UNIT IV

Introduction to Computer Networks & internet

BASIC ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Communication is the process of transferring a message from one point to another. The three basic
elements of communication system are indicated in following figure.

A sender (source) that creates and sends a message.

A medium that carries the message.

A receiver (sink) that receives the message.

Fig. Basic Elements of Communication Systems

Medium
Sender (Source) Receiver (Sink)

For example, when you speak to your friend on telephone, you are the sender, telephone line is the
medium, and your friend is the receiver. This is a simple example of voice communication. Similarly,
in data communication, sender and receiver are normally machines (such as computers, terminals,
peripheral devices like printers, plotters, disks, etc.), and transmission medium is a wired/wireless
data communication ‘channel (such as telephone lines, optical fiber, microwave links, satellite links,
etc.). Electronic systems that transfer data from one point to another point called data communication
systems. Unlike computers that process data, data communication systems transmit data from one
point to another.
What is a computer network?

A computer network is a group of interconnected nodes or computing devices that

exchange data and resources with each other. A network connection between these devices
can be established using cable or wireless media. Once a connection is
established, communication protocols -- such as TCP/IP, Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol and Hypertext Transfer Protocol -- are used to exchange data between the
networked devices.

1
The first working network, called ARPANET, was created in the late 1960s and was funded
by the U.S. Department of Defense. Government researchers used to share information at a
time when computers were large and difficult to move.
There are different types of network listed as below:
1) LAN (Local Area Network)
2) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
3) WAN (Wide Area Network)

LAN (Local Area Network)

LAN stands for Local-area Network. It is a computer network that covers a relatively small
area such as within a building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size.

LAN is a private network, thus no outside regulatory body controls it, giving it privacy.

High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed (around 100 mbps) and data transfer rate
comparatively to WAN.
LAN supports a variety of communications transmission medium such as an Ethernet cable
(thin cable, thick cable, and twisted pair), fiber and wireless transmission.

A LAN usually has low cost, installation, expansion and maintenance and LAN installation
is relatively easy to use, good scalability.
The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks are high because there is special
software required to make a server.

Communication devices like an Ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers, cables are costly.

2
 Fig. local area network

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network. It is a computer network that connects
number of LANs to form larger network, so that the computer resources can be shared.

This type of network covers larger area than a LAN but smaller than the area covered by a
WAN which is designed to extend over the entire city.

MAN is specially designed to provide high-speed connectivity to the users in which the
speed ranges in terms of Mbps.

The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and maintain.

Characteristics of MAN:

 It can cover the area which ranges from 5 to 50 km, which is capable of carrying from a
group of buildings to the whole city.

 In MAN, data rates are moderate to high.

 In MAN, mostly used medium is optical fibers which results in high-speed connectivity.

 MAN networks provide high reliability because the error rate in this network is very
less.

 A MAN network can use a variety of access technologies, such as wireless, fiber-optic,
or copper-based connections, to provide connectivity to different devices and networks.

3
 Hybrid topology: A MAN network may use a combination of different topologies, such
as a ring, bus, or star topology, depending on the specific requirements of the network.

Advantages of MAN:

 MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.

 The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.

 It supports to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of dual bus

architecture.

 MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to all the
users.

 MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network, making it easier to
monitor and manage network resources and security.

Disadvantages of MAN:
 The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and maintain.
 This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up fiber optics.
 It provides less fault tolerance.
 The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.
Examples of MAN:
 Cable TV network.
 Used in government agencies.
 University campuses.
 Used in hospitals to connect multiple buildings

Fig. of Metropolitan Area Network

4
WAN (Wide Area Network)
A WAN (Wide Area Network) is to connect multiple smaller Local Area Networks (LANs). It is a
computer network designed. WANs can help in communication, the sharing of information, and much
more between systems or devices from around the world through a WAN provider.
Characteristics of WAN

 Broader Reach: The reach of WAN in terms coverage of geographical area is very high
which can be a region, country or the world itself.

 Higher Capacity: The capacity of WAN in terms of number of LANs or

WANs connected in a network is very high, which results in connection of large number
of user over different location all around the globe.

 Use of Public Carrier: WAN uses telephone network, cabled system, satellites etc for
connection and transmission purpose which are easily available.

 Resource Sharing: WAN enables its users to share data and information over large
area. Computer resources can be accessed remotely which makes transmission and
exchange of data very easy.

Advantages of WAN

 It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organisation to transmit
data quickly and cheaply.

 The data can be stored in centralised manner because of remote access to data provided
by WAN.

 The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work can be
minimised.

 WAN enables a user or organisation to connect with the world very easily and allows to
exchange data and do business at global level.

Disadvantages of WAN

 Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.

 The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.

 Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.

 The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large distances and high
number of connected system within the network.

