Fundamentals of Multiphase Flow

Chapter 1 - Introduction

The simultaneous flow of two or more phases through a conduit where the phases interact

at the interface is termed multiphase flow. Although simultaneous flow of as many as four

phases namely, water, crude oil, gas and sand is not uncommon during oil exploration, flow of

two-phase mixtures is the most common occurrence in industry. It covers a diverse range of

flow phenomena involving various combinations of phases like solid, liquid and gas. The

presence of an interface varying over space and time renders the hydrodynamics of two-

phase flow substantially different from single phase. For example, two-phase flow in a

fluidized bed can be differentiated from single phase flow of a fluid through a packed bed

of particles by considering the fact that in the former case, geometrical arrangement of

phase boundary (i.e. particle spacing) is function of fluid flow while in the second case,

the geometry is fixed.

The different variations of two-phase flow are

a) Gas–liquid flow – involves boiling, condensation as well as adiabatic flow. They

are common in power and process industries, refrigeration, air-conditioning and
cryogenic applications.

b) Gas–solid flow – pneumatic conveying, combustion of pulverized fuel, flow in

cyclone separators are examples of this category of two-phase flow.

c) Liquid–solid flow – this type of flow is encountered in slurry transportation, food

processing as well as in various processes in biotechnology.

d) Liquid–liquid flow – This type of flow is also characterized by the presence of a

deformable interface (similar to gas–liquid flow) and processes several features
similar to other two-phase flow phenomena. Liquid–liquid flow is common in
petroleum industries and chemical reactors.
Method of analysis of single and two-phase flow: A comparison
It is interesting to note that two-phase flow occurs when an additional fluid is introduced
in the flow passage, but a straightforward extension of single-phase momentum equation
does not give us information about two-phase hydrodynamics. For example, single-phase
pressure drop for flow of an incompressible fluid through an inclined pipe can be
obtained from the following equation:

dp S d
     g sin   G 2 v  (1)
dz A dz

Where, τ, A, S, G, ρ and v are the wall shear stress, cross sectional area, interfacial area,

mass flux, density and specific volume of the fluid respectively.

However, when we apply eqn (1) to two-phase flow, the corresponding equation is:

 dp dS1 dS 2 d
  w1   w2  TP g sin    G1v1  G2 v2  (2)
dz dA dA dz

where ρ has been replaced by ρTP and υ by υTP. It may be noted that ρTP ≠ 1/ υTP since ρTP

is an additive function of volumetric composition while υTP is additive in terms of

mixture quality. Therefore, during two phase flow ρTP and υTP can be expressed in terms

of individual phase properties as,

TP   2  1    1

vTP  xv2  1  x  v1
Further, there is no obvious relationship between the wall shear stress in single and two-

phase flow and we need information about the interfacial shear stress i . In addition, S

includes S1 and S2 while A includes A1 and A2 where 1 and 2 are the two-phases. Single

phase flow can be categorised as laminar, turbulent or a transition between the two. On

the other hand, in two phase flow the phases can distribute themselves in a wide variety

of ways which is not under the control of an experimenter or designer and the phase

distribution can vary with: -

 Flow geometry (size and shape) and orientation (vertical, horizontal and inclined)

 Flow direction in vertical or inclined flows (up or down)

 Phase flow rates and properties (density, viscosity, interfacial tension, wettability)

In addition, during two phase flow, the lighter fluid tends to flow past the heavier one.
As a result, the in-situ volume fraction is different from the inlet volume fraction of the
two-fluids. So, any analysis of two-phase requires an accurate knowledge of:

a) The distribution of the two phases

b) The in-situ composition, which has no direct relationship with the inlet
composition and varies with phase physical properties, their flow rates and
interfacial distribution.

