cutting
hMT ¼ ð1Þ parameters and process cooling strategy [227]. It must be noted that
PTotal
there are interactions and coupling effects between these factors and
As indicated by equation (1), an increase in energy efficiency is that they can have an influence on both fixed and variable energy
achieved by maximising the cutting performance while at the same demand at the same time. For example, Neugebauer et al. showed
time minimising the overall power demand of the machine tool. In that additional and larger support units are required with increased
practice, this means utilising the work spindle’s full power range and workspace size, which ultimately leads to a higher overall energy
selecting process parameters in such a way that the removed chip demand [157]. Consequently, the choice of the machine tool signifi-
volume is maximised. Moreover, the base load and power require- cantly affects the energy demand.
ments of the support units must be reduced. In this regard, a number However, there are other factors which have a (more or less pro-
of measures has been developed by several authors and is presented nounced) impact on the energy requirements of machine tools. For
and evaluated within the framework of this paper. instance, Bittencourt proposes an alternative classification of influ-
At this point, it must be emphasised that optimal operating condi- encing factors into six main categories: machine tool, measurement,
tions are assumed in the evaluation. Primarily, this means a high workpiece material, method of production and control, production
spindle utilisation. However, to meet quality requirements, machine environment and machine operator [30]. In this context, Mert et al.
and process cooling are usually necessary due to inevitable thermal also discussed whether the operator can positively influence the
effects, which in turn reduce efficiency. Depending on the applica- energy efficiency of machine tools through appropriate services, e.g.
tion, an optimum operating point must therefore be identified. training or telephone support [147]. In addition, the operating time
Implemented energy efficiency measures provide only minor of the machine tool naturally influences the energy demand [26].
improvements, when the machine tool is operated inefficiently. Based on shift models, runtimes and load factors, the machine tool
remains in specific energetic states for different periods of time.
3. Energy demand of machine tools Depending on whether small or large series production is considered,
there is also a different distribution of the machine states and conse-
In one of the first studies on energy efficiency of machining, De quently times in different energy states. In both cases, however,
Filippi et al. [81] found that the energy demand of the machining pro- standby concepts can be used for longer production pauses [36].
cess is significantly higher than the required energy for the chip for- Varying process parameters influence not only the energy
mation. According to Zhou et al. [227], the variable part accounts for requirement but also the tool wear and quality of the workpiece.
20 to 30% of the total energy requirement in machining. These find- Here, an optimisation of the process parameters with regard to an
ings are supported by other studies, e.g. [22] or [89]. In addition to energy optimal solution does not always meet the demand for mini-
the need for electrical energy, other media such as compressed air, mum costs [172]. Furthermore, the choice of the cooling strategy has
cold water or cooling lubricant are often required. The exhaust air as a significant influence on the energy requirement, but can also influ-
well as other introduced media must be extracted from the work- ence the workpiece quality, so that it is difficult to make a clear state-
space to be treated and eventually stored for resupply. Depending on ment regarding the advantages of a particular strategy in terms of
the external boundary conditions, the supply with media is central- energy efficiency [97,122]. The optimisation of process parameters in
ised or decentralised in a plant [131]. In the case of a decentralised machining processes has been investigated many times in the past
supply, all support units are within the system boundaries of the and particularly depends on the target variable to be optimised, as
machine tool. Typically, electrical energy and compressed air are the shown in Chapter 6.
most relevant energy inputs [109].
In this section, an overview of factors influencing the energy 3.2. Assessment of the energy demand
demand of machine tools is given. Subsequently, an energy break-
down of machine tool components is presented based on the In most cases, the true energy demand of a machine tool depends not
reviewed literature. Finally, an evaluation of the energy saving poten- only on its specification, but also on the considered application, see Fig. 4.
tials is presented. The power rating of a machine tool consequently offers little information
about its actual energy demand in use. Hence, the quantification of the
3.1. Factors influencing the energy demand true energy demand of machine tools is indispensable for the identifica-
tion and implementation of specific energy efficiency measures in the
A number of factors influence the energy demand of machine industry, as stated in the ISO 14955-1 standard [109,121].
tools, which are summarised in Fig. 4. The fixed energy demand, In principle, a distinction must be made between existing
which includes the energy required for idle running of the machine, machine tools and those to be designed. For systems that do not yet
physically exist, simulative approaches often represent the only
option to estimate the true energy demand in use (see Chapter 6). For
existing machine tools, power measurements are a more reliable
method to determine the actual energy requirements. Although, it is
possible to apply simulation-based approaches for existing machines
to reduce the measuring effort.
The metrological determination of the energy demand requires
specified system boundaries. It may also be necessary to consider
other media that result in relevant energy flows, such as compressed
air, coolant or cutting fluid [109]. Before the actual energy measure-
ments, time studies are required to obtain typical usage scenarios of
machines under consideration and to identify relevant energy states
to be measured [62]. Operating hours, for example, may be deter-
mined by reading of spindle hours, machine data acquisition or
manufacturing execution systems [26]. The ISO 14955-2 standard
provides a set of rules for the correct measurement of energy and
Fig. 4. Factors of energy demand, adapted from [227].
media requirements [110]. In addition to the already existing ISO
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different energy states that exceed the simplified subdivision into

fixed and variable energy demand. Fig. 5 shows an exemplary
power profile of a machine tool in a turning process. The active
power was measured at the main switch from the switch-on time
until the complete shutdown. The measurement results illustrate a
particularly high base load, i.e. the fixed energy demand required
to ensure the operational readiness of the machine, which is typi-
cal for modern machine tools. Additional energy (labelled opera-
tional energy) is required to move the feed axes and rotate the
main spindle as in the case of an air cut. Only a rather small pro-
portion of the introduced energy is used for the actual material
removal process (tool tip energy). In addition, further losses occur
during machining, e.g. in the form of heat as the result of increased
friction and ohmic losses. Notably, a certain amount of time passes
after the switch-off command until all components are inactive
and the power draw of the machine tool drops to zero [136,137].
The fixed and operational energy demand can be determined by
power measurements while performing air cuts. The tool tip
energy, however, is usually determined by calculations based on
the expected cutting forces. The specific energy losses in the
Fig. 5. Power profile of a turning process based on [136,137]. machining process can be estimated by subtracting the previously
determined energy components from the measured total energy,
standards, the ISO 14955-3 is currently under development [111]. It as demonstrated by Li and Kara [136].
aims to assess relevant energetic machine states and the transitions Usually the most relevant states are standby, operational (ready
between them based on individual reference scenarios. Based on for processing) and working (processing), which are the focus of the
energy studies, the measured power profiles (see Fig. 5) can be used following section. In addition, there are also energy transitions such
to determine the actual energy demand and derive suitable energy as powering up or warm up, which, however, account for a smaller
efficiency measures based on the identified energy intensive compo- proportion of the energy demand [109,207]. Nevertheless, the rele-
nents and processes [62,85]. vant energy states vary depending on numerous factors, and different
Nevertheless, there is normally a trade-off between the need for terminologies are used to describe the same energy state, e.g. proc-
detailed data and the associated costs and time to collect it when essing, working or cutting state for the energy state in which machin-
measuring the energy demand of any real system [7,199]. In addition ing takes place [109,207,226].
to measurements and simulations, estimation methods can be With regard to the characteristics of the electrical power
applied to determine the expected energy demand. Beck et al., for demand of machine tools, stationary and non-stationary power pro-
instance, provide a method to quickly and cost-effectively identify files of the various components are distinguished [131]. The addi-
energy efficiency measures for machine tools using technical docu- tion of the components’ power profiles results in the power profile
mentations, historical and future production data as well as expert at the main connection, as shown in Fig. 5. A qualitative representa-
knowledge without having to perform measurements [26]. tion of different power profiles including exemplary machine tool
components is shown in Fig. 6. The oil mist extraction, for example,
has a stationary power demand independent of the machine condi-
3.3. Energy breakdown of machine tool components tion and is permanently active in most cases. Other components
may also show non-stationary power profiles, e.g. a compressor
Machine tools consist of both main units and support units as with a 2-point control. This example shows, that non-stationary
shown in Chapter 2. In addition to the work spindle, main units also behaviour does not necessarily mean a variable energy demand, but
include feed drives, bearings and guideways. Usually, the work spin- can also represent a fixed energy demand. A cutting fluid pump may
dle has the most significant influence on the energy demand [10]. have different power demand levels at different operating points
Support units run permanently to maintain desired machine and pro- and the power profile of a spindle clearly shows the acceleration
cess conditions, i.e. machine temperature and cutting conditions with and deceleration processes [131].
regard to cooling and lubrication in particular. Other secondary func-
tions include chip removal, oil mist extraction, fluid preparation and
distribution as well as providing hydraulic pressure and compressed
air. Due to today’s accuracy requirements, it is not surprising that
support units have a decisive influence on the overall energy demand
of machine tools [38, 96,131,226].
There are several ways to classify the energy demand of machine
tools. Zhou et al., for example, distinguish five different categories for
classification, with each category containing further subcategories
that allow for the complete allocation of a machine tool’s total energy
demand [227]. In addition to the distinction based on the operation
status, energy attribute and main energy consumption components,
a distinction is also made between functional movement and compo-
sition system. The functional movement category considers the vari-
ous motion sequences of a machine tool, e.g. positioning or rotation
of the cutting tool and the workpiece (without tool engagement),
actual cutting kinematics, or auxiliary movements for tool and work-
piece handling. The composition system category refers to the indi-
vidual components and subassemblies of the machine tool, e.g. main
transmission, feed or auxiliary systems.
The energy attribute is regularly subdivided into fixed and vari-
able energy demand. However, machine tools regularly feature Fig. 6. Qualitative power profiles of different machine tool components based on [131].
 B. Denkena et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 69 (2020) 646
667 650

Fig. 7. Average, minimum and maximum fixed energy shares of six reviewed machine
tools based on [137].

