STRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Let F be any field, and V

is the set of all n-tuples x= (,, Xy ., *) O
salars xin F. Ify =Or Yg ., y) with y, in F, the sum of xand y is defined by
md the product of a scalar c and a vector x is defined by
cX = (cx, cx ., cx), then prove that V is a vector space.
Sol. (1)Under addition
()Closure y .., I, ¬ F

Y,¬ F.
+y

x+ye V,() V*, yE V,E).

() Commutativity

" x;eF, y, e Fand

Commutative law holds in F

x+y=ytx , y¬ V,(F)
(ü) Associativity

= (x, +y1

=( , X

(x+ y) tz=xt (y+2) V, y, z¬ V,(F).

(iv) Existence of identity
that
V(,, , .. *) eV,(F), 3 (0, 0, 0, ..., 0) in V(F) such
I,, , ., x,) + (0, 0, ..., ) = (, x ., *)
= (0, 0, ..., 0) + (x, , *)
i: (0, 0, ..,0) isthe zero element of V, (F).
Thus, x+0 =0+x Vxe V,() and 0e V,()
M-14.12 TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING
(v) Existence of inverse
MATHEMATICS
Vr= (*, ,, ...*,) eV,(F).
3-*=(-*, -X, .., -x)e V,(F) such that
(-a) +x=0=*+ (-x)
Hence -x is the inverse element of xin V,(F).
(2) Under scalar nmultiplication
VyeV,(F) and ae F
we have,
() a(* +y) =al(*, *...) +( , Y . )}
= al(x, +y)+(*, t y) t...+(, +y)}
= a(x, +y,)+ a(x, + y) + ... + a(x, + y)
= (ax, + ay,)+ (ax, t ay,) + ... + (ax, + ay,)
=(ax,, a, ax) + (a), ay,, .., )y,)
= ax t ay.
(ü) (a + b)x=(a + b) (, y ., )
= {(a+ b) *,, (a + b) , .., (a+ b) x}
= (ax, + bx, ax, + bxz
= (ax,, arg ., ax) + (bx,, ba .., bx)
= a(k,, x . . ) + b, *.. )
= ax + bx.
(üm) a(bx) =a{b(x,, x , *)} =a(bx, bx ..., bx)
= (abx,, abx, ..., abx,)
= (ab) (x Xy. ,*) = (ab)x.
(iv) lx= 1(, z ., *) = (lx,, 1x .., l )
Thus, V satisfies all the conditionsof vector space, hence V
is a vector space.
Example 2. Proue that R xRis a vector space over R under addition and scalar
multiplication defined by (x, x) +O, Y)=(,ty, x, +y) and a(x, *)=(,
Sol. The binary operation () is commutative and associative and (0, 0) is the
element.
The inverse of (1,, x,) is (- X, - *).
Hence (R x R, +)is an abelian group.
Let u= (x, x) and v = (y,, y,) and a, Be R.
Then alu + u) =a<(, x)+ (o; y)]

= (ax,, ) + (ay, ay)

=a(x, x) t a , Y,) = au t av
(a + B)u =(a + ) (* *) = {(a+ p) x,, (a + B) x)
= (ax, + B*,, , + Bx,)
ECTORSPACES M-14.13

= (az, ax) +(Bx,, Br)

= a(s, x) + B(I,, X,)
= u+ Bu.
Also,
a(ßu) =aB(,, x)) = a(ßx,,Bx) =(aßx,, aßz)
= (aß) (x,, ) = (aß) u
nd lu = 1(*, x)= (lx, lx,) = (*,, x) = u.
Thus R x R satisfies all the properties of vector space.
Hence. R× R is a vector space over R.
Example 3. Show that the set M, (R) of all 2 x2 matrices is a vector space over R
nder matrix addition and scalar multiplication defined by
| a ab|
C d
Sol. Addition (+) is a binary operation in the set M,R). Associative and commutative
s hold for the binary operation () in M,(R).
The matrix fo 0] eM,R), is the identity element for the operation (+). The inverse
0 0
the matrix e M,R) is -*2 which also belongs to M,(R).
Hence, M, (R) is an abelian group under matrix addition.

Let and M, e M,(R)

and a, Be R.

Then,

= +

+ a = aM, t aM,

[(a+ B)x (u +Bx4

(a+ B) M, = (a +| |(a +px, (a+Bx,

=aM, + pM
M-1414 ATEXTBOOK OF ENGINEEEERING MATHEMATICS

[(aßx, (aß,
(aßx, (oßx,
= (ap)M,

and

Hence, the set M, (R)of all 2 x 2 matrices is a vector space over Runder the opetation
addition and scalar multiplication.
Example 4. Let V be the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers. Addition and
multiplication are defined by (r, y) +(*, y) =(r t x, y+y) and a, y) =(%, ay).
where z, y, x, 9, and a are real numbers. Show that Vis not a vector space over R.
Sol. V is an abelian group under the operation (+) as defined by the problem.
Let a, Be R and x, ye V.
Now (a+ p) (z, y) = (x, (a +B)y} = (, ay + By).
Also a(z, y) + BE, y) = (z, ay) + (, By) = (2z, ay + By).
But (I, ay + By) (2x, ay + Bo)
L.e.., (a + B) (, )) a(, y) + B(z, y)
Hence, Visnot a vector space over R.
Example 5. Show that the set V of all real valued continuous (differentiable or
integrable) functions defined in the interval (0, ) is the vector space over the field Rof real,
numbers with respect to addition and scalar multiplication defined as given below:
(f+g) () =f(x) +g(x), Vf.ge Vand re (O, 1].
(af)(x) af(x), VfeV, ae R and xe [0, 1].
Sol. () (V, +) is an abelian group.
(ü) V is closed w.r.t. scalar multiplication, since af, for a e R, fe V is also a real
valued continuous functions in (0, 1].
(ui) If ae R and f. ge V, then
[al f+ g)] (*) = a<(ft g) (x)] = a[ f(x) + g()]
= af() +t a g()= [af+ ag] ()
aft g) = af t ag.
(iw) If a, Be R and fe V, then
(a + pf] (3) = (a + B) f) = af(r) + Bf(x)
= (af) (*) + (Bf) ()
ie., (a t B)f= af + Bf.
(v) If a, Be Rand fe V, then
|(ap)) (x) = (ap)•(x) = alBf))
= a<(B) )) = (a(BfOI)
L.e.,
 M14.151
erok'SPACEs
(v) If 1is thhe unity of Rand fe V, then
(1-) (*) = 1f(*) )
1.f= f
Thus, VK) satisties all the properties of vector space, hence V (R) is a vector space.
Example 6. Prove that the set of alu real solutions of the differential equation
+wy =0 forms a linear vector space over areal field.
Sol. Let Vbe the set of real solutions of the given equation. Let y, and y, are wo
lsolutions of the differential equation
...)
+ w²y 0kyor ovt
d