Thus it can be concluded that the hydrodynamics becomes more complex by the mere

introduction of a second phase in the flow passage and this can be attributed to the

following factors:-

1. Existence of multiple, deformable and moving interfaces

2. Multi scale physics of the flow phenomena

 3. Significant discontinuities of fluid properties and complicated flow field

near interface

4. Compressibility of the gas phase (for gas-liquid and vapor liquid flows)

5. Different wall interactions for different fluids

Prior to an analysis of two phase flows it is important to understand the distribution of the

two phases in the test passage. The next chapter presents a comprehensive discussion on

the flow patterns which occur in circular conduits for different fluid pairs, conduit

orientation and so on. In Chapter 3 the different methods of analysis and the conventional

notations used in studies of multiphase flow have been elaborated in order to ensure that

consistent notations are used in subsequent analysis of multiphase flow in the following

chapters. In chapter 3, 4 and 5 simple analytical models namely the homogeneous flow

model, the drift flux model and the separated flow model have been elaborated and

specific application to different relevant flow patterns have been discussed. Henceforth,

chapter 6 discusses the measurement schemes of different hydrodynamic parameters

during two phase flow in order to provide a flavor of the additional difficulties

encountered during experimentation with two phase/multiphase flow situations. In order

to maintain conciseness, three parameters have been selected for the discussion. They are

(i) two phase pressure drop in order to highlight the additional complexities involved in

measuring during two phase flow as compared to single phase flow and two parameters

characterizing two phase flow namely (ii) in-situ composition and (ii) estimation of flow

pattern
 Chapter 2 - A Discussion on Flow Patterns:

During the simultaneous flow of two phases through any conduit, the two fluids can
distribute themselves in a wide variety of ways, which is not under the control of the
experimenter or the designer. There could be a large number of possible distributions,
depending on the geometry and orientation of the tube as well as physical properties and
velocity of the two phases. Nevertheless, a few factors restrict the variety of interfacial
distribution. These include (a) the surface tension effects which tend to create curved
interfaces and keeps the channel wall always wet with liquid during gas-liquid flows
(unless the wall temperature is above the saturation temperature) and (b) gravity which
tends to pull the heavier phase at the bottom in a non-vertical channel. A close
observation of the different interfacial distributions reveals that they can be broadly
delineated into different flow regimes or flow patterns which are characterised by typical
topographical distribution of the two phases.

An accurate estimation of the different patterns is essential for the understanding and
analysis of two-phase flow since all the transport processes like momentum, heat as well
as mass transfer are strongly influenced by the phase distribution. Therefore, a large
number of studies, both experimental and theoretical, have been reported on the
characterization of flow patterns for different combinations of the two phases.

From a survey of the past studies, it is observed that many of the two-phase systems have
a common geometrical structure. Accordingly, two phase flow can be classified into
several major groups such as separated flow, transitional or mixed flow and dispersed
flow. The different flow patterns which confirm to the aforementioned descriptions for
different fluid types are listed in Table2.1.
 Table 2.1: Generalised flow patterns for different fluid types

Flow pattern Classification of flow Schematic Description Application

pattern

Separated flow  Film flow Liquid film in  Film

 Gas-liquid gas/Gas film in condensation
stratified liquid  Film boiling
flow
Lighter fluid
 Liquid-liquid flowing over the
stratified heavier one
flow

 Gas-liquid-
liquid three
layer flow

 Annular flow Gas core Annular Flow,

 Core annular Rewetting, Film
flow (for Liquid film boiling,
liquid-liquid Transportation of
cases) Viscous liquid core
and water film crude oil

 Jet flow Liquid jet in gas/

Gas jet in liquid Jet condenser

Dispersed flow  Bubbly Gas bubbles in Chemical reactors
liquid

 Droplet flow Liquid droplets in Spray cooling

namely an immiscible
Oil droplet in water liquid/ gas
Water droplet in oil

 Particulate Solid particles in Transportation of

flow gas/liquid powder

Mixed/transitional  Cap, slug, Sodium boiling in

flow churn forced convection

 Bubbly Gas bubbles in Evaporators with wall

annular flow liquid film nucleation

Gas core

 Droplet Gas core with Steam generator

annular flow/ droplets and
Wispy annular liquid film
annular flow
Irregular liquid
chunks in
continuous gas
core which is
separated from
 pipe wall by an
annular liquid film

 Bubbly Gas core with Boiling nuclear

droplet droplets reactor channel
Annular
Liquid film with
flow gas bubbles

 Three layer Oil at top Oil transportation

flow
Water at bottom

Oil-water droplets
at middle.