Fig. 7 shows the share of fixed energy demand of individual com-

ponents for different machine tools. Two grinding machines, two
lathes and two machining centres with different work spindle config-
uration were examined. The hydraulic, cooling and lubrication sys-
tems in particular account for a high proportion of the overall energy
demand. In addition, the energy shares of individual components
occur in a wide range, which is explained by the individual and
highly varying configuration of machine tools in general.
Fig. 8 illustrates an additional example for the power distribution
of a vertical lathe. The presented data emphasises the relevance of
support units regarding energy requirements as they account for
more than 70% of the overall power demand. Furthermore, the figure
provides the ratio of usable heat to waste heat, whereby the usable
heat is fluid bound and collected in the machine cooling system. The
waste heat, on the other hand, is the heat that is emitted to the envi-
ronment via conduction, convection and radiation. The ratio of usable
to waste heat primarily depends on the provided infrastructure for
waste heat recovery and utilisation rather than the actual machine
tool configuration. For the considered use case, approximately 46% of
the heat losses are repurposed for other processes, e.g. through ther-
mal crosslinking with cleaning machines by using a heat-pump,
when they are dissipated in a fluid bound manner [100,117,118].
In recent years, several research projects have extensively
addressed the energy efficiency of machine tool components and
support units in particular [8,32,53,96,126] as well as the simulation
of the energy demand [3,4,19,80,210]. Fig. 9 shows the total energy
demand as well as the shares of the main and support units for a
selection of investigated machine tools.
Based on these investigations, it can be stated that the support
units most commonly account for a dominant part of the overall
energy demand, although there are variations in the shares of the

Fig. 9. Share of energy demand of main and support units of five considered machine
tools for machining of a reference workpiece based on [4,8,32,53,101].

components. The variations of the overall energy demand and the

energy distribution result from the individual configurations of the
machine tools selected for the respective application. Even though
the main spindle and drives account for more than 30% of the total
energy requirement of the vertical lathe EMAG VSC7, the support
units are still responsible for the majority of the energy demand. It is
shown that machine cooling accounts for the second largest or even
the largest share of the required energy for the considered cases. The
differently configured cutting fluid systems require another consider-
able share of the overall energy input. The case of the vertical
machining centre Deckel Maho DMU 340 P clearly shows that the
Fig. 8. Average electric power demand of a lathe type EMAG VLC 100 Y in machine compressed air supply can also account for a large part of a machine
mode working based on [118]. tool’s total energy demand.
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3.4. Evaluation of energy saving potentials machine and process conditioning, which do not directly contribute
to the value creation. The actual energy requirement and energy dis-
To evaluate potential energy savings on machine tools, an over- tribution of machine tools depend on various factors, e.g. the machine
view of typically occurring energy losses is necessary. Neugebauer et configuration, the type of machining, the process cooling strategy and
al. first distinguish between load-independent and load-dependent the operating parameters. Hence, the identification of a machine
losses, which have to be analysed at a system level [157]. Subse- tool’s true energy characteristics as well as the technical and eco-
quently, a further distinction is made between four loss types: elec- nomic evaluation of potential energy efficiency measures regularly
tric, damping, friction and flow losses. Minimising these losses is of requires time-consuming measurements or simulations. Against the
course beneficial, but offers relatively low energy saving potentials background of the subordinate relevance of energy costs, the wide-
due to the advanced state of development of most machine tool com- spread implementation of energy efficiency measures has not taken
ponents. Beck et al., on the other hand, distinguish a total of eight place so far.
types of energy losses, particularly addressing losses due to idle In principle, energy savings potentials can be attributed to two
machine states, incorrect component dimensioning and inefficient approaches, namely the technological optimisation of individual
technology application [27]. According to their approach, all losses components and the energy efficient process design including the
are dissipated as waste heat and only a minor proportion of the over- demand-oriented supply of media and energy. In the following, the
all energy input is used for the value adding process. main units relevant for value creation are discussed with regard to
In addition to the technically inherent losses of individual compo- their energy efficiency, whereby the work spindle usually has a domi-
nents, typical causes for energy waste in machine tools are oversizing, nant influence on the energy demand. Subsequently, the peripheral
idle times and overproduction, e.g. in the form of excessive pressure support units are discussed, with cooling and lubrication units as
levels in the cutting fluid system [39,87,157,177,214]. Oversizing of well as hydraulics having a decisive influence on the overall energy
main units and especially auxiliary equipment presents the most com- requirements and therefore being focused. After presenting optimisa-
mon reason for poor energy efficiency. Based on unrealistic estimates tion potentials at main and support unit level, Chapter 6 describes the
of the load cases, machine components are usually oversized to ensure energy efficiency potentials resulting from the interaction of these
their functionality. Consequently, the design for an excessively overes- units during the operation of machine tools.
timated load case leads to inefficient operating points for the main and
support units in actual machining processes with significantly lower 4. Main units
loads [27]. Hence, optimising the units’ design and mode of operation
holds a significant potential to increase the overall energy efficiency of The design of the main components depends directly on the
machine tools. Here, the key to high energy efficiency is to provide desired process. Generally, main units include the following compo-
energy and media according to actual process requirements. This solu- nents: drive systems for feed drives and work spindles, mechanical
tion approach can be also applied to the issue of overproduction. How- translation units for indirectly driven systems (e.g. ball screw drives,
ever, the reduction of the machine components’ energy requirements rack and pinion drives as well as toothed belts and gearboxes), bear-
must be achieved without compromising the process stability and ings and guideways. Fig. 7 reveals that the energy demand of servo
machining result [137,161,226]. drives may account for one tenth to nearly one third of a machine
It should also be noted that the efficiency of induction motors tool’s total energy demand, depending on the process. In the first
increases with the power rating, see Fig. 10. Thus, the efficiency of part of this section, efficiency improvement measures for electrical
oversized motors is not inherently worse. However, induction motors motors and inverters are reviewed, some of which also apply to
have their maximum efficiency at a designated operating point. motors for auxiliary equipment. The second part focusses on the
Hence, the efficiency advantage of larger motors decreases with impact of bearings and guideways on the energy efficiency of
increasing distance to the designated point of operation [177]. A machine tools.
needs-based dimensioning may also lead to lower investment costs
[87]. To increase efficiency beyond the needs-based provision of 4.1. Drives and control units
energy and the use of efficient components, the recovery of unavoid-
able waste heat can further increase the overall efficiency of compo- Main electrical drives create linear and rotational movements of
nents and entire machine tools [117]. tools and workpieces. Therefore, the components are directly depen-
dent on the processing power. For processes with high processing
power requirements, the efficiency of main drives has a significant
impact on the total energy efficiency of the machine tool. For the gen-
eral optimisation of the efficiency of motors, including feed drives
and main spindle drives, efficiency classes and their test procedures
have been defined in the standards IEC 60034-30-1:2014 [104] and
IEC 60034-2-1 [105]. These standards prescribe specific efficiency
values for the electrical and mechanical power, see Fig. 10, and com-
bine older national standards such as EFF classes and NEMA stand-
ards. Based on these standards, several governments, including all
members of the European Union, stipulate several minimum effi-
ciency classes for specific applications. For example, the European
Commission prescribes the use of at least IE 3 motors for midrange
power applications without inverters (0.75 to 375 kW, except pole
changing motors, motors for special thermal conditions or motors
with more than 8 poles) in the regulation no. 640/2009 [79]. A further
Fig. 10. Efficiency classes for electro-mechanical drives (derived from IEC 60034-30- increase over the IE 4 class of the efficiency requirements for new
1:2014 [104]).
motors can lead to a decline of induction motors in machine tool
applications due to their limited efficiency [14,84,212]. These motors
3.5. Interim conclusion are often used for work spindle drives and auxiliary systems. Alterna-
tives that are more efficient are synchronous reluctance motors or
Most notably, it can be stated that the energy demand of machine synchronous motors. Technical requirements and energy models for
tools is significantly higher than the energy required for the actual the design of drive systems containing motors and inverters or alter-
value-adding chip removal process. The primary reasons for this are native systems, such as soft starters, are defined in the standards EN
losses within the machine tool and the use of auxiliary units for 50598 [60] and EN 61800-9-1 VDE 0160-109-1:2018-1 [61]. In
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667 652