5
 Fig. wide area network

Data Transmission Mode:

The three modes of data transmission are simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex. They are described
below:

Simplex:

A simplex communication system can transmit data in one direction only. It is suitable for connecting
send-only (such as keyboard) or receive-only (such as printer) devices. At first thought, this mode
may appear adequate for applications in which flow of information is unidirectional. However, almost
all data processing applications require bidirectional communication because even when flow of data
is unidirectional (such as from a terminal to a computer), an application requires a return path to send
acknowledgement, control, or error signals. Without this capability, a sender might send data and
never know that the receiver never received it (due to some problem somewhere). Hence, simplex
circuits are seldom used.

Half-duplex:

A half-duplex communication system can transmit data in both directions, but in only one direction at
a time. Hence, it can alternately send and receive data. It requires two wires. It is suitable for voice
communication using telephones in which only one person speaks at a time. It is suitable also for

6
connecting a terminal to a computer in which the terminal transmits data and then the computer
responds with an acknowledgement.
Full-duplex:
A half-duplex system needs to switch direction each time the direction of data transfer reverses. This
requires a special switching circuit and a delay of about 150 milliseconds. When compared with high
processing capabilities of modern computers, this delay is often unacceptable. Moreover, some
applications require bi-directional data transfer simultaneously. Systems with such requirements use a
full-duplex communication system, which allows data to flow in both directions simultaneously. It
requires four wires. It improves efficiency because it eliminates the direction switching delay of a
half-duplex system

Sender Receiver
(a)

Sender (or Receiver) Receiver (or Sender)

(b)

Sender (and Receiver (and

Receiver) Sender)
(c)
Fig.1: Modes of data transmission: a) Simplex b) Half-duplex c) Full-duplex

Communication protocol:
A protocol is a set of formal operating rules, procedures, or conventions that govern a given
pro communication or network protocol, therefore, describes rules that govern transmission
of data communication networks. These rules provide a method for orderly and efficient
exchange of data between and receiver, and for proper interpretation of controls and data
transmitted as raw bits and bytes. These rules are part of data communication software.

Roles of a Communication Protocol

In any computer network, a communication protocol normally performs following
functions for efficient error-free transmission of data. It has a separate set of rules
(implemented in software) for performing i these functions.

1. Data sequencing-It refers to breaking a long message into smaller packets of fixed
size. Data sequencing rules define method of numbering (or sequencing) packets to

7
 detect loss or duplication of packets, identify packets belonging to the same
message.

2. Data routing. -Data routing rules decide the path between source and destination
nodes of a message

3. Data formatting. Data formatting rules define which group of bits or characters
within a constitutes data, control, addressing, or other information.

4. Flow control. Flow control rules prevent a fast sender from flooding a slow receiver
with d regulating flow of data on communication lines. In this manner, they ensure
resource sharing protection against traffic congestion.

5. Error control. Error control rules detect errors in messages to ensure transmission
of correct message The most common method for Correcting errors is to retransmit
an erroneous message block. This n requires coordination between sender and
receiver nodes so that the receiver node discards a block 1 error and the sender node
retransmits the block.

6. Precedence and order of transmission. These rules ensure that all nodes get a
chance to communication lines and other resources of a network based on priorities
assigned to them.

7. Connection establishment and termination. These rules define how connections

are establishment maintained, and terminated when two nodes of a network want to
communicate with each other.

8. Data security. These rules define mechanisms for providing security and privacy of
message sent/received over the network.

9. Log information: These rules define what types of log information the system
maintain for all jobs and data communication tasks. Such information is useful for
charging users of a network based on their usage of network resources.

OSI Model
OSI is stands for “Open System Interconnection”. This is the seven layer architecture that
defines a separate set of protocol and deals with one or more specific aspects of
communication. The role of these seven layers is described below:
Physical layer- Layer 1:

8
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices.

The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for
transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.

When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and
send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer are Bit synchronization, Bit rate control, Physical
topologies, Transmission mode.

Data Link Layer- Layer 2:

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another,
over the physical layer.

When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the
Host using its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer are framing, physical addressing, error control flow
control & Access control.

Network Layer – Layer 3

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks.

It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet,
from the number of routes available.

The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.

Functions of the Network Layer are Routing & Logical Addressing

Transport Layer – Layer 4

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer.

The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to
End Delivery of the complete message.

The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission
and re-transmits the data if an error is found.

9
Functions of the Transport Layer are Segmentation and Reassembly & Service Point
Addressing.

Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and
authentication, and also ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer are Session establishment, maintenance, termination,

Synchronization and Dialog Controller.

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application
layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network.

Functions of the Presentation Layer are Translation, Encryption/ Decryption &

Compression.

Application Layer – Layer 7

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications.

These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network. This
layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for
displaying the received information to the user.

Functions of the Application Layer are Network Virtual Terminal, File transfer access and
management, Mail Services & Directory Services.

10
Node 1 Node 2

Fig.: Layers, Interface and Protocols in ISO/OSI Model.

Email
Electronic Mail (e-mail) is one of most widely used services of Internet. This service allows
an Internet user to send a message in formatted manner (mail) to the other Internet user in
any part of world. Message in mail not only contain text, but it also contains images, audio
and videos data. The person who is sending mail is called sender and person who receives
mail is called recipient. It is just like postal mail service.