Depending on the type of interface, the class of separated flow can be divided into plane

flow which includes film and stratified flow and quasi-axisymmetric flow consisting of

the annular and jet flow regimes. The class of dispersed flow is usually subdivided by

considering the phase of dispersion. Accordingly, three regimes are distinguished:

bubbly, droplet or mist and particulate flow. In each regime, the geometry of dispersion

can be spherical, spheroidal, distorted, etc. Since the change of interfacial structures

occur gradually, we have a third class which is characterised by the presence of both

separated and dispersed flow. In this case too, it is more convenient to subdivide the class

of mixed flow according to the phase of dispersion. The flow patterns thus obtained are

depicted in Table 2.1.

In the following section, the typical flow patterns for different fluid combinations (gas-

liquid, liquid-liquid, gas-solid and gas-liquid-liquid), pipe orientations

(vertical/horizontal) and flow conditions (heated or unheated) have been discussed in

order to understand the influence of operating variables on phase distribution. A short

discussion on the influence of pipe fittings has been provided to compliment the chapter.

In conclusion, a discussion on the different ways of representing the range of existence of

various flow patterns viz the flow pattern maps have been presented.

1. Vertical co-current gas-liquid upflow: A schematic of the different air-water flow

regimes observed in a vertical tube are shown in Fig.2.1 and described below:

a) Bubbly flow- Liquid flows as a continuous phase in which gas bubbles of

approximately uniform size are observed. The bubble diameter is not
comparable to the diameter of the tube.
b) Slug flow- As the gas flow rate is increased, number of bubbles increase and
they coalesce to form elongated bubbles having spherical nose and cylindrical
tail. These bullet shaped axisymmetric bubbles are termed as Taylor bubbles
in two phase terminology. Such bubbles are also observed during the draining
of water from bottles with a narrow neck and when a volume of air rises
through a stationary column of liquid. In slug flow, the Taylor bubbles are
separated by liquid slugs which may or may not be aerated. The periodic
passage of Taylor bubbles and liquid slugs across any cross-section (Fig.2.1)
characterises slug flow. In the Taylor bubble regions, the liquid flows
downward as a thin annular film from the preceding to the succeeding liquid
slug. This forms a wake region when it meets the liquid slug. The vorticity
induced in the wake shears bubbles from the tail of the Taylor bubble and
aerates the liquid slugs.
c) Churn flow-With a further increase in airflow, the Taylor bubbles become
longer till they break and cause a random and chaotic mixture propagating
through the tube. This pattern is known as churn flow. It is highly unstable
and oscillatory in nature and can be differentiated from slug flow by the
absence of the periodic character.
d) Annular Flow- With further increase in gas flow, the gas bubbles coalesce to
form a continuous gas core and the liquid is forced to flow as an annular film
between the gas core and the pipe wall. Some liquid gets sheared from the
 film and forms a bridge in the gas phase. Several researchers have identified
this as a different flow pattern and named it as wispy annular flow.

Fig.2.1. Gas-liquid Flow patterns in vertical upflow

2. Horizontal co-current gas-liquid flow- In a horizontal pipe, the effect of gravity

causes stratification of the two phases and accounts for the differences in flow
regimes. The different patterns are presented in Fig.2.2 and described as follows:
a) Bubbly flow- In case of horizontal flow, the bubbles accumulate on the top

for moderate liquid velocity.

b) Plug/Slug flow- As the air flow rate increases, the bubbles coalesce and form
long plugs which are also confined to the upper region of the tube. The
intermittent liquid slugs may or may not be aerated.
c) Stratified flow- With further increase of air flowrate, plugs coalesce to form
stratified flow. At relatively lower flowrates the interface is smooth while at
higher flowrates, the interface becomes wavy and the wave amplitude
increases with phase velocities.
d) Annular flow-This has the same appearance as mentioned in vertical flow and
is characterised by a continuous gas core and an annular liquid film between
 the gas core and the pipe wall. However, the film thickness is not uniform and
the liquid film is substantially thicker at the bottom of the pipe.