contrast to the previous standards, the main idea is to also consider

mutual effects between motors and inverters such as time harmonics
in drive systems. In this context, possible generic improvements can
be separated into software- and hardware-based changes.
Software-based changes mainly consist of changes in the motor
control. By minimising the pulse width modulation (PWM) frequency
and, thus, reducing the charging and discharging effects in the semi-
conductor switches, the power losses can be decreased. Because of
the high bandwidth requirements of motor controls in machine tools,
a possible approach is to adapt the PWM frequency to the expected
load [146,220]. Another approach is to reduce the main flux of induc-
tion motors dependent on the expected load [11,32,124]. Other
approaches include changing the PWM pattern [128] or finding a
trade-off between control bandwidth, permissible vibrations and
energy efficiency [109]. Consideration of reluctance effects of syn-
chronous motors with two inductances is the state of the art. There-
Fig. 11. Efficiency diagram of an exemplary 25 kW spindle induction motor (calculated
fore, further research needs to be carried out for a more efficient
by the WZL).
torque ripple control by use of non-linear control techniques [50].
Hardware-based changes for motors contain approaches to han-
dle the trade-off between reduced torque ripple for large dynamic lower thermal dissipation of a more efficient motor also decreases
systems, cost of production and small power losses. Concentrated the cooling demand, which further reduces overall energy require-
windings often have a lower copper resistance than distributed ments [6]. An analysis of the spindle market has shown a trend to
windings, but they also cause a higher cogging torque [29]. A similar higher spindle power and speed to increase the productivity of
effect can also be observed in skewing of the rotor and stator [49]. machining centres [193], which contradicts the reduction of energy
The main reason is the high cost for rare earth permanent magnets losses in the main spindles. Fig. 11 shows the characteristic efficiency
that reduces the number of used synchronous motors in production diagram of an induction motor and clearly illustrates the limited
machines, hence resulting in lower energy efficiency [129]. To range for energy efficient operation. With induction and synchronous
decrease inverter losses, research focuses on improving circuits to motors, a high energy efficiency can be achieved for high loads and
reduce switching losses, such as resonant circuits [223], as well as on rotational speeds. However, the energy efficiency drops drastically
the optimisation of semiconductor switches. By filtering the PWM for small torques and low speeds. Despite a broader range of process-
excitation as well as time harmonics, iron losses can be reduced in ing procedures, an energy optimal design would require that the
the motor [196]. An alternative concept to filters is to use multi-level motor is utilised near the rated operating point [201]. It also includes
converters [190,192]. a specific limit for speed, maximum inertia and stiffness. A compari-
Another approach to increase the energy efficiency of electro- son between two main spindle designs for a milling process is pro-
mechanical drives is the use of a recuperation system. Recovery sys- vided in [2]. A detailed model to evaluate the load losses of a spindle
tems for braking energy are state of the art for larger drive systems is developed in [100].
[64]. But for smaller drives (typically low kilowatt range), the braking Software-based changes for main spindle drives can be separated
energy is usually dissipated through braking resistances, as these are into the two categories of control system and operation. For optimis-
cheaper to produce. Different suppliers also offer the possibility to ing the control system, a look ahead algorithm is developed in [99],
increase the capacity of the capacitors of the DC intermediate circuit that controls the main flux of the induction motors in main spindle
and have a large tolerance of the DC voltage. This method reduces drives. By reducing the main flux, a higher torque-producing current
the usage of braking resistances [179]. To reduce the space for control must flow for the same torque, which weakens the controllability on
cabinets, several companies offer decentral inverters, which are the one hand, but also reduces the electrical losses of the induction
directly connected to the motor. Since it needs its own DC intermedi- motor for small loads on the other hand. Dependent on the expected
ate circuit including a rectifier, it can decrease the energy efficiency load (estimated via expected cutting forces), the flux is increased or
compared to a multi-axes inverter system. decreased respectively. Due to the inductive behaviour of induction
motors, the flux can only be increased very slowly. The study also
4.1.1. Main spindle drives investigates the reduction of the PWM frequency. The energy loss
The work spindles drive tools as well as workpieces and signifi- during operation can be optimised by increasing the productivity of
cantly influence the added value production due to their proximity to the machine. It includes a short run-up phase of the spindle to accel-
the cutting process. Typical design variants of main spindle drives are erate and decelerate the spindle rotor as little as possible [140]. In
integrated motor spindles (motor on tool clamp), indirectly driven principle, it is advised to operate the spindle only as short as possible,
spindles (via belt drive or gearbox between motor and spindle) or which includes synchronising spindle acceleration and deceleration
hybrid spindles (a combination of both). Integrated motor spindles with rapid speed stages of feed drives [73,152]. The identification of
are mostly used due to their high stiffness. In comparison to indi- optimal cutting parameters and operational parameters for work
rectly driven spindles, they have no gears or belt drives, which cre- spindles is discussed in Chapter 6.
ates a high demand for cooling capacity for high torque applications.
In particular, the axial displacement due to thermal effects has to be 4.1.2. Feed drives
limited to minimise tolerance deviations on the workpiece. An indi- Compared to the energy intensive auxiliary components, such as
rectly driven spindle is thermally better separated from the process; the cooling system or hydraulic unit, and the work spindle, individual
however, the limited mechanical efficiency of the gearbox reduces feed drives have a rather low electrical energy requirement [227].
the spindle’s overall efficiency even further [181]. Statistics in [10] Nevertheless, feed drives play an essential role in energy efficiency
reveal that most spindle motors are induction motors followed by because of their extensive use in automated production machines
synchronous motors. As described above, the high requirements of and their proximity to the process. This is because of their ability to
the energy efficiency classes will lead to the replacement of induction determine how fast a specific process can be run and how many set-
motors by more efficient motors in the long run. A study is done in tings are needed for each process. Machines which combine several
[9,193] to test synchronous reluctance motors with and without per- processes due to their structure of feed drives can decrease the idle-
manent magnets to find alternatives to the more expensive synchro- running time and, thus, the machine’s energy demand (see the inves-
nous motor. Both fulfil the requirements of IE 4, but both also have a tigation for turning and milling machines in [150]). In [107], it was
higher torque ripple and require more complex inverter systems. The discovered, that a double spindle system can reduce the required
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energy by up to 80% when compared to the use of two individual

machines. Lightweight construction measures for movable compo-
nents such as slides and work tables further help to decrease the
energy demand of feed drives [184, 202].
The efficiency of feed drives in milling, grinding and turning
machines also depends very much on the drive system structure. For
instance, gantry or master-slave systems usually create a certain
force between their components, increasing the idle current flow of
all operating motors and, thus, their losses. A hybrid concept consist-
ing of linear motor and ball screw drive is developed in [162]. An
energy efficient linear motor creates the rapid speed movements and
increases the dynamic ability of the system, while the ball-screw
drive supports the high forces. Hence, the force of the linear motor
and the torque of the motor from the ball screw drive are kept small,
which further reduces the losses and the necessary cooling of the lin-
ear motor. Fig. 12. Proportional energy losses in an investigated motor spindle for different oper-
Because the peak power of machine tools and the highest energy ational conditions [198].
demand of feed drives occurs during rapid movements, a trade-off
has to be made between maximum productivity and efficiency of the bearings must be preloaded, which, in turn, increases friction [37].
feed drives. High acceleration and velocity of feed drives create high Higher rotational speeds result in higher relative velocities in the
torque-producing currents, which result in increased copper losses. lubrication film and higher friction. These influencing factors show
However, as described in Section 4.1.1, the efficiency of the whole that the spindle bearings in machine tools have limited applications
machine tool can be increased by increasing the productivity (e.g. towards achieving energy efficiency. The frictional behaviour can be
reducing rapid movements, optimising the tool path, minimising tool improved by lubrication, by appropriate bearing selection and
changes) [93,165]. Due to the high energy demand of auxiliary sys- arrangement and by an optimisation of the contact geometry
tems and the comparatively small energy requirements of drive sys- [35,178]. To reach higher speeds, the use of oil-air-lubrication for the
tems, the application of high feed rates and acceleration in cutting bearings is widespread. This approach requires an additional air pres-
operations has the potential to increase the overall energy efficiency sure system, which in return increases the energy demand. The
of the production system [158]. Further improvements can be amount of oil plays an important role: Too much oil results in high
achieved by changing the interpolator and control. In [91], the equiv- splash losses and too little oil leads to an insufficient lubrication film,
ocalness of the different axes of a parallel kinematic is used to find high friction and wear [186]. In addition, the incoming air dissipates
specific paths of movements of the axes that create the lowest energy the resulting heat. For lower requirements on the rotational speed,
demand. Laptev et al. propose a non-linear control technique grease lubrication can be used. In this case, there are no further sup-
approach (sliding mode control) for the current control of feed drives ply systems for the lubrication necessary, which leads to a lower
[133]. Advantageous is that the non-linear behaviour of the pulse energy demand.
width modulation can be controlled more efficiently. In some operat- In the past, hydrostatic bearings were also used as shaft bearings
ing points, active power can be decreased by more than 30%. for spindles. The advantages of this bearing type are lower friction,
higher running accuracy and stiffness, as well as no risk for stick-slip
4.2. Bearing principles effects. Because of the high manufacturing effort and high energy
demand of the additional hydraulic system, this technology has not
Bearings and guideways transmit forces and guide rotational and been used in the field of conventional machine tools [42]. In ultra-
linear movements. Today, these components are usually equipped precision machining, e.g. for the manufacturing of fuel cell compo-
with rolling elements. Basic requirements are high accuracy and stiff- nents or metal components for mobile phones, aerostatic bearings
ness, as well as minimum friction, excellent heat transfer, damping are widely used [74]. In comparison to hydrostatic bearings, this
characteristics and protection against wear [15]. Regarding energy bearing type has an even higher running accuracy as well as a lower
efficiency, it is essential to minimise the friction losses by an appro- friction and heat generation. As a result, permissible speeds can reach
priate bearing design and sufficient lubrication. In other approaches, up to 100,000 rpm. Similar to hydrostatic bearings, the manufactur-
energy efficiency is characterised by thermal losses [144]. The occur- ing costs are high and the additional air pressure system involves an
ring losses in the bearings strongly depend on the operational condi- increased energy demand [42].
tions [93]. Due to their very low frictional torque and high running accu-
The work spindle bearings dissipate much energy mainly due to racy, electromagnetic bearings are also suitable for high rotational
high friction between the rolling elements and the inner and outer ring speeds. The load-carrying capacity is achieved through electromag-
caused by high rotational speeds and loads. The proportional energy netic forces, which are created through an electromagnetic field
losses due to friction in the bearings for different operational conditions between the rotor and the stator of the bearing and adjusted by a
of a motor spindle are presented in Fig. 12. With increasing rotational control unit. By guiding the rotor on certain eccentric tracks to a
speeds, the motor power and the friction losses usually rise [198]. degree, imbalances can be compensated by the active bearing. In
Jedrzejewski modelled energy losses in spindle bearings based on a contrast to aerostatic bearings, the air gaps in electromagnetic bear-
holistic approach [114]. He divided the losses into independent factors ings are relatively large with up to 0.5 mm, which reduces the
such as speed and preload and dependent factors such as oil viscosity, manufacturing effort. On the other hand, the use of active compo-
deformation and heat output. He found that the power losses in the nents, i.e. electromagnets, sensor systems, control and power elec-
spindle bearings in a rigid arrangement are significantly affected by tronics, results in relatively high energy requirements. The actual
the length and the material of the spacer [115]. With a new lubrication energy demand depends on the size and electrical design of the
injection system for the inner ring, much higher speeds can be reached electromagnets, as well as the used current amplifier technology.
in comparison to the usual oil-air lubrication [13]. The state of the art However, the power draw of electromagnetic bearings and guides is
of energy efficient spindle bearings shows that the improvement of usually independent from rotational speed or feed rate. Further-
their frictional behaviour is a significant objective. more, the base load of the active system, e.g. the required energy to
The design of the bearing is usually based on the friction torque. enable levitation or provide a bias current to create a preload, is
With increasing load, the contact surface and normal forces increase, usually significantly higher than the expected load resulting from
which leads to a higher elastic deformation and higher friction. To the process. Due to these characteristics, electromagnetic bearings
achieve an even load distribution and increased stiffness, spindle are more suitable for high speed cutting in machine tools [42].
 B. Denkena et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 69 (2020) 646
667 654

Fig. 15. Structure of a ball screw drive [155].