Then, dy2 + w'y, =0 and

Adding the above two equations, we get
(, +y) t w² (y, +) =0.
dy2
This shows that , + y,) satisfies the equation () that is, y, ty, is a real solution
).
Hence, Y +y, e V.
element. If y is a solution
The function y = 0 is also a solution of (), which is the null
t() so is - y.
number, is a real solution of the
Also, for every real solution y, ay where oa is a real
quation (),

Since (ay) + w² (ay) = ,d'y

a + aw²y = a
dx +w'ya0=0
ay e V

(a + 8) dx
{(a+B) y}+w*{(a +p) y}

= (a+B)
dy
+ (a +B)wty =a,
d? dy2 + w² ay + w'ßy
d

d'y
dy
the set of real solution of
Thus, all the axioms of vector space are satisthed, hence
the given equation is a vector space.
addition and multiplication is defined
Example 7, Given R x R with usual
by ax, y) =(ax, ay). Show that RxR is not a vector space over R.
is an abelian group.
Sol. R x R with usualaddition
p)² y)
Now, (a + B) (x, y) = ((a + B) x, (a +
= (ax + Bx, a²y + B'y + 2aßy)
 ATEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING
M-14. 16 MATHEMATIC
and
- (ax + Bx, a'y + By)
These show that
(a +B) x, v) ax, y) + Bt. y).
Hence, Rx Ris not a vector spaeover R.
Example 8. Let R be the set of all positive real numbers. Addition and srglar
multplation in R* are defined as follows:
a+b=ab for all a, be R':
aa = a for all a e R and a e R.
Shou that R' is a real vector space.
Sol. (R", +) is an abelian group with identity 1.
Now ala + b) = a(ab) = (aby" [as defined in the problem)
=ab = aa + ab
(a +B) a =f= a a= aa + Ba
a(ßa) = ag = (aya = gu = a = (aß)a
Also la =al =a.
Thus, all the axiomns are satisfied in R', hence Ris a vector space over R.
 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example 1. Show that the set Wof ordered triad a, a, 0) where a,, a, EE,afeld,
is a sub-space of V, over F.
b,e F.
Sol. Let u= (a,, a, 0) and v= (b,, b,, 0) belong to W, where a,, a, b,,
If aand b be any two elements ofF, we have
au + bu= ala,, a,, 0) + b(b,, b,, 0)
= (aa,, aa,, 0) + (bb,, bb, 0)
= (aa, + bo,, aa, t bb,, 0) e W
Since (aa, + bb,), (aa, + bb,) F.
Therefore, W is a vector subspace of V, over F.
Example 2. Let V= {(z, y, z):, y, ze R}, where R is the field of real numbers. Show
that, if W= {(x, y, 2):*- 3y + 4z = 0}, it is a subspace ofVover R.
Sol. Let u, v¬ W, then we may write
u= (3y, - 42, Yy 2), (: x=3y- 42]
and V= (3y, - 42g Y Zy
If a, be R, we have
au + bu = a(3y, 4z, y, z) + b(8y, 42y Yy Zg)
= (3ay, - 4az,, ay,, az) + (3by 4b2, b b2,)
- (3(ay, +by,) 4(az, +bz), ay, + by, az, + bz
= (3l 4m, l, m) e W
where l= ay, t by, ¬ Rand m = az, + bz, E R.
Therefore, a, b E Rand u, vE W au + bue WN.
Hence, Vis a vector sub-space of V in R.
Example 3. Let W=f:fe Fx] and fa) = 0} i.e., Wis the set of all polynomials
Axl having 'a' as a root, where a e F. Prove that Wis a subspace over F.
Sol. If a is a root of f(r) = 0 then x - ae Wand hence Wis non-empty.
Let 6ge F[]
and a, Be F,
To prove af + Bg e W,
we have to show that a is a root of af+ Bg= 0.
Now (af +Be) (a) =afla) +Bgla) =a0+ B0 = 0.
Hence, a is a root of af + Bg = 0.
af +Bge Wand hence, Wis a subspace of F[*). subspace.
Example 4. Prove that the intersection of two subspaces ofa vector spaceis a
Sol. Let A and B be two subspaces of a vector space Vover a field F.
Toprove, An B is a subspace of V.
Now, 0 eAnBand hence AnBis non-empty.
CTORSPACES M-14.21

Let u, ve AnB and a. Be F.