Fig.2.2 Flow pattern in horizontal flow

3. Flow Patterns in vertical heated tubes: The flow patterns observed in a vertical
heated tube are different from those observed in an unheated tube under the same
flow conditions due to the presence of heat flux at the channel wall. As a result of
heat transfer through the wall, thermodynamic non- equilibrium exists at a particular
cross section. This is evident from the simultaneous presence of sub-cooled liquid and
superheated vapour. Further, as the quality changes along the direction of flow,
different flow regimes appear along the flow direction. For a long tube there could be
transition from sub-cooled liquid regime to super heated vapour regime through a
number of flow patterns. A schematic representation of vertical tubular channel
heated by a uniform low heat flux and fed at its base with liquid below its saturation
temperature is shown in Fig.2.3. It shows the absence of the chaotic churn flow
pattern and the appearance of mist/ droplet flow at high vapour velocities. Such a
distribution is not formed in an unheated tube.
8/10/2011

Fig. 2.3 Flow regimes in vertical evaporator tubes

4. The corresponding situation in horizontal heated tubes – The influence of

gravity makes the situation more complex in a horizontal heated channel. There is
departure from hydrodynamic and thermal equilibrium as in vertical flows through
heated channels as well as asymmetric phase distribution and stratification due to
horizontal orientation. Therefore several important features can be observed namely:
1) Possibility of intermittent drying and rewetting of upper surface of tube in
wavy flow.
2) Progressive drying out over long tube length of upper circumference of tube
wall in annular flow.
3) Less obvious effect of gravity at higher inlet liquid velocities give more
symmetrical flow patterns and closer similarities to vertical flows.
Unique flow patterns can also be observed during condensation as shown in Fig.
2.4.
 8/10/2011

Fig. 2.4

5. Flow patterns for liquid-liquid systems: Certain interesting features are noted when
the gas phase is replaced by a second immiscible liquid (say oil). For horizontal pipes, the
stratified flow pattern gives way to three-layer flow with increase in phase flow rate. This
pattern is characterised by an oil layer at the top and a water layer at the bottom with a
dense dispersion of droplets separating the two as shown in Fig. 2.5 (a). Such a
distribution has not been observed for gas-liquid cases under any flow conditions.
Moreover, liquid-liquid dispersed flow can comprise of either oil in water dispersion or
water in oil dispersion depending on the flow conditions unlike the presence of only gas-
in liquid dispersions for the previous case. This is evident from Fig. 2.5 (c) which
presents flow patterns for a vertical pipe of the same dimension. The transition between
the two types of dispersed flow is termed as phase inversion and is unique to liquid-liquid
flows. It has received much academic interest and industrial concern due to its uniqueness
and complexity. For vertical tubes, the flow is either dispersed or core-annular with the
tendency of formation of the core-annular pattern increasing with the viscosity of the oil.
This is an extremely fortunate situation since it results in a drastic reduction of the power
required to pump the liquid. A comparison of Figs 2.5 (a) and (b) highlights the tendency
of slugging at reduced tube dimensions.

H/25mm Narrow/12mm V/25mm

SS

S
SW

TL R

D
C

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.5 Typical flow patterns during oil-water flow through (a) horizontal pipe of
25.4 mm (b) horizontal pipe of 12.7 mm (c) vertical pipe of 25.4mm

6. Flow patterns for gas-liquid-liquid three phase flows: Simultaneous flow of two
immiscible liquids and a gas is not uncommon in industry. A large variety of flow
patterns can be observed during such three phase flow. A brief description of the typical
flow pattern in three phase flow is provided here. In horizontal pipes, a three layer flow
pattern is observed at low flow rates (Fig.2.6). At higher phase velocities, the air usually
exists as plugs which alternate with liquid slugs. The distribution of the two liquids in the
slug can be either stratified or dispersed depending on the flow rates. The slug flow
pattern is also the most predominant flow pattern for vertical pipes where they are
characterised by axisymmetric bullet shaped air Taylor bubbles intercepted by liquid
slugs. The distribution in the liquid slug can be either oil in water dispersed flow, water in
oil dispersed flow or an emulsified flow at high phase velocities as shown in Fig. 2.7.
 Three layer flow Slug – smooth stratified flow

Slug – wavy stratified flow Slug – dispersed flow.