Fig. 13. Proportion of the shifting force in a four-row ball circulation unit (type: KUVE
25 B) [75]. operational condition [168,215]. Naturally, the efficiency decreases
with increased preload due to friction losses [209].
Regarding the friction behaviour in spindle bearings and linear
Overall, the additional supply systems are one of the main reasons guides, there is already vast knowledge about modelling and optimi-
for the low energy efficiency of the alternative bearing principles in sation of their operational behaviour. Nevertheless, considering the
comparison to ball or roller type spindle bearings. As a result, they steadily increasing requirements for the performance of the machine
are rarely employed in machine tools in comparison to conventional components, the improvement of these friction characteristics is
spindle bearings. ongoing research.
Linear guideways enable translational feed motion during the
manufacturing of components. Rolling elements are usually applied 4.3. Interim conclusion
with high loads and much lower rotational speeds in comparison to
work spindle bearings. In [198] it is stated that the axis drive Even though support units often dominate the energy requirements
accounts for approximately 19% of the total energy demand of the of machine tools, work spindles and feed drives regularly account for a
machine tool. The composition of the shifting force for a linear guide considerable portion of the overall energy demand (see Fig. 9). Although
of the type KUVE 25 B is given in Fig. 13. The diagram shows that the it is generally possible to reduce the weight of movable machine tool
lubricant (37%) and the seals (41%) have the biggest influence on the components through topology optimisation and lightweight materials
friction behaviour of the guide. in order to reduce the energy demand for acceleration and deceleration
Ispaylar stated that besides the friction in the rolling contact [149], design measures concerning the structural components of
point, the friction in the deflectors and inlet zone has to be consid- machine tools are excluded at this point. This is justified by the fact, that
ered. The friction in the wipers in particular, which makes up the expected gains in terms of energy efficiency are rather small when
approximately 50% of the overall friction in the guideway, is the pri- feasible weight savings and common energy shares of the feed drive
mary influence on the losses [112]. Kunc developed a parameterised system are considered (see Section 3.3). A generally valid approach to
friction model. With the friction force Ffric(v,L) measured from four increase the energy efficiency of machine tools is to reduce the operat-
loaded cases referenced to an unloaded case, a speed-dependent ing time by increasing the machining speed, which in turn requires
load factor characteristic can be estimated, which is presented in increased drive and bearing performance. However, in this case a high
Fig. 14 [40]. Consequently, an increased preload also results in energy efficiency of the entire machine tool can only be ensured if
increased friction losses. With regard to stick-slip effects, this influ- energy intensive components are completely switched off when not in
ence has also been validated by Rahmani et al. [171]. Furthermore, use, see Chapter 6. Fig. 16 provides an overview of the most important
Denkena et al. developed and verified a jerk-decoupled feed axis energy efficiency measures for individual main units; Table 1 summa-
model with spring-damper-elements [58]. With an energy-opti- rises relevant literature on the energy efficient design of main units for
mised dimensioning, the energy losses related to the jerk influence machine tools.
can be minimised by up to 50% [98]. Electrical drives typically have a high degree of efficiency. Hence,
Besides linear direct drives, feed drives can also be constructed the efficiency optimisation of servo drives offers only low savings
with ball screws, which transfer rotary motion to linear motion. Ball
screw drives consist of a spindle, rolling elements, a nut and a ball
return system, as well as sealing elements as shown in Fig. 15. They
have a high efficiency which can reach up to 95% depending on the

Fig. 14. Approximation and measurement of the velocity- and load-dependent friction
Fig. 16. Most relevent energy efficiency measure for machine tool main units.
characteristic for a linear guide [40].
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667

Table 1 losses and integrating components with an extended thermal operat-

References for energy efficiency main units ing range, see Chapter 4.
Main unit Source

Drives in general [11,14,32,84,104,105,124,212] 5.1.1. Hot gas bypass and compressor cooling units
Work spindle [2,6,9,99,140,193] Modern cooling systems consist of a dual circuit as depicted in
Feed drives [15,135,162,184] Fig. 17 [53]. Tempered water is conveyed through the machine tool;
Spindle bearings [35,93,144,186]
Alternative bearing principles [42,74]
the thermal energy of the return flow is transferred to a separate
Linear guides [40,58,75,98,112,198] refrigerant circuit using an evaporator. The gaseous refrigerant is then
Ball screws [168,215] compressed and condensed, thus, withdrawing thermal energy from
the refrigeration circuit. To prevent a temperature drop below a speci-
fied lower limit, a hot gas bypass valve reroutes the refrigerant directly
to the compressor, leading to a highly unfavourable energetic state.
potential. Instead, the appropriate selection of more efficient motor
A standard measure to improve the cooling system’s energy effi-
types represents a promising approach. Moreover, the list of effective
ciency is to install a clocked compressor, which can be switched off,
measures includes software-based changes, such as adjustments of
when not in use [33]. Typically, a 2-point controller is used to switch
the interpolator or PWM preferences and load-dependent adaptation
the compressor on and off as soon as the coolant temperature reaches
of the control parameters.
specified limits. This approach reduces the compressor’s operating
Ball bearings represent the state of the art in conventional
time and increases the energy efficiency compared to continuous
machine tools. Alternative bearing principles are only used in specific
operation with a hot gas bypass. However, the use of clocked com-
applications where their benefits outweigh the additional expenses.
pressors also has noteworthy limitations: The 2-point control inevita-
With ball bearings, a trade-off between the target parameters of
bly leads to temperature fluctuations of the coolant, which, in turn,
applicable feed velocity, achievable precision and resulting friction
affects the thermal errors of the cooled components. Narrow temper-
force (which directly correlates with the energy efficiency) has to be
ature windows and short on/off intervals help to reduce the tempera-
considered. Again, a demand-oriented adaptation of the preload
ture fluctuations; however, frequent switching may affect the
allows for both increased performance and energy efficiency.
compressor’s maintenance intervals and durability.
Mori et al. proposed an on/off control scheme for hot gas bypass
5. Support units
cooling units with fixed switching intervals and investigated the trade-
off between energy efficiency and thermally induced displacement
Usually the support and auxiliary units dominate the overall
[151]. For the proposed approach, the compressor was set to an operat-
energy demand of modern machine tools, see Chapter 3. In terms of
ing point with maximum efficiency in the on state. The results of the
energy efficiency, this represents an undesirable situation, since sup-
experimental investigation show that the energy demand of the cooling
port units do not directly contribute to the value adding process. Nev-
unit was reduced by 25% compared to a state-of-the-art cooling unit
ertheless, they are indispensable to put the machine tool into an
with PID temperature control and hot gas bypass. At the same time, a
operational state. Naturally, reducing the support units’ energy
TCP displacement of 3 mm was measured. Regarding the heat genera-
demand presents a practical approach to increase the overall energy
tion of the coolant pump, an advanced approach included a complete
efficiency of machine tools. However, an essential prerequisite is that
pump cut-off. Here, the cooling unit’s energy demand was reduced by
the implemented energy efficiency measures do not affect process
75% while a TCP displacement of up to 5 mm was measured.
stability and machining results.
Another effective approach to increase the energy efficiency of
The following section describes the main findings and relevant
cooling units is the use of variable speed compressors. Frequency
measures concerning the energy efficient design of machine tool sup-
inverter controlled compressors allow for the specific adjustment of
port units. The subsections address the components that account for
the cooling capacity. As indicated by Mori et al., the efficiency of fre-
the most significant shares of the total energy requirement, i.e.
quency inverter-controlled compressors deteriorates for low cooling
machine cooling, cutting fluid supply, and hydraulic system. Another
capacities [151]. Nevertheless, the modulation of the cooling capacity
subsection outlines further measures concerning support units with
with a variable speed compressor provides the possibility to
a smaller, but not negligible, impact on the total energy demand.
completely eliminate the hot gas bypass. This solution involves fur-
ther investment for frequency inverters and compatible compressors
5.1. Cooling systems
but also yields a significant saving potential of up to 70% [33].
Otherwise, scroll compressors can be used to control the cooling
The main task of cooling systems in machine tools is to dissipate
capacity without a hot gas bypass [8,33,116]. These compressors con-
the generated heat and, thus, to control the temperature of various
sist of two interleaving spirals (Fig. 18). In operation, one spiral follows
components which determine the dimensional quality of the
an eccentric circular path, thus, gradually pumping, compressing and
machined workpiece, e.g. spindles and feed drives, bearings and
pressurising the enclosed medium over a single rotation as shown in
guideways, machine frame and other structural elements as well as
the lower part of Fig. 18.
cutting and hydraulic fluids. Likewise, the machine’s control cabinet,
As a design variant of the conventional scroll compressor, digital
which contains control and power electronics, requires cooling. The
scroll compressors allow for a pressure modulation from 10 to 100%
reliable operation of the cooling system is therefore crucial for main-
taining the required machine tool performance, since local heat
build-up may cause thermally induced displacement of structural
components and may ultimately affect the functionality of sensitive
units or even damage them permanently [144].
In many cases, the cooling system accounts for the most signifi-
cant amount of a machine tool’s electrical energy demand. The refrig-
eration compressor often dominates the energy requirements, fluid
pumps and condenser fans regularly require a lesser amount of elec-
trical energy [33]. Possible approaches to increase the energy effi-
ciency of the cooling systems include the optimisation of individual
components, such as pumps and compressors, and the overall circuit
design. Here, many approaches aim at a need-based design and oper-
ation of the cooling system. Other (indirect) approaches focus on
Fig. 17. Typical compression cooling system with hot gas bypass [101].
reducing the load on the cooling system, e.g. by minimising thermal
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667 656

Regel et al. also used an air cooling system to investigate a novel

method for the evaluation of cooling measures for energy efficient
machine tools [175]. A high-performance concrete frame equipped
with a linear axis, an air cooling unit and several coolant circuits to
cool down individual components was used as a test bench. Based on
a referenced system model, a sensitivity analysis regarding the
thermo-energetic efficiency was performed. As a result, the impact of
cooling measures and control parameters on the temperature distri-
bution of the test bench was identified. Accordingly, the investigated
method enables practical design of demand-oriented and energy effi-
cient air cooling systems for machine tools.