Then u, ve A
u, ve B.
au +Bue Aand au +Bue B. (since Aand Bare subspaces)
au + Bue AnB.
Hence AnB is a subspace ofV.
Example 5. Prove that the union of two subspaces of a vector space need not be a
suhspace.
Sol. Let A= {(a, 0, 0); a e R}
B= (0, b, 0); be R}
Let u= (1, 0, 0) and v =(a,, 0, 0),
shere u, v¬e Aand a, ße R.
Then u + Bu a(a,, 0, 0) + B(a, 0, 0)
= (aa,, 0, 0) +(Ba, 0, 0)
= (aa, + Ba, 0, 0) e A.
Hence, Ais a subspac of R).
Similarly, it can be proved that B is a subspace of RS.
But Au Bis not a subspace of R®.
for (1, 0, 0) and (0, 1, 0) e AuB,
but (1, 0, 0)+ (0, 1, 0) =(1, 1, 0) AUB.
Hence, union of two subspaces of a vector space is not a subspace.
Example 6. Let Wbe the set of all pointsin R° satisfying the equation ax +by +cz =0.
Show that Wis a subspace of R.
Sol. Let u= (a,, b,, c,)and v =(a, b, c)e Wand a, Be R.
Then, we have
aa, + bo, t cc, =0
and aa, + bb, t cc, = 0
Hence, alaa, + bb, t cc,) + Blaa, + bb t cc) =0
Le.. alaa, +Ba,) +b(ab, +pb,) +cac, +Be) =0
au + BuE W, so that W is a subspace of R3
Example 7. Show that S=(%, y, 2) :*+y= is not a subspace of R'.
Sol. Let u, ve S, then we have
u=(-ih) and v-(Ve-.4)
If a, Be R
then au + Bu=

i* 8 is not a vector subspace of R3,

M-14.22 TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
A

Example 8. Prove that a set of polynomials of degree 2 need not be a subspace

Sol. Let Vbe the set of all polynomials of degree exactly equal to 2; V is a subset of
P, (polynomials of degree 2), but it is not a subspace of P, since the sum of the polynomials
-ax' + brtcand a+ 2kx t d being a polynomial of degree 1, is not in V.
Example 9. If avector space Vis the set of real valued continuous functions overR
d'y +119 - 4y =0is
then show that the set Wof solutions of the differential equation 3 dy2 dx
asubspace of V.
Sol. Given that the set Wcontains the solutions of the given equation,
i.e. W=: +11 dy -4y -o
where y= f(x)
dx
y=0satisfies the given equation, hence 0e W.
If y,, y, be any two elements of W, then we have,
d'y,
dy?
+11 dy - 4y, =0
dx
..(1)

and 3 d'dy2
y2 +11 dy
dx
4y, =0 .2)

Now for p, qe R, we obtain,

3
dy2 lPy;)+(gy,)]+1]dx [py +qy2)] - 4(py, +q',)
d'y
= 3p dy2 + 3q d'y2
du2
+11p-dyi
dx
+ 1lg dy2
dx
4py, 4qy,
d'y
=p|3 dy2 +11
dx -4y,+311Y-4y2p.0
dx2 dx +4.0 =0
[Using (1) and (2)l
Hence, (py, t qy) satisfies the given equation.
Py, t qy,) E W.
Thus the set W is a subspace of V.
ifevery
Example 10. Let Aand Bbe subspaces of a vector space V. Then An B=(0
vector ve A +B can be uniquely expressed in the form v=a +b, where ae Aand e
Sol. Iet AnB= {0}
and UE A+ B.
Let U=a, + b, = a, + b,,
where u,, u, ¬A and b,, b,, E B.
Then a, = b, - b,.
But a, eAand b, - b, e B.
Hence. a b, - b, EAnB.
Since AoB= (0},
u,- a, =0
and b, - b, = 0
FCTORSPACES M-14.23

that

nd b, = b
Hence, the expression of vin the form a + b, where a e Aand b¬ Bis unique.
Conversely, let us suppose that any element in A+ Bcan be uniquely expressed in
ho forma +b, where ae A and be B.
Then we claim that AnB= {0}.
If AnB {0}, let v eAn Band v 0.
Then 0=uU=0 +0.
Thus 0 has been expressed in the form a + 6 in two different ways which 1s a
ontradiction.
Hence, AnB= {0}.

TEST YOUR KNoWLEDGE

M-14.26 ATEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING
MATHEMATICS
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES sges
Example 1. Express v = (5, 9)as a linear combination of the ve
U, = (1, 2) and v, = (2, 3).
Sol. Let
i.e., (5, 9) = c,(1, 2) + c,(2, 3), where c, and c, are scalars.
F(c, + 2c,, 2c, + 3c,).
Equating the components from both sides,we have
c, + 2c, = 5 and 2c, + 3c,=9.
Solving these equations, we get c, = 3, C, = 1.
Hence, (5, 9) = 3(1, 2) + 1(2, 3).
Example 2. Express u= (3, 4, 5) as a linear combination of
U, = (1, 2, 3), v, = (2, 3, 4) and v, = (4, 3, 2).
Sol.
L.e., (3, 4, 5) = c,(1, 2, 3) + c, (2, 3, 4) + c(4, 3, 2)
= (c, + 2c, + 4c, 2c, + 3c, + 3cz, 3c, + 4c, + 2c)
Equating the components from both sides, we get
c + 2c, + 4c, = 3, 2c, + 3c, + 3c, = 4 and 3c, + 4c, + 2c, =5.
1 3
Solving these equations, we get c, =,=
2 4
and C 4
8S.

Hence, (3, 4, 5) = (1, 2, 3) + 3 (2, 3, 4) + (4, 3, 2).