Fig.2.6 Flow patterns in (a) horizontal (b) co-current upward air-water-kerosene

flow
 Fig.2.7 Flow patterns in vertical co-current upward air-water-kerosene flow

7. The commonly encountered patterns in gas-solid flows (pneumatic conveying and

fluidisation): Traditionally, flow regimes have been divided into two main groups: dilute
and dense. The transition between these two regimes for vertical conveying systems is
defined by the choking velocity. The dense flow regime is usually divided into specific
flow regimes such as slugging, bubbling, fluidizing and plugging (Fig.2.8). The
accumulated and classical choking presents two possible transitions from dilute flow
regime. When the gas velocity is reduced at a fixed solid flow rate, the dilute flow turns
into slugging flow or a non-slugging dense phase flow. The condition when the dilute
flow becomes non-slugging is called accumulated choking and is related to the
accumulation of solid at the bottom of the pipe line. The condition when the dilute flow
becomes a slugging flow is called classical choking and is related to the formation of
slugs. Although pneumatic conveying and fluidized bed systems are designated for
different tasks, they nonetheless have many similarities. For example, for both systems
dilute flow, fast fluidization, turbulent fluidization, slugging fluidization, bubbling flow
and fluidized flow regimes occur. The dilute flow regime is characterized by suspension
flow at high gas velocity and low solid mass flow rate. For pneumatic systems, the dilute
flow regime is most commonly used, while for fluidized bed systems this regime might
occur as a bypass process for emptying the column or when the inserted sample has a
wide size distribution. For a wide particle size distribution, the large particles are
fluidized at the lower part of the column while the fine powders might be carried over by
a dilute flow regime. By reducing the gas velocity, suspension flow is halted and particle
clusters might appear. The flow regime occurring after the appearances of particle
clusters is termed as fluidization. The turbulent fluidization regime is characterized by
extreme particle turbulence without large discrete bubbles or voids. The slugging flow
regime is characterized by a particle dense phase transport that is facilitated by bubbles
whose size is comparable to the pipe diameter. The bubbling flow regime, on the other
hand, is characterized by smaller bubbles.

Two more possible flow regimes occur in a pneumatic conveying system, but are not
common in fluidized system. The first is the plug flow regime which is characterized by
particles that are transported as plugs separated by air gaps. Sometimes these particles fall
from the bottom of one plug and collect at the front of consequent plug. This
phenomenon is known as “particle rain” and occurs when the cohesion force between the
particles is smaller than the particle weight. The worst case scenario for designers of
pneumatic conveying systems is blockage. The flow conditions which causes blockage
can be defined as a kind of flow regime.

Fig. 2.8 Typical flow patterns during gas-solid flow

8. Gas-liquid flow patterns in other applications:

a) Vertical downward flow: Downward flow of a gas-liquid mixture is unstable

as the gas phase tends to move up. However, in certain range of the operating
condition such flow can be established. Annular flow regime occurs at low
liquid flow rates while a falling liquid film occurs with no gas flow. Slug and
bubbly flow occur only at liquid velocities greater than bubble rise velocity.

b) Inclined Channels: Usually stratification occurs only for very low superficial
velocities and inclinations close to the horizontal. Smooth stratified flow
disappears on slight deviation from the horizontal orientation and stratification
disappears completely for inclinations beyond 300. In addition, the shape of
the Taylor bubbles changes as the inclination is increased from horizontal to
vertical. The nose becomes more pointed and the bubble more asymmetric as
the inclination increases from 0 to 450 (approximately) from the horizontal as
shown in the fig.2.9. Subsequently, the nose of the bubble assumes the nice
rounded shape observed for Taylor bubbles in vertical tubes. This results in
higher rise velocity of the bubble with increase in inclination from 0 to 450
and a subsequent decrease with a further increase in inclination.
 8/10/2011

Fig.2.9 Taylor bubble in (a) Vertical tube (b) Inclined tube

c) Rectangular Channels: In these channels flow is similar to circular channels

when the aspect ratio is not very different from unity. Nevertheless, unique
flow regimes may be observed for extreme values of the aspect ratio. Presence
of corners in the flow geometry influences the flow regime as the corner
regions tend to retain the liquid film. However, such effects are pronounced in
flow channels of smaller cross-sections.