5.1.3. Cold water admixture

The addition of cold water is another possibility to control the tem-
perature of machine tools without a separate refrigerant system [8]. To
adjust the temperature of the coolant, fluid is taken from the storage
tank, cooled down to a defined temperature using a compressor, then
Fig. 18. Setup and operating principle of scroll compressors [206]. returned to the tank and mixed with stored coolant. The approach
requires a large tank, where the cold water and return flow from the
machine tool are mixed to achieve the desired temperature. Eventu-
ally, the system requires some time after start-up to cool down the
[33]. This is achieved through a temporary separation of the two spi- tank volume. Afterwards, it works efficiently for small loads.
rals by approximately 1 mm, which results in a pressure equalisation
between the intake and discharge side. Pressure build-up is not pos-
sible in this load-free state; thus, the energy demand drops to idle 5.2. Cutting fluid supply systems
level. The ratio between regular compression and load-free operation
over a rotation cycle of the moving spiral determines the degree of Cutting fluids, also known as metalworking fluids or cooling lubri-
modulation. Advantages of this technology include a reduced number cants, perform various essential tasks during the machining process to
of moving parts, a constant actuator speed resulting in continuous ensure workpiece quality, to reduce tool wear and to increase process
refrigerant circulation and less electromagnetic interference, and pre- productivity [21,43,44]. Primary tasks include cooling and lubrication
cise temperature control. Brecher et al. investigated an optimised dig- of the contact zone as well as chip transport and breaking (chip con-
ital scroll compressor in comparison to a state-of-the-art hot gas trol). However, the use of cutting fluids entails considerable economic
bypass cooler and demonstrated saving potentials between 20% and ecological costs [52]. The economic costs cover the costs of the
(spindle under full load) and 62% (machine in idle mode) [33]. More- procurement, processing and disposal as well as the electrical energy
over, the thermally induced displacement of the tool centre point for pumps and preparation equipment, e.g. filter systems. The ecologi-
was reduced from 40 to 30 mm. cal costs are often associated with the environmentally harmful com-
position of the fluid, which results in health risks for the machine
operator and environmental damage in the event of improper disposal
5.1.2. Air cooling units
[21]. Despite significant progress in the field of minimum quantity
Air cooling units present an energy efficient alternative to com-
lubrication and (near) dry machining [216], the use of conventional
pressor systems. With this cost-effective approach, a large passive
cutting fluids is still inevitable for a wide range of machining opera-
heat exchanger with a variable speed fan fully substitutes the refrig-
tions. At the same time, it has a considerable impact on the overall
erant circuit (see Fig. 19 on the left) [53,217]. The cooling capacity is
energy demand of machine tools [122,143].
adjusted via the fan speed and allows for a variety of set-point varia-
The cutting fluid supply system is usually designed as a circulation
bles, e.g. the temperature of a specific machine component or the
system and consists of supply, recirculation and conditioning. Fig. 20
ambient temperature (see Fig. 19 on the right).
illustrates these three stages as well as their distinct components,
Since air cooling systems cannot achieve fluid temperatures below
which allow for an individual energetic optimisation. The following
the ambient level, their use in the machine tool industry has been
subsections provide an overview of energy efficiency measures for
neglected so far. However, Denkena and Hu € lsemeyer investigated an
practically relevant design variants of cutting fluid systems. In partic-
air cooling system and demonstrated a reliable operation for usual
ular, the various pumps within the cutting fluid circuit as well as the
ambient temperatures in production environments [56,101]. Initial
cooling systems account for a large share of the electrical energy
results indicate a saving potential of up to 70%. Moreover, no negative
demand [143]. Regarding the temperature control of cutting fluids,
impact on the machine tool accuracy, i.e. the displacement of the tool
the results from Section 5.1 can be applied. Moreover, the deliberate
centre point, was detected for the investigated load cycle despite an
supply of cutting fluid through directed nozzles or tool-integrated
increased temperature of the cooling fluid.
channels enables vastly improved cooling of the cutting zone, which
is an essential requirement for increasing the cutting performance
without sacrificing process stability or machining quality, as pro-
posed in Chapter 4. Alternatives to common cutting fluid supply con-
cepts rather concern the process design and the operation of the
machine tool, and are therefore addressed in Chapter 6.

Fig. 20. Stages of the cutting fluid circuit.

Fig. 19. Setup and temperature control of a variable speed air cooling system [101].
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5.2.1. Low-pressure cutting fluid supply

The most common concept is to flood the area of chip formation
with cutting fluid. Depending on the machining situation, nozzles are
used to ensure directional supply [95]. However, the cutting fluid
usually flows uncontrollably into the contact zone. Optimising the
efficiency and effectiveness of the cutting fluid supply is particularly
important for grinding processes due to the high amount of friction
and heat generation compared to processes utilising geometrically
defined cutting edges, like milling or turning. Hence, Madanchi et al.
investigated the effects of nozzle design and alignment in grinding
processes and identified a significant impact of the regarded variables
(nozzle type, design, and position) on the energy efficiency of the cut-
ting fluid supply [142].
Due to the consistent flow resistance of the supply lines and noz-
zles, low-pressure pumps operating at constant speed are used to con-
vey the cutting fluid. In this case, appropriate dimensioning of the
pump power is crucial for high efficiency. The design of the machine Fig. 21. Pump characteristics and power demand for a machine tool with various cut-
tool’s cutting fluid circuit usually follows a fairly practical approach. It ting tools [56].
is currently not known whether optimisation approaches concerning
pipe diameters, cross-section changes and deflection elements are
applied to increase the energy efficiency of the machine tools’ fluidic pressure), which allows for a drastic reduction of the energy demand
systems. However, small bore diameters and, thus, large flow resis- while maintaining the technological benefits of the internal high-
tance are found on coolant nozzles and tools with internal cooling. pressure cutting fluid supply.
Hence, these components present the most sensible starting point for
further optimisation. But even if an appropriate pump and circuit
design is possible for low-pressure systems, further savings potential
remains relatively low. This is because the cutting fluid supply as well 5.2.3. Recirculation and conditioning of cutting fluids
as other auxiliary pump systems, e.g. lifting pumps for fluid recircula- After application in the workspace, the cutting fluid must be
tion, are activated by NC commands or float switches [32], which removed from a machine tool for filtering and often also for tempera-
already represents a demand-oriented and thus efficient approach. ture control. The cutting fluid is usually drained into a basin under-
Extending demand-oriented control concepts to other auxiliary pump neath the machine tool and then transported to the treatment stage
system, such as bed flushing, provides further energy saving potential. using lifting pumps. Since the cutting fluid is dispersed in the air dur-
ing the machining process, especially when using high-pressure sup-
plies, it is necessary to remove the airborne lubricant drops from the
5.2.2. Internal high-pressure cutting fluid supply workspace. Oil mist extraction systems consisting of suction units
Naturally, the power rating of fluid pumps increases with higher and oil mist separators are used for this purpose.
pressures and flow rates. Nevertheless, the use of an internal high- To ensure energy efficient recirculation of the cutting fluid, the
pressure cutting fluid supply offers high potential for increasing the findings from Section 5.2.1 can be applied, meaning that appropriate
overall energy efficiency due to considerably improved process sta- dimensioning of the pump power according to real process require-
bility and productivity [20,56,57,119,125,127,174,182]. In particular, ments is a key factor. Apart from that, the lifting pumps are usually
the investigations of Sangermann provide an in-depth look at the controlled by float switches, which present a simple but effective
technological cause-effect relationships for machining operations solution for demand-oriented operation. Here, it can be beneficial to
with internal high-pressure cutting fluid supply [182]. use large basin capacities for long switching intervals to prevent fre-
High-pressure pumps for the internal cutting fluid supply regu- quent start-ups. Looking at oil mist extraction systems, oversizing is
larly provide pressure levels of 80 to 100 bar; in some cases, up to a common reason for poor energy efficiency. Need-based dimension-
300 bar can be achieved. The energy efficient operation of these ing of the suction system and adaptive control of the suction power
high-pressure coolant pumps in combination with different tools via frequency inverters present reasonable solutions [53]. The control
requires the option to adapt the hydraulic power to varying flow of the suction power based on the actual cabin air contamination
resistances. For a constant speed pump, this can be achieved with a presents a highly promising concept as studies by Denkena et al. con-
bypass valve for pressure relief in case of an increased flow resis- cerning dust extraction for machining of carbon fibre reinforced plas-
tance. However, this solution leads to poor energy efficiency. A more tic imply [54,55]. The proposed solution includes design
promising approach is the demand-oriented control of the pump considerations for strategically placed suction boxes and sensor-
power via frequency inverters [32]. The use of different tools with based control concepts for a demand-oriented and energy efficient
individual flow resistances results in specific system characteristics dust removal from the machine workspace. Preliminary studies dem-
of variable speed pumps. Hence, adjusting the pumps’ operating onstrated a savings potential of up to 72% by reducing the operating
point for individual tools yields a substantial energy efficiency poten- time and suction power of the extraction system. It can be assumed
tial, as depicted in Fig. 21. Since this approach ultimately aims at the that this concept can be transferred to the oil mist extraction system
modification of the machine tool’s control system, it is discussed in as well. However, this approach has not yet been investigated for the
more detail in Section 6.3. extraction of airborne cutting fluid particles.
In summary, the use of internal high-pressure cutting fluid supply Conditioning of the cutting fluid includes filtering and tempera-
can increase the overall energy efficiency of machine tools
as long ture control. For the latter, the findings from Section 5.1 apply. The
as the technology allows for increased material removal rates, which removal of contaminants, such as metal particles and oils, is carried
compensate the temporarily increased energy input during machin- out by filter systems and oil skimmers respectively. In machine tool
ing for an improved energy budget. This condition must be assessed applications, belt filters are commonly used for cleaning the cutting
individually since certain use cases may benefit from the application fluid [197,214]. Depending on particle size and specifications for
of high-pressure cooling concerning tool life and process stability but residual contamination, different variants of belt filter are applied
still suffer from lower energy efficiency [69]. Furthermore, there are [164]. Again, fluid pumps account for the largest share of the electri-
still significant potentials regarding the demand-oriented adjustment cal energy demand and demand-oriented design and control strate-
of the cutting fluid supply parameters (i.e. flow rate and supply gies present evident energy efficiency measures.
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Precoat filters present a technological alternative to belt filters but energy efficiency, they provide a sensible solution for applications
require a consistent flow rate for effective operation. Raha €user et al. with high hydraulic power demand [101].
point out current deficits in state-of-the-art filter plants and present a Since machine tools are commonly complex systems, the setup of
retrofit for a demand-based flow rate control in precoat filter systems hydraulic units also becomes more complex, e.g. by including several
[170]. Based on a simulation of an existing plant, a saving potential of pumps and accumulators for low-pressure and high-pressure cycles.
up to 73% was identified. Although the investigations were carried out Accordingly, the application of single measures or the combination of
for a central system supplying several machines within a plant, the several measures may lead to interactions and potential synergies.
results can also be transferred to decentralised filter systems. Even the composition of the hydraulic fluid influences the energy
efficiency of the system [191].
5.3. Hydraulic units Abele et al. demonstrated a reduction of the hydraulic unit’s elec-
trical power demand of 91% for a specified demonstrator process by
Hydraulic units enable various functions in machine tools such as implementing seat valves and accumulators [8]. Hu € lsemeyer con-
tool and palette changes, workpiece clamping as well as weight com- firms that the use of accumulators is the most energy efficient solu-
pensation for vertical axes. Furthermore, they provide hydraulic pres- tion for low hydraulic power demand [101]. Brecher et al. compared
sure for hydrostatic bearings and guides. Typically, hydraulic units a state-of-the-art hydraulic system consisting of two variable dis-
are accountable for up to 10% of the overall electrical energy demand placement pumps for low and high pressure with an optimised
in machine tools [34]. In particular, hydraulic systems exhibit rela- hydraulic unit including a (low pressure) variable displacement
tively high energy requirements in idle times due to leakage losses pump and a pressure intensifier [34]. The optimised setup reduced
[38]. The following measures are available to increase the energy effi- the leakage by 79%, but suffered from a slow response. Further
ciency of hydraulic units: research led to an advanced setup with a variable speed pump (for
high pressures), a pressure intensifier and two separate accumulators
for low- and high-pressure cycles [38,41]. With the optimised unit,
 Pressure accumulators and intensifiers (booster), pressure losses in idle mode were reduced by 90% and active power
 variable speed pumps, requirements were reduced by 26% compared to the state-of-the-art
 variable displacement pumps, hydraulic unit. Furthermore, the optimised unit exhibited a lower
 directed seat valves, thermal load. Looking at temperature control of hydraulic fluids in
 optimised components in the hydraulic circuit for minimal leakage. general, the results from Section 5.1 apply [139].