2 4 4
Note. lf S= {U, Ugs ., } is a set of vectors in a vector space V, then the set of
Vthat are linear combinations of the all vectors
vectors in S is denoted by Span S or Span {v,, U ,
As an example, let the set S of 2 x 3 matrices be
given by

s-(6)-8
Then span S is the set in Mg Consisting
0

of all vectors of the form

0
Where À, , A,à, are real scalars.
Now we state and prove a theorem.
 ATEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING
M-14.28 MATHEMATICS
the vectors (1, 2, 1), (2, 1, 0) and (1, - 1, 2) are
Example 3. Prove that, in V(R), the
linearly independent.
Sol. Let À, (1, 2, 1) +A, (2, 1, 0), +2, (1, - 1, 2) = (0, 0, 0)
A, + 2A, t=0
2., +A- g =0 ..2)
A, + 2.4 =0
Solving (1), (2) and (3) we get , =A, =A=0
Hence the given set of vectors is linearly independent.
Example 4. In V, (R), prove that the vectors (1, 4, - 2), (- 2, 1, 3) and (-4, 11, 5) are
linearly dependent.
Sol. Let , (1, 4, 2) +A, (-2, 1, 3) + 4, (-4, 11, 5)= (0, 0, 0)
A -24,- 4A, =0 ..1
4À, +a, + 112, =0 ..2
- 2., + 3à, + 5à, = 0 ..3
From (1) and (2),

- 18 - 27 9

=k (say)
-2 -3 1
A, =- 2k, y =- 3k, g =k
Taking k=1, , =-2, A, =-3 and = 1
which satisfy eqn. (3) also. Since A, A, and A, non-zero scalars hence the given set
vectors is linearly dependent.
 dim W,+ im W.
v is a
Corollary 2. Let S be a linearly independent subset of a vector space V. If
which is not in the subspace spanned by S, then the set obtained by joining v to
vector in V
Sis linearly independent.
Corollary 3. In a finite-dimension vector space V every non-empty linearly
Independent set of vectors is a part of a basis.
Example 5. Shouw that the vectors (3, 0, 2), (7, 0, 9) and (4, 1, 2) form a basis for E3
Sol.We have easily proved that the given vectors are linearly independent.
Now we have to show that the vectors span (E"). To show it we require to prove that
for aany vector (a,, a,, a,) in E", it is possible to find real scalars A,, Az, Ay Such that
(a,, a, a,) = A,(3, 0, 2) + .,(7, 0, 9) + à,(4, 1, 2)
Now, (a,, a, a) =(3À,+7a, +4A, Ay 22, +9A, +24,)
Equating the like components from both sides, we get
3)., + 7,+ 44, = a, a, and 22,+ 9., + 22,= a4.
 M-14.32 ATEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING
MATHEMATICS
From these equations, real values of A,, Ay, A, can be found. Hence the given
form a basis for E'. vectors
Example 6. Find the basis of all real solutions of the differential equation
d'y +u'y =0.
Sol. Allreal solutions of the differential equation can be written as
y=asin wx +b cos wx,
where a and b are real numbers. The functions sin wx and cos wx are two lineariy
independent solutions of the equation.
Hence {sin wx, cos wx) is the basis.
Example 7. Find a basis for E that contains the vectors (1, 2, 0) and (2, 0, I).
Sol. Let the given vectors be
a, = (1, 2, 0) and a, = (2, 0, 1).
The standard basis for E is {e,, ez egs
where e, = (1, 0, 0), e, = (0, 1, 0)and e, = (0, 0, 1)
a, =(1, 2, 0) = le, + 2e, + Oe,
a, can replace any one vector from {e,, eg, e} to form a new basis. Let us consider
anew basis {a,, e, eg.
Let a, = (2, 0, 1) = 4,(1, 2, 0) + ^,(0, 1, 0) + 4,(0, 0, 1).
Equating the components from both sides, we get
y =2, 2, t dg =0and , =1
i.e., A,=2, A,=-4, y =1
(2, 0, 1)= 2(1, 2, 0) 4(0, 1, 0) + 1(0, 0, 1) = 2a, - 4e, te,
a, can replace e, or e, from {a,, e,, e} to form a new basis.
Hence, the new basis is {a,, , ez.
Example 8. Prove that the vectors (1, 1, ), (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 0) form a basis in E".
Also prove that the vector (1, 3, )) can replace any one off the three vectors of the basis to
form a new basis.
Sol. LetA be the matrix represented by the given vectors,
1 1 1] |1 1 1|
i.e., A=|1 1 o. Then |A|=1 1 0 =-1.
|1 0 0 1 0 0|
Hence, the rank of Ais 3 (since the matrix is non-singular).
Therefore, the vectors forming Aare linearly independent. Now, we have to show
that the vectors span E'.
Let (a,, a, a) be a vector of E and let
(a,, ay a) =A,(1, 1, 1) +hyl1, 1, 0) +A,(1, 0, 0) =(, +A, +Ay A, tAy
Equating the corresponding components from both sides, we get
A, +ay t y =aj, tA, =a, and A, =a,.
From these equations real values of A,, z, Ay can be found.
Hence, the vectors span E'.
CTORSPACES
M-14.33
The given vectors form a basis for E'.
Again, let
(1, 3, 1) =H(1, 1, 1) +(1, 1, 0) t,(1, 0, 0)
here r H are scalars.
Equating like components from both sides, we have
t t =1, H, t4, =3 and , =1
Solving these equations, we obtain
,=1, L, =2, 4, =-2.
Since and are non-zero scalars and (1, 3, 1) is a non-null vector, hence
3.1) together with any two vectors of the given basis can form a new
basis.
Example 9. Find the dimension of the subspace spanned by the vec'ors (1, 0, 2),
t. ), (1, 0. 1) in V{R).
Sol. Let A be the matrix represented by the given
vectors,
(1 0 2
A= 2 0 1
1 0 1)
1 0 2
Then |A| =|2 0 1| =0
1 0 1
: Ais singular. Hence the given three vectors forming Aare linearly dependent
and so the given three vectors do not form the basis of the subspace in V,(R).
Now, let à,(1, 0, 2) +(2, 0, 1) =0
Q., + 2., 0, 24, + 2,) =0= (0, 0, 0).
Equating like components from both sides, we get
A, + 2A, =0 and 2À, + 2, = 0
These two equations have no other solutions except A, =0and , =0.
Since à, and à., are zero, so the vectors (1, 0, 2) and (2, 0, 1) are linearly independent.
So (1, 0, 2) and (2, 0, 1)form the basis of the subspace of V, (R).
Hence, the dimension of the basis is 2.
Example 10. Show that the vectors (1, 0, 0),(0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) and (1, 2, 3) generate
e same space as generated by the vectors (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1).
Sol. Let us consider the linear combination of the set of vectors (1, 0, 0).
(0. 1, 0), (0, 0, 1), (1, 2, 3).
,(1, 0,0) +^,(0, 1, 0) +À(0, 0, 1) +2,(1, 2, 3)
= (a,t) (1, 0, 0) +(4,+ 22,) (0. 1, 0) +a, +3A,) (0, 0, 1).
Thus the two sets of vectors generate the same space.
Example 11. Ifu, v, wbe linearly independent vectors of V(), where Fis the field
Mreal numbers,show that(u tv), (u t w), (w +u) are also linearly independent.
Sol. Since u, v and w are linearly independent, therefore, their linear combination
2u t uu+ vw = 0implies, ) = u =u=0.
M-14.34 ATEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING
Now,
MATHEMATICS
A(u t v)+A, (u t w) +Ag (wtu) = a,utut gw) + Aget,u+ h0)
Since u, v, w are linearly independent, therefore
A,u+ A,u +A,w =0 and u t,u+A,w=0
implies,
Hence, à,(u +v) +A,u+w) +(w + u) =0
where y =y = y =0.
The vectors u + v, v + wand w+u are linearly independent.