d) Annular channels: A very interesting phenomena occurs when a rod is

inserted in the flow passage of circular tubes. The rod induces gross
asymmetry in the slug flow pattern. This asymmetry arises due to the
asymmetric shape of the Taylor bubbles. They partially enclose the inner tube
and form open annular rings as shown in Fig 2.10.
 Fig 2.10 Taylor bubble in (a) circular tube (b) concentric annulus

e) Bends and Coils: A bend or a coil act to separate the phases due to the
presence of centrifugal force. For example, a bend will induce coalescence of
bubbles to form slug flow and will separate entrained droplets in annular flow.
At low superficial velocity, the action of gravitational forces and the fact that
vapour phase tends to flow faster than the liquid phase greatly complicates the
picture. In a vertical pipe joined to a horizontal pipe via a 90 degree bend the
momentum of the upflowing liquid tries to carry it to the outside of the bend
and gravitational forces tend to make it fall to the inside of the bend. Fig 2.11
presents a few photographs to highlight the effect of pipe fittings on oil-water
flow. The phenomena of film inversion as oil-water stratified flow turns round
a return bend is evident from Fig. 2.11 (a). The change of interfacial
distribution as liquid-liquid flow encounters an abrupt contraction or
expansion is evident from the following two figures. They emphasis upon the
 onset of dispersion as the flow encounters an expansion and the reverse
phenomena as the cross-section reduces abruptly.

Effect of Pipe fittings

Film inversion at bend

Formation of three layer

from stratified wavy at
sudden expansion

Formation of kerosene plug

from three layer at sudden
contraction

Fig.2.11 Effect of pipe fittings on oil-water two phase flow (a) Film Inversion at a
hairpin bend (b) Onset of dispersion at an expansion ((c) Coalescing effect at a
contraction

9. Flow Pattern Maps: It is very important to predict the pattern which is likely to occur
for a given set of flow parameters. One method of representing the various transitions is
in the form of a flow pattern map which is a two-dimensional graph segregated into areas
representing the range of existence of the different patterns. Different dimensional as well
as dimensionless parameters have been frequently used as the co-ordinate axes of the
maps. Some of the frequently used non-dimensional parameters include two phase
Froude number, Eotvos number and Weber number, Reynolds number of the individual
phases/mixture for gas-liquid and liquid-liquid systems and Reynolds number and
Archimedes number for fluid-particle systems. However, the most commonly used axes
for gas-liquid and liquid-liquid flow maps are the actual or superficial phase velocities of
the two phases defined as the volumetric flow rate per unit cross-sectional area of the
pipe. The flow pattern maps commonly used for horizontal and vertical gas-liquid flow
are shown in Figs 2.12 (a) and (b). It may be noted that although the use of superficial
velocity restricts the application of the maps to fluids with a limited variation of
properties, it is preferred due to its simplicity. In addition, one dimensionless parameter
which may be adequate to represent one particular transition may not be suitable for a
different transition governed by a different balance of forces.

8/10/2011

Fig 2.12 (a) Flow Regime map for horizontal gas-liquid flow
Fig 2.12 (b) Flow Regime map for vertical gas-liquid flow

An alternative and more flexible method to overcome this difficulty is to examine each
transition individually and derive a criterion for that particular transition based on the
principle underlying the mechanism. For example, bubble to slug flow transition is
generally modelled on the basis of bubble coalescence which depends on a critical void
fraction whereas flooding and flow reversal are responsible for slug-churn and churn-
annular transition.

Recently, soft computing that includes Artificial Neural Network, Fuzzy logic or Genetic
Algorithm is being increasingly used to produce generalised flow pattern maps from
known input parameters.

Gas-Solid Flow
A gas-solid flow is characterized by the flow of gases with suspended solids. This type of
flow is fundamental to many industrial processes such as pneumatic
transport, particulate pollution control, combustion of pulverized coal, drying of food
products, sand blasting, plasma-arc coating and fluidized bed mixing. The dynamics and
thermal history of particles in gases also affect the performance of rocket motors using
metallized fuels, the quality of some pharmaceutical products and the design of advanced
techniques for materials processing.
Various features of gas-solid flows can be best understood by considering the motion and
thermal history of particles in a gas flow field. The equation of motion for a spherical
particle of diameter D accelerating in a gas stream is
(1)

where m is the particle mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity, ρg is the gas density,
CD is the drag coefficient and up and ug are the particle and gas velocities respectively.
Dividing through by the particle mass yields
(2)