Reducing the leakage of the hydraulic system through an opti- 5.4. Other auxiliary units
mised component design and the use of seat valves always leads to
an increase in energy efficiency. Here, the potential savings increases The use of compressed air accounts for up to 10% of the total
with the system pressure. However, the benefits of design changes industrial energy demand in some countries [180]. Even though only
regarding pumps and accumulators heavily depend on the machine a relatively small share is allocated to machine tools, energy optimi-
configuration and the use case. Fig. 22 provides an overview of funda- sation of the compressed air supply network is inevitable to increase
mental design concepts for hydraulic systems in machine tools [101]. the overall energy efficiency. After the supply of liquid media and
Constant speed pumps in combination with hydraulic accumula- temperature control of machine components, the supply of com-
tors present an efficient solution, when hydraulic power demand pressed air for bearings, pneumatics and sealing applications requires
occurs sporadically. The accumulator allows for a fast response and a considerable amount of the total electrical energy demand of
the use of relatively small pumps with low power ratings. Different machine tools [214].
pressure levels can be achieved with multiple accumulators in combi- In general, compressed air systems suffer from a low degree of
nation with a single pump. Moreover, it is possible to deactivate the efficiency. Only 10 to 15% of the energy input is utilised for actual
pump completely when no hydraulic power is required, reducing the work [156]. The main causes for the low efficiency of the compressed
losses to leakage within the hydraulic system [8,101]. However, this air supply are waste heat and, most of all, leakage in connectors,
configuration becomes gradually inefficient when hydraulic power is valves and actuators [214]. The first logical step to evaluate losses is
required more frequently since frequent start-ups of the pump to monitor the air flow at several points in the supply network [92].
increase the thermal load of the hydraulic system. Variable speed Simulation models can be applied to identify the actual compressed
pumps (usually driven by frequency inverters) enable a demand-ori- air requirements of the machine tool for a need-based design and
ented adjustment of the flow rate and of the resulting system pres- control of the network. For example, Mousavi et al. presented a com-
sure. Hence, they provide an energy efficient solution for machine prehensive modelling and control approach [153]. According to their
configurations with fluctuating hydraulic power requirements findings, the most energy efficient approach is to cover the base load
[1, 101]. The lack of an accumulator results in a high power rating of with an appropriately dimensioned fixed speed drive compressor
the pump as well as continuous operation to compensate the leakage. and use variable speed drives to compensate for dynamic loads. Den-
Variable displacement pumps act as an alternative to variable speed kena et al. identified the air volume flow and not the pressure to be
pumps for controlling the hydraulic power without additional fre- the relevant control parameter in compressed air supply networks
quency inverters. They also require electrical energy to compensate [53]. Consequently, they recommended to provide a constant air
for leakage losses and suffer from long reaction times. With regard to mass flow and to increase pressure where required locally, e.g. by
using side channel compressors or rotary piston blowers. Saidur et al.
provided an extensive overview of literature concerning energy use
and savings for compressed air systems [180]. Moreover, Nehler
investigated additional non-energy benefits of energy efficiency
measures in compressed air supply networks [156]. Overall, it is rec-
ommended to reduce the size of the network and the number of con-
nected devices, e.g. by replacing pneumatic actuators with electro-
mechanical actuators.
Another support unit with a certain saving potential is the chip
conveyor. Usually, chip conveyors are continuously active or activated
in timed intervals with no concern for the actual chip production, com-
pare Section 3.1. Utilising process knowledge, such as the actual mate-
rial removal per time unit, allows for the implementation of more
Fig. 22. Basic design concepts for hydraulic units in machine tools [101].
judicious control strategies according to the immediate requirements
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667

of the process [53]. Accordingly, it is possible to fully stop the chip con- replacement of pneumatic and hydraulic actuators with more effi-
veyor in non-productive times or for finishing operations. cient electro-mechanical actuators presents a sensible measure.
Fig. 23 summarises the most relevant measures to increase energy
5.5. Interim conclusion efficiency of auxiliary components.

Auxiliary units typically dominate the overall energy demand of

6. Operation of machine tools
machine tools. The required energy input for the machine and pro-
cess conditioning often exceeds the share for the actual value adding
The energy efficiency measures illustrated in Chapter 4 and 5
process. The most common reasons for inefficient support units are
serve to design and optimise machine tool components, but the
oversized or outdated components as well as poor design choices
energy efficiency is also affected by the operating mode of the indi-
and unoptimised operation of individual components. Accordingly, a
vidual components and the entire machine tool. Approaches to
large variety of studies regarding the energy efficient design and
reduce energy demand in operation include process-oriented control
operation of machine tool support units is available today, see Tab. 2
of the machine tool’s operational state and its media supply systems,
for an overview.
cutting parameter optimisation, as well as adaptive process control
In general, the operation of support units is defined by fixed on/off
[66]. These measures can reduce the energy demand by up to 40%
cycles. Hence, demand-oriented approaches for the operation of spe-
[159]. The following section provides an overview of measures to
cific auxiliary units hold a significant potential for increasing energy
monitor and control the operational state of machine tools, energy
efficiency. This is impressively demonstrated by the example of the
efficient selection of process parameters, and demand-oriented
high-pressure cutting fluid supply, see Section 6.3. The challenge
process cooling strategies.
here is to determine reasonable supply parameters, i.e. cutting fluid
flow rate and supply pressure, according to the actual requirements
6.1. Monitoring and control of the operational state
of the cutting process. The relevant question is how the flow rate and
supply pressure affect the machining results and tool wear for spe-
A considerable part of the energy demand is caused in non-pro-
cific workpiece material and cutting tool configurations. Conse-
ductive periods [62]. In the simplest case, improving the energy effi-
quently, this approach must be extended to other support units. For
ciency of a production system is a matter of switching off the
example, in the case of machine cooling, the cooling capacity can be
machine tool at times of non-use, e.g. on weekends. However, ther-
adjusted according to required machining accuracy and permissible
mal stability of the machine tool and fast ramp-up of the overall pro-
temperature levels for individual components. The question of actual
duction system must be ensured at all times. An indicator for an
process requirements and relevant cause-effect relationships in that
inefficiently operated component is, for example, a continuous
context represents important objectives for future research. Further
energy demand in operation, even if the production process does not
potentials lie in the area of media supply. In particular, the
require a corresponding amount of energy [26]. In this case, standby
functions are integrated in the machine tool control system to auto-
Table 2
References for energy efficient support units.
matically shut down unneeded components during production. Prac-
tical examples for this approach are presented in Chapter 7.
Support unit Source A further way of saving energy is to adapt the operational state of the
Cooling systems [8,33,53,70,101,116,139,175,217] machine tool to the available energy supply [134]. This approach is sum-
High-pressure cutting fluid supply [20,32,56,57,69,95,101,119,125,127,174,182] marised under the term energy flexibility. Over the recent years, energy
Hydraulic system [1,8,34,38,41,101,191] flexibility has gained increasing interest [28,166,167,187,189]. Reasons
Compressed air supply [53,54,55,92,153,156,180]
for this are rising energy prices but also a more volatile availability of
electricity due to an increasing fraction of renewable energy sources.
In order to estimate the energy demand of machine tools at differ-
ent states of operation (e.g. standby, air cutting or machining), reliable
models are required. Exemplary models based on the operational state
of machine components can be found in [48,93,136]. Yoon et al. intro-
duced a model, which consists of four summands: the constant energy
demand of the machine tool EConst, the energy demand of the spindle
ESpindle, the feed rate dependent energy demand EFeed and the cutting
energy ECut [221,222]. To detect the different states automatically,
Vijayaraghavan and Dornfeld developed a framework for an auto-
mated energy monitoring of machine tools [211]. Dietmair and Verl
presented a state/transition model of a machine tool to predict the
energy demand based on usage profiles of the different machine states
[67]. By doing this, they could not only accurately predict the energy
usage during the material removal process, but also for events like
start-up of the machine tool. In a sophisticated approach, Abele et al.
established a machine tool model that encompasses sub-models of the
machine tool components [5]. By connecting the machine model to a
machine control system, actual NC-codes can be executed and the
energy demand can be simulated prior to the machining process.