Example 12. show that S- 6 Go spans the subspace of M,

consisting of all symmetric matrices.
a b
Sol. An arbitrary symmetric matrix has the form A = where a, b, care any
real numbers.

Let

The solution is , =a, , = b, Ag =C

Since we have obtained a solution for every choice ofa, b andc, we conclude that
spans the given subspace.
 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
Example 1. Let S= {e,, e., e,} be the natural (standard) basis for R' and let
=(3, - 2, 4). Compute the coordinate vector of v with respect to the basis S.
Sol. Since S is the natural basis, the linear combination of the vector v is
U= 3e, - 2e, + 4e,
3

Hence the coordinate vector of vw.r.t. the basis S is [v] =-2

4

Example 2. Compute the coordinate vector of Vwith respect to the given basis S for
Vwhere

() Vis R²,

(ii) Vis R, S={(1, - 1, 0)), (0, 1, 0), (1, 0, 2)), v =(2, - 1, -2).
Sol. (i) S={e,, e)
U= 3e, - Ze,

Hence,

(iü) Let U= c,(1, -1, 0) + c,(0, 1, 0) + c(1, 0, 2)

Or (2, - 1, - 2) = (c, + C - C, + C, 2c,).
c, t c, = 2, - C, t C, =-1, 2c, =- 2.
Solving these equations, we get c, =- 1, c, = 3 and c, = 2.
3

Hence, (uls = 2

Example 3. Compute the vector vifthecoordinale vector (ulg is given with respect to
lhe basis S for V
() Vis R".
 ATEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING
M-14.38
MATHEMATICS
(i) Vis M,,
2

[v]s = -1
3
Sol. () V= c,(2, 1) +c,(-1, 1) = 1(2, 1) + 2 (-1, 1)
Or V= (2-2, 1 + 2) =(0, 3) (: c, = 1, c, = 2)
(ü)

-2] [o 01
1 -3
-2+2-1+0 0+2-2+01
2+0+1+6 0+1-3+9

Example 4. Let S,={a, =(1, -),a, =(3, - 4)} be a basis of Rº. Find the co-ordinates
of an arbitrary vector (a, b) of R° with respect to S,.
Sol. (a, b) = a,a + a,
= a,(1, - 2) + a,(3, - 4)
= [(a, + 3a), ( 2a, - 4a,)l
a, + 3a, = a
-201 4a, =b
2a +b
a, =-2a
-.a,= 2
=a+
2

and co-ordinate vector of

Co-ordinates of (a, b) are a, =- 2a
(a, b) relative to S, is
-o,a,=a
la, bls, --2a-at as row vector

-2a - 2
1 as column vector.
a+-b
2

Example 5. Find the co-ordinate vector of arelative to the setS= {(1, 1, 1), (1, I,
(1, 0, 0)) of V() where a = (a, b, c).
Sol. Por a,, a,, a, ¬ R, we have
a,(1, 1, 1) +a,(1, 1, 0) +a,(1, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0)
{(a, ta, t a).(a, +a,), a,} =(0, 0, 0)
, t a, t a, =0
a, t a, =0
CrOR SPACES M-14.39

a, =0i
4, =0, a, =0, a, = 0
Sis linearly independent.
Also, S generates V,(R), hence S is a basis of V(R).
Now, let
a= (a, b, c) =c,(1, 1,1) + c,(1, 1, 0) + c(1, 0, 0)
(a, b, c) = {(c, + c, t c), (c, + Ca), c,}

Gt =b

C =b-C =b-c
Cg =(a - -Cz)
=0-c-(6-c)
=a -b
Hence, the components of arelative to the basis S are c, (b-c), (a-b) and co-ordinate
ector of arelative to the basis S is [olg = (c, b-c, a- b).
Example 6. If B = (a,, a a) be an ordered basis for R, where a, = (1, 0, - 1),
-(1, 1, 1), a, = (1, 0, 0), obtain the co-ordinate vector of (a, b, c) in the ordered basis B.
Sol. Represent (a, b, c) as a linear function of a,, a a,i
(a, b, c) = a,a, + a,, t a,lg
= a,(1,0, - 1) +a,(1, 1, 1) +a,(1, 0, 0)
= (a, t a, t az, ay, - a, t a,)

a, =b, a, =b-c, a, =a-(b - c) - b =a-2b +c.