where ρp is the material density of the particle and Rep is the particle Reynolds
Number based on the relative velocity, particle diameter and gas properties. The factor
CDRep/24 is the ratio of the drag coefficient to Stokes drag and is represented by the
factor f. This factor is a function of the particle Reynolds number but may also depend on
other parameters such as particle shape, Mach number based on the relative velocity and
turbulence level (Clift et al., 1978). For small particle Reynolds number (Rep ≤ 1) the
factor approaches unity which corresponds to Stokes flow. (See also Stokes
Law and Spheres, Flow Around and Drag)
The coefficient of the drag term in the particle motion equation has dimensions of
reciprocal time and leads to the definition of the particle velocity response time
(3)

This time is a measure of the responsiveness of a particle to a change in gas velocity. For
example, the time required for a particle released from rest in a gravity-free environment
to achieve 63% of the gas velocity in Stokes flow is one velocity response time. Also the
distance a particle would penetrate into a stagnant gas before stopping is u0τV, where u0 is
the initial particle velocity. This distance is called the stopping distance. The terminal
velocity a particle would achieve falling through a stagnant gas is gτv.
Neglecting radiative heat transfer and assuming there is no change of phase of the particle
material, the equation for particle temperature assuming a uniform internal temperature is
(4)

where c is the specific heat of the particle material, Nu is the Nusselt Number and Tp and
Tg are the particle and gas temperatures respectively. Dividing through by the mass and
specific heat yields a coefficient for the heat transfer term which is the reciprocal of
the thermal response time; namely,
(5)
which is a measure of the thermal responsiveness of the particle to a change in gas
temperature. At low Reynolds numbers, the Nusselt number is 2. Empirical expressions
are available for higher particle Reynolds numbers and other effects (Clift et al., 1978).
For particles in a gas, the thermal response time and velocity response time are of the
same order of magnitude.
The response times are used in the definition of Stokes number which is the ratio of the
particle response time to a time characteristic of the flow system. For example, consider
the gas-solids flow through a venturi geometry shown in Figure 1 A time which would be
representative of the fluid residence time in the venturi would be
(6)

where L is the throat diameter and uT is the flow velocity in the throat region. The Stokes
number based on the velocity response time is:
(7)

For Stokes numbers much less than unity, the particles have sufficient time to maintain
near velocity equilibrium with the gas and the gas-solids flow could be regarded as a
single-phase flow with modified density. On the other hand, if the Stokes number is large
compared to unity, the particle motion is unaffected by the change in gas flow velocity
through the venturi.

Figure 1.
The same definition of Stokes number applies to thermal response time as well. For low
Stokes numbers, the particles maintain near thermal equilibrium with the gas. At large
Stokes numbers, the particles have no time to respond to the changes in gas temperature.
A basic definition in gas solids flows is dilute and dense flows. A dilute flow is a gas-
particle flow in which the particle motion is controlled by the drag and lift forces on the
particle. In a dense flow, on the other hand, the particle motion is controlled primarily by
particle-particle collisions. A dilute flow would correspond to the conditions where the
stopping distance is less than that between particle-particle collisions. This definition is
important in understanding and modeling the velocity and thermal fields in a gas-solid
flow.
Another important feature of gas-solid flows is coupling which is the interaction between
phases. If the gas affects the motion and temperature of the particles but the particles do
not change the gas velocity or thermal flow fields, then flow is one-way coupled. On the
other hand, if there is a mutual interaction between phases, the flow is two-way coupled.
As an example of coupling, consider hot particles being transported by a cold gas in a
duct as shown in Figure 2. Assuming one-way coupling, the particle temperature
decreases toward the gas temperature while the gas temperature remains constant. With
two-way coupling, the gas temperature increases due to heat exchange with the particles
and the rate of particle temperature is reduced. Actually all flows are two-way coupled,
but for low particle concentrations, the effect of the particles on the gas field may be
negligible. Therefore, the assumption of one-way coupling would be justified thereby
simplifying the analysis of the flow system.