6.2. Cutting parameters

According to the analysis presented in Chapter 3, the energy

demand in machining is usually dominated by the support units of
the machine tool. Consequently, reducing machining time by
increasing the material removal rate Qw appears to be a promising
approach to lower the energy demand. This approach is also in
agreement with Eq. (1), since a higher Qw leads to a higher utilisa-
Fig. 23. Most relevent energy efficiency measures for machine tool support units.
tion of the main spindle.
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In an extensive study, Gutowsky et al. analysed and modelled the they showed a deviation of 12% between calculated and measured
variable energy demand with respect to the material removal rate energy demand in machining of an exemplary workpiece. However,
[89]. While the results simplify the actual effect of different process the approach does not consider neither the actual tool trajectory nor
parameters, they allow a comparison of a broad range of manufactur- the tool engagement. Especially trajectory and feed rate optimisation
ing processes. However, Kara and Li pointed out that the used factors of the tool path supports high productivity and, consequently, a high
in the proposed model are not clearly defined and, thus, the model’s utilisation of the machine tool. Moreover, the workpiece quality can
applicability is limited [136]. Therefore, they developed an approach be ensured, which reduces scrap. Examples for optimisation techni-
based on the specific energy demand. They validated their model by ques are given in [16,78,224]. In this context, virtual machining will
experiments and found out that higher Qw lead to a lower specific play an increasingly important role in the future. Similarly,
cutting energy ec. Nevertheless, they stated that the energy demand approaches for online control of the feed rate or chatter suppression
depends strongly on the use case. For example, a higher Qw leads to a are not only beneficial with respect to productivity, but also from an
lower ec, but also to higher temperatures and tool wear and, thus, ecological point of view.
requires the use of cooling lubricant, which, in turn, increases the However, a sole focus on processing time does not consider effects
overall energy demand [122]. It should also be noted that the same on the auxiliary energy demand in the form of tool wear or cutting
Qw can be obtained using different process parameters, e.g. in milling fluid usage. Aggarwal et al. adjusted process parameters in turning
the cutting velocity vc, the tooth feed ft, the cutting width ae and the with regard to the cooling strategy. A minimisation of process param-
cutting depth ap, which have a high influence on spindle load, tool eters in combination with cryogenic cooling led to a minimal energy
wear and process cooling requirements. demand. Here, the cooling strategy had the biggest impact, followed
A more detailed view on the influence of different process param- by depth of cut and cutting velocity [12]. Based on a semi-analytical
eters on the energy demand in milling is given by Draganescu et al. model, Mativenga and Rajemi presented an approach to minimise
[72]. The results show that the depth of cut and the feed per tooth the energy requirement for turning operations by adjusting the mate-
have the highest effect on the specific energy demand. These results rial removal rate. By separating the energy demand into four parts
are supported by Rentsch and Heinzel, who were able to reduce the (setup, material removal, tool change and cutting edge), they were
energy requirement for a milling process by 28 to 35% by doubling also able to consider the embodied energy per used tool [143,172].
the feed rate [176]. Similarly, Yan and Li identified the width of cut as Wang et al. used a non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm to evalu-
the most influencing factor on the cutting energy demand in milling ate the optimum between product quality, manufacturing cost and
within a sensitivity study [219]. Based on these findings, they energy demand, including the embodied energy of tool and cutting
reduced the energy demand by 18% by adjusting the process parame- fluid, to determine cutting depth, feed rate and cutting speed for a
ters while keeping the material removal rate constant. Similar poten- turning process [213].
tials were identified for parameter optimisation in turning [120,138]. Adjusting the macro and micro geometry of the cutting tool as
Schlosser et al. analysed the variation of process parameters in dril- well as its coating can reduce cutting force and the required specific
ling [185]. The main result is an energy saving potential of 5% through cutting energy. However, these effects are rather small compared to
shorter processing times caused by higher feed rates and an the fixed energy share of the process. Thus, cutting tools should be
increased cutting velocity. Regarding grinding processes, Hacksteiner designed to withstand high material removal rates and display long
et al. recommend a high equivalent chip thickness to optimise the tool life in order to maximise the utilisation of the machine tool. A
specific cutting energy [90]. Barrenetxea et al. suggested the use of timely replacement of worn cutting tools can be supported by moni-
process cycles with defined feed and speed profiles to reduce the toring the spindle current [165,227].
energy demand in grinding [24]. In general, it can be summarised
that the material removal rate should be adapted by increasing the 6.3. Process cooling
undeformed chip thickness and width rather than the cutting speed.
However, the required surface quality must always be ensured and Reducing the energy demand of the cutting fluid supply holds a sig-
taken into account when optimising the process parameters. nificant savings potential due to its typically high share of the machine
Aiming to support parameter optimisation in process planning, tool’s overall energy requirement. Although there has been great prog-
energy demand models are widely investigated and parameterised for ress in the area of alternative process cooling strategies [141], conven-
different machining operations, e.g. turning, milling, or grinding. Since tional flood cooling and lately internal high pressure cutting fluid
it has been emphasised in the literature that the environmental impact supply are the predominant concepts used in the industry.
of machine tools results mainly from their demand for electrical
energy, most models are based on this energy form [227]. Generally, a 6.3.1. Efficiency measures for conventional cutting fluid supply
distinction can be made between physical and empirical models. The efficiency of flood cooling systems can be increased by adjust-
Examples for physical energy or power demand models are presented ing the control variables of the cutting fluid supply according to the
in [25] or [154]. However, physical models are difficult to obtain and, cutting conditions [195]. Denkena et al. analysed the flow rate varia-
in most cases, limited to the energy demand closely related to the pro- tion for an internal high-pressure cutting fluid supply in turning,
cess features. Thus, the machine tool, part and tool features or friction milling, and drilling with various cutting speeds and feed rates in
effects are often not taken into account. To consider these factors, consideration of the technological risks, i.e. tool wear. Looking at the
empirical models are very common. Within this group, models can be system characteristics of a machine tool with a variable speed high-
further categorised into static and dynamic, deterministic and stochas- pressure fluid pump (compare Fig. 21), small changes of the cutting
tic, as well as discrete and continuous models. Abele et al. provide an fluid flow rate had a significant impact on the electrical pump power
extensive overview of different modelling approaches [7,76,94,132]. In without affecting tool wear for a given set of cutting parameters.
addition to explicitly formulated empirical models, AI methods are Further investigations focussed on the effects on tool wear and
also used for the identification of non-linear relationships between work spindle power in machining of Ti-6Al-4V with reduced cutting
variables [72]. Examples are given in [31] and [169]. fluid flow rates. The results confirm the potential of a demand-ori-
While these models offer insight into general correlations ented control of the cutting fluid system [56,57]. Based on these
between process parameters and the energy demand, the application results, three approaches to adapt the cutting fluid supply parameters
is usually limited to simple workpiece geometries. In order to evalu- to the actual cutting conditions were presented: a manual setting
ate the energy demand prior to machining in an industrial environ- (Approach 1), a CAx-based adjustment (Approach 2) and a simula-
ment, it becomes necessary to analyse the CNC tool path. This offers tion-based setting (Approach 3). In the manual setting, optimised
the potential to adjust the tool path accordingly and to shorten proc- flow rates for each tool configuration were entered directly into the
essing times by minimising air cutting movements [18,63,173]. Balo- human machine interface. This strategy, though, requires additional
gun et al. developed a framework to parse NC-codes and relate the G- default values in the parameter catalogues of the tool manufacturers.
code fragments to operational states [23]. In an experimental study, The CAx-based approach used process information, like roughing and
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Cryogenic cooling is emerging as an innovative process cooling

technology which holds out the prospect of a considerable increase
in productivity. Jawahir et al. provide an extensive overview of the
current state of the art in cryogenic manufacturing processes [113].
Most commonly, cryogenic machining processes use liquefied nitro-
gen gas (LN2), which is inert, non-toxic, non-flammable as well as col-
our- and odourless. It is lighter than air and disperses after
application, thus, reducing the effort for recirculation, conditioning
and disposal of applied media compared to the use of conventional
cutting fluids. Conversely, the production and the storage of the liq-
uefied nitrogen gas (typically at -196 °C) is fairly energy intensive.
Due to considerably improved cooling in the cutting zone, cryogenic
machining allows for significantly increased material removal rates
with lower tool wear [51], which, in turn, allows for shorter process-
ing times, especially when machining difficult-to-cut materials.
Exemplary studies on the cryogenic milling of Inconel 718 claim that
cryogenic cooling presents the most energy efficient strategy com-
pared to minimum quantity lubrication and conventional flood cool-
ing [17,47]. However, the validity of this claim depends on the
chosen frame of reference and system boundaries for the calculation
Fig. 24. Flow rates for different approaches of adaptive cutting fluid spply [56].
of the specific energy demand, as is the case in the previously men-
tioned examples. While machining performance and tool wear are
finishing phases, to select appropriate flow rates and stored the com- vastly improved with cryogenic cooling, a holistic evaluation of its
mands in the generated NC-code. Taking into account additional pro- impact on the energy efficiency of the entire production system is
cess information, the simulation-based approach introduced a more currently not available.
complex strategy for locally optimising and adjusting the flow rate
per NC command line based on the expected cutting conditions, i.e. 6.4. Interim conclusion
the material removal rate. Fig. 24 shows the resulting flow rates for
the three approaches compared to a reference setting (with constant From the reviewed literature, it can be concluded that a process-
pressure control) for an exemplary machining process. For the con- oriented control of the operational state and cutting fluid supply as
sidered reference process, the adaptation of the flow rate (Approach well as the optimisation of process parameters are promising
1) allowed for a reduction of the pump power by 12%. Using the sim- approaches to reduce the energy demand of machine tools in opera-
ulation-based approach (Approach 3) the energy demand of the tion (Fig. 25). The choice of process parameters significantly affects
high-pressure pump was reduced by 81%, which corresponds to an the required energy for the cutting process. The main recommenda-
overall energy saving of up to 37% for the entire machine tool. tion is to increase the material removal rate and, thus, productivity,
Klocke et al. considered flow rate and pressure variations for an while maintaining the required quality. One should keep in mind
internal high-pressure cutting fluid supply (with up to 300 bar) in that increased feed rates and cutting speeds affect tool wear and can
turning [125,127]. Their contributions compare the performance of lead to higher process cooling requirements, which, in turn, have a
flood cooling and internal high-pressure cutting fluid supply for turn- negative impact on the overall energy demand. Additionally, an opti-
ing of difficult-to-cut materials. Tool wear, chip formation and energy mised tool path reduces air-cutting time and the energy demand.
demand (per part) were set as evaluation criteria. Again, the findings Still, these measures can only develop their full potential in combina-
indicate a potential for reducing the overall energy demand per part tion with intelligent standby modes.
by approximately 40% and a significant increase of the material Many empirical models have been developed to support an energy
removal rate in combination with increased process stability when efficient selection of process parameters over the last 30 years. How-
using a high-pressure cutting fluid supply. ever, the definition of the model coefficients often remains unclear and
the empirical nature of the models causes strong dependencies on
machine tool characteristics and other processing factors [227]. Further-
6.3.2. Alternatives to conventional cutting fluid supply concepts more, it can be stated that simple linear models based on the material
While previously presented optimisation measures aim at removal rate neglect several process specific aspects. Especially,
demand-oriented and more efficient supply strategies, a more drastic
reduction of the cutting fluid quantity is far more desirable. In this
context, minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) acts as an enabling
technology for near dry machining. Weinert et al. provide a compre-
hensive insight into the technological requirements and the potential
of minimum quantity lubrication and dry machining [216]. The step
to near dry machining involves various benefits regarding the eco-
nomic and ecological impact of machine tools by drastically reducing
the cutting fluid quantity in use as well as the electrical energy
requirements for its supply and conditioning [82]. At the same time,
transferring a manufacturing process to near dry machining often
influences the complete production system and requires a careful
revision of cutting tools, process parameters, and possibly the overall
machine tool design [216]. Nowadays, near dry machining is mainly
applied in high volume or large scaled industries, e.g. automotive and
aerospace manufacturing. However, the implementation of respec-
tive high-performance processes requires specialised solutions,
which are not available to small and medium-sized manufacturers.
Solid lubrication is principally possible, but is rarely used in industrial
practice and limited to very specific applications [44]. Hence, it is not
considered to be a viable alternative in metal cutting applications. Fig. 25. Most relevant measures to increase energy efficiency in operation of machine tools.
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667 662

interdependencies between process parameters and part and tool fea-

tures are not considered. Contrary to this, more sophisticated models
reflect the process specific characteristics of the energy demand much
better. Though, parameterisation is more challenging and transferability
to other processes is very limited. Due to these issues, energy demand
models are rarely used in process planning nowadays. In order to
address this issue, future development should focus on the analysis of
NC-codes and the subsequent optimisation thereof.
With respect to process cooling, it can be stated that dry machin-
ing or MQL offer a considerable potential to eliminate energy inten-
sive supply units. In addition, need-based cutting fluid supply can
decrease the energy demand significantly. From a technical point of
view, adaptive cooling strategies require frequency inverters to con-
trol the pump power, which is already feasible with currently avail-
able industrial solutions (see Section 5.2.2). However, tool
manufacturers usually do not provide data on the required amount
of cutting fluid with respect to cutting conditions and workpiece
materials. Moreover, software tools that consider adaptive cooling
strategies are currently not available.
Fig. 27. Exemplary saving potential for machining of a reference workpiece achieved
in the research project Maxiem [8].
7. Transfer to machine tool industry