Hence, required c0-ordinate vector is (a,, ay, ag) i.e., {(6 - c), b, (a - 26 + c)}.
Example 7. Let Vbe the vector space of 2 X2 matrices over R. Find the co-ordinate
clor of matrix A e Vrelative to the basis
where A =

Sol. Let the unknown scalars be a, a, ag a, ¬ R

A= a,a, t a,a, t a,0, t a,a,
 ATEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING
M-14.40

Comparing the entries on both sides, we have

MATHEMATIGS
a, +a, ta, = 4 ...)
a, -a, -a, = 3 ...u)
a, + a, =4 ...(ui)
..(iv)
Solving equations (). (0). (i) and (iv), we get
a, =-7, a, =4 - a, =4 +7=11
a, = a, - a, - 3=-7-11 3=- 21
a, =2-a, - a,=2+7+ 21 =30
Hence. [A], =(-7, 11, - 21, 30).
1.30.4 Change of Basis
One of the problems under change of basis is the determination of components (or
co-ordiantes) of a vector in a space V with respect to the given basis when we know the
components of the vector in some other basis.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Let the components of a vector be (1, 2) relative to the basis B = (3, I),
(- 1, 2)} of R². Find the components of the vector in the basisS = (5, 3), (- 2, 4)}
Sol. Let ae R' with components a, =1, a, = 2. Then,
a, = (3, 1), a., =(-1, 2) e R2
Basis, B = (a,, a,} and each vector in R² can be written in precisely one way as a
linear combination of the basis vectors.
a = a,a t a,a,
=1 (3, 1) + 2 (- 1, 2)
...)
= (3, 1) + (-2+4) =(3- 2), (1 + 4) = (1, 5)
Let a=b,B, t b,ß,
New basis S = {(5, 3), (- 2, 4)} = {B,. B,), say, where b, and b, are the components o
ain the basis S.
(1, 5)= b,(5, 3) + b,-2, 4)
={(5b, - 2b,), (36,- 4b,) ..()
5b, - 2b., = 1
...)
3b, - 4b, = 5
Solving (i)and (iii), we get
7 24
b, = 13
b = 13

7 24 and co-ordinateof
Thus, the components of a relative to the new basis S are
13' 13
7 24
awith respect to S is (a), = |13 13 as a row vector.
CTOR SPACES M-1441

Example 2. Let V=R Let B = fe, e, ed with e, =(1, 0, O), e, =(0, 1, 0), e,0
¿S=(a, a, az with a, =(1, 1,0), a, =(í,-1,0), a, =(0, 1, 1). Consider a=(1, 2, 3) en
Ca the co-ordinate vector a relative to S.
Sol. For la =(1, 2, 3), components of arelative to the basis B, we have
a = 1 e, + 2 e, t 3 eg
=1 (1, 0, 0) + 2 (0, 1, 0) +3 (0, 0, 1)
=(1, 0, 0) + (0, 2, 0) + (1, 0, 3)
= (1 + 0+0, 0+2 +0, 0+0+3)
= (1, 2, 3) ...()
Let a,, az, a, be the components of a relative to the basis S. Then,
a= a,at a,a, + a,ag, for (a (a,, 2 ag)
(1, 2, 3) =a,(1, 1, 0) + a,(1, -1, 0) + a,(0, 1, 1)
= (a,, a, 0) + (a, - ag, 0) + (0, ag, ag)
= (a, + a, +0, a, a, t a, 0 +0+ a ) f

ag =3

a, = 3, , = 1,a, =0
Hence, the components of a relative to the basis S are
0
1
a] = (0, 1, 3) as a row vector and as a column vector.
3
M-14.100 A
TEXTB0OK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
3.12 VECTOR SPACES WHOSE ELEMENTS ARE MATRICES

Let M. be a setof all matrices of order mxn, where mand n are positive integers,
mn
over the set of R real numbers. Then M. is a vector space over R with respect to matrix
addition and multiplication of matrices by a scalar (real number).
However. if the elements of the matrices of order m x n are rational numbers, then
M, is not a vector space over the field R of real numbers because the elements of the
matrixaA may not be rational numbers. That is, the set is not closed with respect to scalar
multiplication and hence, M. is not a vector space over the field of real numbers.
mn

let V be the vector space of alln xn (i.e., square) matrices over a field F and W
consists of the symmetric matrices A = [a,],v. for which A" = A, transpose of A, then Wis
a sub-space of Vover F.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

[2 01
Example 1. Determine whether the matrix can be expressed as a linear
|4 5]
[2 31
combination of the matrices A = and C= s
Sol. Let
fo 01 3|

0
|2a
0+0+ 2c 3a + 0 +3e |
|2a + 25 +0 0+6+5c

2c 3a +3cl
|2a + 2b b+ 5e
Comparing the componenets, we get
2e = 2 c=1
3a + 3c = 0 ’ a =lusing first three equations.
2a + 2b = 4 b= 1
b+ 5c =-5
But these three values do not satisfy the last equation. Hence, these equatiots a
0 cannot be ex
This implies that the matrix
inconsistent and have no solution. 4 -5
A, B, (
pressed as a linear combination of the matrices
GEBRA OF LINEAR
TRANSFORMATIONS: MATRICES AND LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS M-14.101
Example 2. Let V be the vector space of all 2 x 2 matrices over the field
consists of all matrices with zero determinant, then determine R and W
ofV. whether or not Wis a sub-space
Sol. Let us consider two 2 x 2 matrices, A and B.
whose determinants are zero:
[1 07
and B = 1 0 0 0
.Since | A| = 0 0
and | B|
0
=0.
Hence, A, Be W

Now,

1 0
and
|A+B|=6
This implies A + Be W
1:0.
That is, W is not closed under addition and W is not asub-space of V.
Example 3. Let Vbe vector space of all 2x2 matrices over the fieldF. Prove that R
has dimension 4 by exhibiting a basis for Vwhich has four elements.
0 0
Sol. be four elements of V.

