INTRODUCTION

• As you have read earlier, oxygen (O2) is utilised by the

organisms to indirectly break down simple molecules like
glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, etc., to derive energy to
perform various activities.

Nutrients Oxygen Water & other

essential substances
• This process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2
produced by the cells is called breathing, commonly known as
respiration.

Oxygen Oxygen Oxygen

CO2 CO2 CO2

 RESPIRATORY ORGANS IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS

Name of the Phylum/Organism Respiratory organ/organs

1 Protozoa
Respiratory organs are absent, but
2 Porifera (Sponges), Coelenterata
respiration takes place by general
Ctenophora, Platyhelminthes and
body surface
Aschelminthes
3 Annelida Moist cuticle
4 Insects (e.g. - Cockroach) Trachea
5 Arachnida (e.g.-Spider) Book lungs
6 Mollusca Gills called Ctenidia
7 Echinodermata Body surface called dermal
branchiae in most
8 Fishes and Tadpole Gills
9 Frog Skin, Lungs, Buccopharyngeal cavity
10 Reptiles, Aves and Mammals Lungs
 HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• We have a pair of external nostrils opening out above
the upper lips. Since external nostrils are one pair (two) in
number. This condition is called dirhinous condition.

External nostril
Upper lip
• The nasal chambers through internal nostrils opens into the
pharynx, a portion of which is the common passage for food and air.
• The pharynx opens through the larynx region opens into the trachea.

Nasal
chambers
Internal
nostrils

External Naso
nostril pharynx Pharynx
Oro
pharynx
Gullet
Glottis Oesophagus
Trachea (wind pipe)
Larynx is a cartilaginous box which helps in sound production and hence
called the sound box. During swallowing glottis can be covered by a thin
elastic cartilaginous flap called epiglottis to prevent the entry of food into
the larynx. Two types of vocal cords in larynx

False vocal cords

Provide moisture to
the true vocal cords

True vocal cords

Helpful in phonation
(sound production)
 TRACHEA

Straight tube (Length-12 cm)

extending up to the mid- Diameter 2.5 cm
thoracic cavity,
5th thoracic vertebra

Right primary Left primary

bronchus bronchus
• Each bronchi undergoes repeated divisions to form the
secondary and tertiary bronchi and bronchioles ending
up in very thin terminal bronchioles.

Trachea
Incomplete
cartilaginous
rings

Primary bronchus
Secondary bronchus
Tertiary bronchus
Total pulmonary bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles
TRACHEA

Trachealaris muscles
(to dilate the trachea)

C shaped hyaline
cartilages
• Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to a number of very
thin, irregular-walled and vascularised bag-like
structures called alveoli.
The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and
alveoli comprise the lungs.

Respiratory Bronchiole

Alveolar Duct

ATRIA

Alveolar Sac

Alveoli
External nostrils Nasal chambers Internal nostrils Nasopharynx

Primary bronchus Trachea Larynx Oropharynx

Secondary bronchus Tertiary bronchus Total pulmonary bronchioles

Conducting Zone
BRONCHIAL TREE Terminal bronchioles

Exchange Zone Respiratory bronchioles

Alveoli Alveolar sacs Atria Alveolar ducts

RESPIRATORY TREE
BRONCHIAL TREE (B.T) AND RESPIRATORY TREE (R.T)
There are two zones

Conducting Exchange
Starting with the external Alveoli and their ducts
nostrils up to the terminal
bronchioles
Site of actual diffusion
Transports the atmospheric of O2 and CO2 between
air to the alveoli blood and atmospheric
air.
Clears it from foreign
particles

Brings the air to body

temperature.
• The lungs are situated in the
thoracic chamber which is
anatomically an air-tight chamber.
• The thoracic chamber is formed dorsally by the vertebral
column, ventrally by the sternum, laterally by the ribs and
on the lower side by the dome-shaped diaphragm.

Vertebral column
Dorsally
Sternum
ventrally
Ribs
Laterally

Diaphragm
 LUNGS

Endodermal in origin
pleural cavity filled • The lungs are situated in the
with pleural fluid
(is in close contact thoracic chamber which is
with thoracic lining) Left lung
Right lung anatomically an air-tight chamber.
(2 lobed)
(3 lobed)
• Mammalian lungs are solid and
spongy without muscles, so
power of self-contraction and
self-relaxation is not present in
mammalian lungs.
Inner Visceral pleura
(is in close contact
with lung surface) Outer Parietal pleura
 • structural and functional units of lungs.
Alveoli
• Number-300 million in both the lungs

Pneumocytes I Pneumocytes II
Smaller cells Larger cells
Helps in gaseous exchange Secrete phospholipid lecithin

Pneumocytes II

Yellow fibrous connective

tissue on outer side

Pneumocytes I

Lecithin act as a surfactant, reduces the surface

tension of alveoli and keep alveoli always
remain open for efficient gaseous exchange.
• Exchange part is the site of actual diffusion of O2 and CO2
between blood and atmospheric air.
• Respiration involves the following steps:
(i) Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which
atmospheric air is drawn in and CO2 rich alveolar air
is released out.
(ii) Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar
membrane.
(iii) Transport of gases by the blood.
(iv) Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and
tissues.
(v) Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions
and resultant release of CO2.
 DIAPHRAGM ➢ Muscular structure which separate
thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity.
➢ made up of muscles called radial muscles.

Thoracic ➢ Word related with diaphragm is phrenic.

cavity
➢ principal muscle of breathing

➢ aid in ventilation.

➢ also involved in

Diaphragm • parturition (childbirth),

• micturition (urination) and

Abdominal cavity
• defaecation (egestion).
At the time of inspiration, diaphragm contracts and
becomes flattened so volume of thoracic chamber
increases in the antero-posterior axis.
 INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES :-

IICM / EXPIRATORY
• Connect ventral face of upper rib with
dorsal face of lower rib.