E-Mail Address
Each user of email is assigned a unique name for his email account. This name is known as
E-mail address. Different users can send and receive messages according to the e-mail
address.

11
E-mail is generally of the form username@domainname. For example,
[email protected] is an e-mail address where webmaster is username and
tutorialspoint.com is domain name.
 The username and the domain name are separated by @ (at) symbol.
 E-mail addresses are not case sensitive.
 Spaces are not allowed in e-mail address.

E-mail Message Components

E-mail message comprises of different components:
1. E-mail Header
2. Greeting
3. Text
4. Signature.
1. E-mail Header
The first five lines of an E-mail message is called E-mail header. The header part comprises
of following fields:
 From
 Date
 To
 Subject
 CC
 BCC
From
The From field indicates the sender’s address i.e. who sent the e-mail.
Date
The Date field indicates the date when the e-mail was sent.
To
The To field indicates the recipient’s address i.e. to whom the e-mail is sent.
Subject
The Subject field indicates the purpose of e-mail. It should be precise and to the point.
CC
CC stands for Carbon copy. It includes those recipient addresses whom we want to keep
informed but not exactly the intended recipient.
BCC
BCC stands for Black Carbon Copy. It is used when we do not want one or more of the
recipients to know that someone else was copied on the message.

12
 2. Greeting
Greeting is the opening of the actual message. Eg. Hi Sir or Hi Guys etc.
3. Text
It represents the actual content of the message.
4. Signature
This is the final part of an e-mail message. It includes Name of Sender, Address, and Contact
Number.
Advantages of email:
 Convenient and fast communication with individuals or groups globally.
 Easy to store and search for past messages.
 Ability to send and receive attachments such as documents, images, and videos.
 Cost-effective compared to traditional mail and fax.
 Available 24/7.
Disadvantages of email:
 Risk of spam and phishing attacks.
 Overwhelming amount of emails can lead to information overload.
 Can lead to decreased face-to-face communication and loss of personal touch.
 Potential for miscommunication due to lack of tone and body language in written
messages.
 Technical issues, such as server outages, can disrupt email service.
 It is important to use email responsibly and effectively, for example, by keeping the
subject line clear and concise, using proper etiquette, and protecting against security
threats

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

o FTP stands for File transfer protocol.

o FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting the files
from one host to another.
o It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the computer
that acts as a server for other computers on the internet.
o It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.
o It provides the sharing of files.
o It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
o It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.

13
Although transferring files from one system to another is very simple and straightforward, but
sometimes it can cause problems. For example, two systems may have different file
conventions. Two systems may have different ways to represent text and data. Two systems
may have different directory structures. FTP protocol overcomes these problems by
establishing two connections between hosts. One connection is used for data transfer, and
another connection is used for the control connection.

Advantages of FTP:

o Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of the fastest
way to transfer the files from one computer to another computer.
o Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the operations to get
the entire file.
o Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username and
password. Therefore, we can say that FTP is more secure.
o Back & forth movement: FTP allows us to transfer the files back and forth. Suppose
you are a manager of the company, you send some information to all the employees,
and they all send information back on the same server.

Web-browsers and its types

A web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software application for retrieving,
presenting and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is
identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI/URL) that may be a web page, image, video or
other piece of content. Hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate
their browsers to related resources.
Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, they can also be used to
access information provided by web servers in private networks or files in file systems.
The most popular web browsers are Chrome, Edge (preceded by Internet
Explorer), Safari, Opera and Firefox.

Internet Explorer

Internet Explorer (IE) is a product from software giant Microsoft. This is the most commonly used
browser in the universe. This was introduced in 1995 along with Windows 95 launch and it has
passed Netscape popularity in 1998.

14
 Google Chrome
This web browser is developed by Google and its beta version was first released on September 2,
2008 for Microsoft Windows. Today, chrome is known to be one of the most popular web browsers
with its global share of more than 50%.

Mozilla Firefox
Firefox is a new browser derived from Mozilla. It was released in 2004 and has grown to be the
second most popular browser on the Internet.

Safari
Safari is a web browser developed by Apple Inc. and included in Mac OS X. It was first released as a
public beta in January 2003. Safari has very good support for latest technologies like XHTML, CSS2
etc.

Opera
Opera is smaller and faster than most other browsers, yet it is full- featured. Fast, user-friendly, with
keyboard interface, multiple windows zoom functions, and more. Java and non Java-enabled
versions available. Ideal for newcomers to the Internet, school children, handicap and as a front-end
for CD-Rom and kiosks.

Konqueror
Konqueror is an Open Source web browser with HTML 4.01 compliance, supporting Java applets,
JavaScript, CSS 1, CSS 2.1, as well as Netscape plug-in. This works as a file manager as well as it
supports basic file management on local UNIX file systems, from simple cut/copy and paste
operations to advanced remote and local network file browsing.

Lynx is a fully-featured World Wide Web browser for users on Unix, VMS, and other platforms
running cursor-addressable, character-cell terminals or emulators.

15