Also, let a, b, c, de F.
0 01
Consider, aA + bB+ cC + dD = 0, where O is a null matrix
1 0 0
a
0 0 |0 0

which gives a = 0, b =0, c= 0, d =0.

Hence, the set (A, B,C, D} is linearly independent and a sub-set of V.
a b]
Also, can be expressed asa linear combination of elements of S,
c d
L.e. L(S) =V

ie.
Since, S is linearly independent and L(S) = V.
Hence, S forms a basis set for V, and
dim V= 4 = no. of elements in the basis set ofV.
Example 4.If Vis a set of all(m xn) matrices over any field F, then a set Wof all
(n n) symmetric matrices formns a vector sub-space of V(F).
Sol. LetA = (a,J,xn B= (b,nx E Wbe two symmetric matrices.
Then,
A+B=la, t lbylaA
= [a,, + , J, xp addition of matrices
M-14.102 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

= (a,+ b,, A, B are symmetric

= (A + B)", transpose of (A + B)
The sum of any two symmetric matrices is again a symmetric matrix,
i.e.. V A. Be W. we have A + Be W.
Hence, W is closed under vector addition. ...)
Also, if ae Fand A=(a,., e W, then
aA =ala,,x=[aa,,x = (aA)"
aAis a symmetric matrix.
...(üy
Hence, W is closed under scalar multiplication.
From (1) and (2), we conclude that W is a sub-spa of V.

TEST voUR KNOWNLEDGE

 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1. Find two mutually orthogonal vectors each of which is orthogonal to the
vector a =(4. 2, 3) of V, (R) with respect to standard inner product.
Sol. Let B= x, x, x} and y= y,, Yy Ys be two mutually orthogonal vectors each ot
which is orthogonal tothe vector a. Then,
(B, a) = 0 ’ (j, z Xy = (4, 2, 3) = 0
4x, + 2x, + 3x, = 0.
Any solution of this equation gives a vector perpendicular to a, i.e., the solution
(z, =3, x=-3, x, = - 2) of the above equation gives B= (3, - 3, - 2), sav.
INNER PRODUCT
M-14.137

Similarly.
(Y. a) = 0 ) (4, 2, 3) ’ 4y, + 2y, + 3y, =0
and (Y. B) = 0 , Yo y) (3, - 3, - 2) 3y, - 3y, 2y, 0.
A
solution of these two equations, say
y =5, y,= 17. y,=- 18 gives y=(5, 17, - 18).
Example 2. Find a unit ector which is orthogonal to the vector a = (2, - 1, 6) of
lR)with respect to standard inner product.
Sol. a = (2, - 1, 6), given
Consider the vector., B= (b,, b, b,)
then we have (a, B) = 2b, - b, + 6b,
0= 26, - b, +6b, (: aand Bare orthogonal)
B= (2, -2, - 1)
Now. I|B| =2' +( 2)² +(- 1)² =3
Hence, the required unit vector is

I|B||3 e-2-)=
Example 3. Apply Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process to the vectors
B, =(1, 0, 1), B,= (1, 0, - 1), B,= (0, 3, 4) to obtain an orthonormal basis (a,, a a) for R
with standard inner product.
Sol. Let B1 (10, 1) (1,0, 1) ...()
J1 +0²+1?
Let Y, =B, -(B,/a)a,
1
where, ($ Ja,)=(1. 0, -) - : 0 - -0
;-(4,0,- o=(4.0,
1)- -1)
li Y,12 = 12 +0² +(-1)2= 2, |y,|| =V2
Y2 ...(i2)

Again, let Y, -B, - (B/a a, - (B/a,)a,

1 1 4
where, 6j4) =(0, 3, 9) x-0+0*-22
4
(B/u,) =(0, 3, 4) x0,-0+0- =-2/2
1

= (0, 3, 4) - (2, 0, 2) + (2, 0, - 2) = (0, 3, 0)

 ATEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING
M-14.138
MATHEMATICS
and ly, 12 = 0² + 32 + 02 =9, | Y,I|=3
Y3 =(0, 3, 0) = (0, 1, 0)
Thus, the required orthonormal basis is

Example 4. Let a,=(3, 0, 4), a,=(-1, 0, 7), a, = (2, 9, 11) be vectors in R' equipped
with the standard inner product. Obtain an orthogonal basis and the orthonormal basis
for R3.
Sol. Let B, =a, (3, 0, 4), then || B,I2=32 + 0 + 42= 25
(ag, B1)
I|B,I2
=(-1, 0, 7) - ((-1,0,7), (3,0,4)2(3, 0, 4)
25

=(-1,0, 7) - (-3+0 +
+ 28) (3, 0, 4)
25
=(-1,0, 7) -(3, 0, 4) = (-4, 0, 3)
I|B, 2= (-4)² + 02+ 32 = 25.
-B2

=(2,9, 11) ((2,9, 11), (3,0,4)2 (3. o., 4) - (2,9, 11), (-4,0,3)-(-4,0, 3)
25 25

= (2, 9, 11) - (6+0+44) -(3, 0, 4) - (-8+0+

25 25 332(4, 0, 3)
=(2, 9, 11) 2(3, 0, 4) - (-4, 0, 3) = (0, 9, 0)
Thus, {,, B, Ba = {(3, 0, 4), 4,0, 3), (0, 9, 0)} is an orthogonal basis for R³.
Consequently, B3
=}{3,0,4),}(- 4,0, 3), (0,9,0)) is an

orthonormal basis for R3.