EICM / INSPIRATORY
• Connect dorsal face of upper rib
with ventral face of lower

At the time of inspiration, EICM contracts so that sternum

moves outwardly, and ribs moves upwardly hence volume
of thoracic cavity is increased in dorso-ventral axis.
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES

• The volume estimated by -spirometer

• which helps in clinical assessment of pulmonary functions.
Volume(L)

Time(sec.)
 IRV VC
2500-3000 ml 4500 ml

TV
500 ml
TLC
FRC
Volume(L) ERV 2200-
6000
1000-1100 ml 2500 ml ml

RV
1100-1200 ml

Time(sec.)
S.NO Lung volume Definition Value (ml)
1 Tidal volume Air inspired or expired 500
(TV) during normal
respiration.
2 Inspiratory reserve volume Additional volume of air 2,500-3,000
(IRV) that can be breathed in
by forcible inspiration.

3 Expiratory reserve volume Additional volume of air 1,000-1,100

(ERV) that can be breathed out
by forcible expiration.

4 Residual volume Air left in lungs after 1,100-1,200

(RV) forcible expiration.
S.NO Lung capacity Definition Formula Value (ml)
1 Inspiratory It is the maximum volume IC = TV + IRV
capacity (IC) of air that can be inspired
after normal
expiration.
2 Inspiratory It is the additional volume
reserve volume of air that can be breathed
(IRV) in by forcible inspiration

3 Vital capacity It is the maximum volume FRC = ERV +

(VC) of air that can be inspired RV
after forced
expiration.
4 Residual volume It is the volume of air left VC = ERV + TV
(RV) in lungs after forcible + IRV
expiration.
5 Total lung It is the maximum volume TLC = RV +
capacity (TLC) of air in lungs after forced ERV + TV + IRV
inspiration. TLC = RV + VC
 EXCHANGE OF GASES:-
• Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases.

Alveolar wall
(Squamous epithelial cells)

Basement membrane

Capillary wall
(Endothelial cells)
 pO2=
pCO2=

CO2 O2
pO2=
pCO2=

Pulmonary CO2 O2 Pulmonary vein

artery
pO2=
pO2= pCO2=
pCO2=
Heart Systemic arteries
(carrying O2 blood)
pO2=
Systemic veins
pO2=
(carrying CO2 pCO2=
blood) CO2 O2 pCO2=

C6H12O6+O2 ⎯→ CO2+H2O+ATP
 • Solubility of the gases as well as the thickness of the
membranes involved in diffusion are also some
important factors that can affect the rate of diffusion.
• Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture
of gases is called partial pressure and is represented as
pO2 for oxygen and pCO2 for carbon dioxide.
• Partial pressures of these two gases in the atmospheric
air and the two sites of diffusion are given in Table.

Respiratory Atmospheric Deoxygenated Oxygenated

Alveoli Tissue
gas air blood blood

O2 (in mmHg) 159 104 40 95 40

CO2 (in mmHg) 0.3 40 45 40 45

Gaseous exchange takes place only at alveoli on
respiratory surface because
(i) of rich supply of capillaries at alveoli
(ii) of large surface area of alveoli
(ii) of very thin respiratory membrane [Approx. less
than 1 mm]
Transport of Oxygen

• Haemoglobin is a red coloured iron containing

pigment present in the RBCs.

Hb RBC

Hb + O2 HbO2
• Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and CO2. About 97
per cent of O2 is transported by RBCs in the blood. The
remaining 3 per cent of O2 is carried in a dissolved state
through the plasma.

• Haemoglobin is made up of 4 units.

• Each unit has 1 Fe in +2 state.
• Each haemoglobin molecule can carry a maximum
of 4 molecules of O2.
O2 O2

Hb
O2 O2
1 gm of haemoglobin transports 1.34 ml of oxygen.

100 ml (1 dL) of blood contains normally 15 gm of haemoglobin

100 ml blood transports approximately 20 ml of oxygen.

In a conducting cycle blood gives its 25% O2 to tissues.

So 100 ml of oxygenated blood can deliver around 5ml of O2 to tissue
under normal physiological condition.

Binding of oxygen with haemoglobin is primarily related to

partial pressure of O2.
• Partial pressure of CO2 ,
• H+ ion concentration and
• temperature are the other factors which can interfere with
this binding. This clearly indicates that O2 gets bound to
haemoglobin in the lung surface and gets dissociated at the
tissues.
• Oxygen does not oxidise haemoglobin (oxygenation).
• Some gases (e.g. Ozone) oxidise haemoglobin. This oxidised
haemoglobin is called Methamoglobin. This type of gases
are environmental pollutant.
 100

80

haemoglobin with oxygen

Percentage saturation of
60

40

20

0 20 40 60 80 100
Partial pressure of oxygen (mm Hg)
 Shift to right means that decrease in affinity between
O2 and Hb and dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin.

pH

haemoglobin with oxygen

100

Percentage saturation of
DPG
Temp
80 CO2
pH
60 DPG
Temp
40 CO2

20

0 20 40 60 80 100
Partial pressure of oxygen (mm Hg)
TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE
• The blood transports carbon dioxide comparatively easily
because of its higher solubility.
• There are three ways of transport of carbon dioxide.
CO2-5 to 7% dissolve Bulk of CO2 is transported
in plasma by plasma as bicarbonate.

20-25% CO2
(Carbamino-haemoglobin)
 When pCO2 is high and
pO2 is low as in the
tissues, more binding of
carbon dioxide occurs.

This binding is related to the

partial pressure of CO2 .
pO2 is a major factor which
could affect this binding.