Figure 2.
Pneumatic transport is an important example of gas-solid flows because of its wide use
in industry to transport metal particles, grains, ores, cement, coal and other products not
susceptible to damage by contact with the pipe walls. The main advantage of pneumatic
transport is the flexibility of line location and the capability to tap the line at arbitrary
locations. The gas velocity for vertical transport has to exceed the settling (terminal)
velocity of the particles to maintain transport.
For horizontal pneumatic transport, various flow patterns are identified which depend on
several factors such as flow velocity and particle loading. The various flow patterns are
shown in Figure 3. Homogeneous flow occurs when the velocity is sufficiently high to
keep the particles in suspension. Dune flow begins as the velocity is lowered and particles
begin to settle out on the wall forming a dense flow region with a pattern like sand dunes.
The velocity at which particles begin to settle out is called the saltation velocity. Further
reduction in velocity leads to slug flow where there are alternate regions where particles
fill the pipe and where they are in suspension. The flow behaves like slug flow of the gas-
liquid flow regimes. Finally, with further reduction in velocity the particles become
packed in the pipe and form a packed bed while the gas moves through the interstitial
region between the particles. Even though the particles fill the pipe there may still be a
slow motion of the particle bed.

(a) Homogeneous Flow( )

(b) Dune Flow( )

(c) Slug Flow( )

 (d) Packed Bed( )
Figure 3.
A typical variation in pressure drop with flow velocity is shown in Figure 4. At high
velocities (in the homogeneous flow regime), the pressure drop varies with nearly the
square of the velocity as with a single-phase flow. The pressure drop for the particle-
laden flow is higher because the particles lose momentum on contact with the wall. The
force applied to the fluid over a length ΔL of pipe by the drag on the particles is
(8)

where n is the number of particles per unit volume and A is the cross-sectional area of the
pipe. Equating this force to the augmented pressure gradient in the pipe due to the
presence of the particles yields
(9)

where is the mass of particles per unit volume or the apparent or bulk particle density.
Thus one notes that the pressure loss increases with increased particle concentration and
gas-particle velocity difference (more momentum loss at the wall). The increase in
pressure gradient corresponds to a two-way coupling effect. There are several empirical
formulations available in the literature to estimate the pressure drop due to the particulate
phase.

Figure 4.
As the velocity is reduced to the saltation velocity, the cross-sectional area for the flow is
reduced because of the deposits on the wall. The effective flow velocity is increased and
the pressure loss is higher. To avoid deposition, higher pressure loss and possible
plugging, the pneumatic system should be designed with velocities exceeding the
saltation velocity of the slug flow regime. Various empirical expressions for saltation
velocity and friction factors for pressure drop due to the solid phase can be found in
Klinzing (1981).
The Fluidized Bed is another important example of a gas-solids flow and is a key element
in many chemical processes, particularly coal gasification, combustion and liquification
(Azbel and Cheremisinoff, 1983). Fluidized beds are also used for roasting ores and for
the disposal of organic, biological and toxic wastes. In essence, the fluidized bed consists
of a vertical cylinder loaded with particles and supplied with a gas through a distributor
plate in the bottom of the cylinder. As the gas flow is increased the bed goes through
several flow regimes (Hetsroni, 1982) as shown in Figure 5. At low flow rates, there is no
significant motion of the particles as the gas passes through a packed bed. With
increasing gas flow, a point is reached where the particles are just supported by the
hydrodynamic forces which is called particle fluidization. Further increase in gas velocity
leads to the formation of bubbles (region of low particle concentration) which move
upward in the bed and enhance mixing. With more gas flow, the bubbles grow to fill the
tube and the slug flow regime is realized and is similar to the slug flow pattern in vertical
gas-liquid flows. As the gas flow rate is further increased clusters of particles move about
the field in an irregular fashion. Finally, at the highest gas flow rate, clusters move up the
tube and out, with some downward motion near the wall, so the particles have to be
reintroduced at the bottom. This condition is called fast fluidization. Thus, the fluidized
bed has a range of flow regimes from dense to dilute flows. The fluidized bed is attractive
as a reactor because the gas is exposed to a large solids surface area to enhance surface
reactions and heat transfer. Also the bed operates at a nearly uniform temperature which
provides control of the reaction rates. Depending on the application, heat exchanger tubes
may be located in the bed itself (Howard, 1983). The flow in a fluidized bed is very
complex and difficult to scale up from bench scale to prototype operation.
 Figure 5.

Liquid-Solid Flow