Example 5. Find the orthonormal basis of V, (R)with standard inner product usin8
Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization to the vectors a, =(1, 0, 1), a, =(1, 2, - 2),a, =(2,- 1, I).
Sol. Let Y,,Yo. Y, be orthogonal vectors and B. B,. B, be the corresponding orthonormal
vectors.
YË = a, = (1, 0, 1)
|lY,I =(a,, a,) =1·1+0.0+1·1=2 : l y, | = 2
1
Hence, Y1: 2
B- IlY|| 1.0, ) =( ..)
INNERPRODUCT M-14.139

=(1. 2,- 2)-120 +(-2)

1 1

-.2-)"o)--)
17 17

3 4 3
Hence, B,= Y2 17 34
...i)

V2
Finally.
1 1 1 1
=(2,-1, 1)-2t-0+1-a
4 -3 4 -3
+(-1). +1.
/34 /34' 34 /34,
1 1 3 4 -3
=(2,-1,1 ) - +
(10 -15 - 10
17' 17 ' 17
10 10

25 5
V17 J17
Hence, B, = Y3
V17 15 2 -3 -2
5 17' 17' 17)
Thus, the orthonormal basis is
1 3 4 -3

Example 6. Orthonormalize the set of linearly independent vectors {(1, 0, 1, 1),

(-1,0, -1, 1), (0, -1, 1, 1)) of V,
Sol. Given u, = (1,0, 1, 1), a, = (- 1,0, - 1, 1), a, = (0, - 1, 1, 1).
Let B, =a, =(1, 0, 1, 1), then || B, I= 12+ 0²+ 1+ 1²= 3.
B, = ,

= (-1, 0, 1, 1) - (-40,- 1, ), (1,0, 1, D) (1, 0, 1, 1)

3
 ENGINEERING
M-14.140 ATEXTBOOK OF
MATHEMATICS
1)--l+0-1+1 ,(1, 0, 1, 1)
=(-1, 0, - 1,
2 2 4
-t1.0,-1, ) - - 9 3 3 /
16 24
WB,I=+0+ 9 9 9

B,=a,=

= (0, 1, 1, 1) (0, - 1, 1, 1D, (1, 0, 1, 1)) (1, 0, 1, 1)

3
2 2 4
(0,-41D,-33 8/3

-2 4
0+0+ +
0+0+1+1 2 2 4)
=(0, 1, 1, 1) (1, 0, 1, 1) - - 8/3
3

1,1)-0-
= (0, - 1, 1,

=(0,-.1.9-G---
Thus B}, where
B, =(1, 0, 1, 1), B,l|= 43
2/2

2
is an orthogonal set.
Hence, the required orthonormal set, y} is given by
B1 1 1 1

.0,1,1)
=5,
3/2( 2 2

1
2 1
INNER PRODUCT M-14.141

Example 7. Let V{R) be the inner product space with respect to the standard inner
product. Then, findcomplement.
the prajection of the vector (3, 4, 1) on the space spanned by (1, 1,I) and
on its orthogonal
Sol. Let Wbe the space ofV,(R) spanned by the vector a=(1, 1, 1) and let the other
vector be ß= (3, 4, 1).
Also, let B=b, + b, when b, e Wand b, e W.
Since every vector of Wis a scalar multiple of 8o that
b, = aa.
Then, B= aa + b
Again, ae W and b, e W, :. (a, b,) =0
Now, (B, a) = (aa + b,, a) = a(a, a) + (b,, a)
=aa, a) +0= ala, a)
But (B, a) =3+4+1=8
(a, a) =1+1+1=3

8=3a i.e., a =
8 8 8 8
b, =a= (1, 1, 1) =
3'3'3
(8 8 8
b, =B- b, =(3, 4, 1)
the standard
Example 8. Find an orthonormal basis of the sub-space Wof VXC) with
+i).
inner product spanned by x, =(1, 0, i), x, = (2, 1, 1
Sol. Let y, =x, = (1, 0, i). Then,
3

Il y, I= 12 + 02-¡2 =2 j=1

= (2, 1, 1 +i) (2, 1, 1+ i), (1,0,D)) (L0. ) =(2,1, 1+)-0,

2 i)
2

2
3
1+i 1-i,,.l- lt =9
2 2 2

Corresponding orthonormal basis is

B
 ENGINEERING
M-14.142 ATEXTBOOK OF
MATHEMATICS
Verification: Gu(aaa(1;.)
=1x 0x1+ixt-0
2
2
’ y, y, are orthogonal.
Example 9. Let Wbe a sub-space of the inner product space Vspannedy (0, 1, 1, 0)
(0, 5, - 3, -2), (- 3, -3, 5, 7)}. Find an orthonormal basis for W.
Sol. Given a, = (0, 1, 1, 0), a, =(0, 5, - 3, - 2), a, =(-3, 3, 5, - 7).
Let B, =a, = (0, 1, 1, 0). Then, I|B, I2= 02 +1'+ 12 + 0²=2.
Let B
((0, 5, - 3,- 2), (0, 1, 10)
= (0, 5, -3, 2) - (0, 1, 1, 0)
2
= (0, 5, -3, 2) (0, 1, 1, 0)= (0, 4, -4, - 2)
Then, I| B, I²=0+ 16+ 16 +4 = 36

Let

= (-3,-3,5,-7) (-3,-3,5,-7),(0,11,0) .(0,1,1,0)

2

(-3,-3,5, -7), (0,4,- 4,-2) .(0,4, -4,-)

36

=(-3, 3, 5,7) - (-0,-3 +5+0) .(0,1,1, 0)

2

(-0-12- 20 + 14) .(0,4, - 4, - 2)

36
=(-3,- 3, 5, - 7) (0, 1, 1, 0) + (0, 2, 2, - 1)
=-3, 2, 2, - 8).
Then, I|B, I =(-3)² + (- 2) + 22+ (- 8)² = 81.
Consequently, the required orthonormal basis for W is

B=
B B3 (0, 1, 1,0) (0,4, - 4, -2) (-3, - 2,2, -8)|
V36 V81
1
(0, 1, 1, 0),(0,2,
3 -2, - D,-3,-2,2, -8