The research results presented so far impressively demonstrate

the effectiveness and the savings potential of available energy effi-
ciency measures. Although the technical feasibility of specific meas-
ures has been proven, practical restriction cannot be ruled out due to
the research focus on individual components and measures as well as
the given experimental conditions, which were often influenced by a
predominantly academic point of view. In this context, open ques-
tions relate to possible synergies through combination of selected
measures, economic feasibility, and acceptance from machine tool
manufacturers and user.
Against this background, large-scale collaborative research proj-
ects were carried out, involving not only research institutions but
machine tool and component manufacturers, as well as software
developers for CAM and production scheduling applications. Each of
these comprehensive case studies considered a variety of energy effi-
ciency measures implemented in a machine tool demonstrator and
investigated for a practically relevant reference process. The main
results of three representative projects, namely EWOTeK, Maxiem and Fig. 28. Exemplary saving potential for machining of a reference workpiece achieved
in the research project NCplus [101].
NCplus, are summarised in Figs. 26
28 [8,32,53].
These case studies consider different machine tool configurations
and demonstrate savings potentials ranging from approximately 30 This way, the energy efficiency according to Eq. (1) is increased in all
to 52% through implementation of various coordinated optimisation of the considered studies. All of the implemented measures were
measures based on the approaches from the previous Chapters 4 to 6. developed in cooperation with industrial partners and therefore rep-
Notably, the relative energy shares of the main units were increased resent solutions suitable for industrial use. Due to the convincing
in all presented case studies, thus, reducing the share of the support results of the collaborative projects, many solutions were then trans-
units, which do not directly contribute to the value adding process. ferred into industrial applications. Hence, the following section pro-
vides a brief overview of relevant measures already available in the
machine tool industry. Here, only those measures are considered that
reduce the energy demand during use. Constructive measures, e.g.
lightweight construction, are not taken into account.
In line with the most energy intensive components identified in
Chapter 3, the fluid pumps of the cutting fluid supply and hydraulic
system represent an essential focus for optimisation measures at
machine tool manufacturers (see Section 3.2). Here, downsizing of
pumps [160], a reduction of the pumps’ motion frequency, and
through-spindle coolant systems allow for considerable energy sav-
ings [161]. Regarding the main units, machine tool and component
manufacturers have developed energy efficiency measures, which
mainly reduce the electrical energy demand of spindles and drives
[68,194]. Furthermore, brake energy recovery [71,106,194] and direct
optical measuring systems for drive control optimisation [71] are
often implemented to minimise the energy demand of work spindles
and feed axes. Also, waste heat recovery systems [106] as well as LED
lighting inside the machine tool workspace [68,218] are commonly
applied measures.
Fig. 26. Exemplary saving potential for machining of a reference workpiece achieved Further available measures concern the coordinated control of
in the research project EWOTeK [32]. individual components. Most measures aim to increase productivity
663 B. Denkena et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 69 (2020) 646
667

in order to reduce the machine operating time or to coordinate systems, cutting fluid supplies and hydraulic units have a decisive
energy intensive operating states of several units. For instance, impact on the overall energy demand. Based on this finding, a definition
adjusting the cutting fluid supply parameters to actual process for energy efficiency of machine tools has been proposed. The definition
requirements via inverter-controlled fluid pumps minimises energy relates the energy demand of the main spindle to the overall energy.
and resource demand [68,106]. The automatic adjustment of the feed Consequently, a high spindle utilisation and a low energy demand of
axis positioning speed in accordance with spindle acceleration and the support units are beneficial. While the definition is easy to apply, it
deceleration times, which is described in Chapter 4, enables energy is limited to electrical energy and does not consider indirect energy
savings of up to 10% [68,152,160]. Alternatively, overlapping of oper- flows, e.g. pressurised air, coolants or tools.
ations [68,106,152], i.e. the specification of a machine code command Aiming to increase energy efficiency of machine tools, approaches
before completing the previous one, or the control of pecking move- for main and support units from research and industry have been
ments [68,160], reduces machining time and, thus, energy demand. reviewed in this paper. The main results are summarised in the respec-
In addition, auxiliary times can be reduced by using precise tactile tive interim conclusions. Nevertheless, several research topics remain:
system for a fast and reliable workpiece setup [71].
Another established approach to increase energy efficiency of  Investigation and evaluation for the replacement of pneumatic
machine tools is the use of energy monitoring systems and differenti- and hydraulic components with electromechanical actuators (for a
ated standby modes. Energy monitoring systems allow for the visual- media-free machine tool),
isation, control and strategic optimisation of the machine tool’s  robust thermo-mechanical models with low implementation
energy requirements [68,194]. Consequently, this results in distinct effort (e.g. observer-based approaches) for productive use of
standby functions, which automatically switch off peripheral units in warm-up periods,
case of idle times and ultimately minimises the machine tool’s energy  intelligent standby modes for machine tool components,
input in non-productive phases [68,71,106,160,194,218]. A more  strategies for retrofitting of existing machine tools with more
sophisticated approach considers a strategic machine tool selection, energy efficient components.
e.g. a 5-axis machining centre instead of a series of horizontal
machining centres, to reduce transport efforts and cycle times, lead- Besides the design of machine tools, energy efficiency is largely
ing to energy savings of approximately 8% [161]. determined by their operation. In this regard, process parameters
In recent years, energy efficiency has become an increasingly should be selected to maximise productivity. However, side effects
prominent topic in the machine tool industry. A growing environ- like increased tool wear or higher coolant requirements must be con-
mental awareness, rising energy costs and increasingly specific (and sidered. Moreover, intelligent standby modes are essential to reduce
in the future eventually obligatory) government regulations present energy demand at non-productive times. From the reviewed litera-
relevant incentives to address energy efficiency in production engi- ture, it can also be learned that adaptive cooling supply and (near)
neering. In this context, an investigation carried out by DMG Mori Co. dry machining offer significant potential for energy savings. Despite
Ltd. compared a new machine to a 15-year-old model. The new these potentials, only few applications can be found in the industry,
machine tool used 45% less energy per year, which is equivalent to due to the following open research topics:
2,650 kg CO2 emissions savings [68]. In further work, a modern pro-
duction machine was optimised for energy efficiency with regard to  Investigation of process interdependencies, e.g. for productivity
cutting parameters, standby modes, cutting fluid pumps and supply and tool wear, idle times and thermal stability, temperature build-
strategy, which led to energy savings of up to 17% [83]. up and machining accuracy,
Despite the availability of energy efficiency measures in the machine  identification of actually required cutting fluid volume and pres-
tool industry, the use in industrial practice falls short of expectations. sure for demand-oriented supply strategies,
Naturally, the decision for or against the procurement of energy effi-  further research of minimum quantity lubrication and near dry
ciency features when purchasing or upgrading a machine tool depends machining for a widespread use in the production industry,
on an economic evaluation, which is typically based on the return on  CAM tools for energy efficient selection of process parameters, tra-
investment, the payback period, or the net present value [86,87]. The jectory optimisation and adaptive cooling strategies including
return on investment depends on the investment costs and is also influ- self-optimisation based on process data.
enced by the electricity price [134]. Companies regularly demand short
payback periods and the share of energy costs in their total costs is usu- The presented case studies demonstrate that a combination of dif-
ally still low. Moreover, energy-related measures compete with invest- ferent energy efficiency measures may decrease the energy demand
ments in quality- or process-related measures [225]. This makes the between 30% and 52%. It can be summarised that high energy savings
implementation of energy efficiency measures more difficult as they are are technically already feasible. But many of these technologies are
regularly associated with higher costs compared to standard variants still in the prototype stage and not established in industry yet. There-
[148]. In some cases, government institutions provide subsidiaries as an fore, significant effort is recommended to transfer scientific knowl-
incentive to implement energy saving measures [45]. In this context, edge into industrial application. Moreover, specific guidelines (e.g.
Go€tze et al. present an integrated energy-oriented method for the tech- Cecimo or Blue Competence) as well as regulations could help to
nical and economic evaluation of machine tools [88]. speed up implementation. Financial incentives for machine tool users
may also help decrease amortisation time and, thus, increase demand
8. Summary and outlook for energy efficiency measures. Increasing energy efficiency in indus-
try is not only a technical but also an economical and governmental
The growing global energy demand from industry results in signifi- task across national borders.
cant ecological and economical costs. From the reviewed literature, it
can be learned that the design of machine tools and their operation Acknowledgements
have high potential for energy savings in the industrial sector. Looking
at the energy distribution of individual machine tools, the overall energy The authors thank the CIRP community for their technical contri-
demand exceeds the required energy for the actual chip removal pro- butions to this paper. In particular, many thanks are extended to H.-
cess by far. Moreover, even the variable energy demand (which corre- € nshoff for the careful review of the manuscript and the valuable
K. To
lates with the material processing) is relatively small compared to the suggestions in the creation of the paper. Special thanks are dedicated
fixed energy requirement, because of the high energy demand of the to M. Ga€rtner, S. Kehne, R. Kru€ ger, L. Onken and L. Petruschke for the
machine tools’ support units and auxiliary systems. In particular, cooling support in the preparation of this paper.
 B. Denkena et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 69 (2020) 646
667 664

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