24-11-2024

Fracture Mechanics: DE ZG631

Dated: 24/02/2024
Dr. Faizan Rashid
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

True Stress True Strain

Elastic Region Plastic Region Plastic Region Fracture

Linear Region Strain hardening Necking

Engineering Stress;

Engineering Strain;

True Stress;

True Strain;

2 BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

True stress-strain

Prof. P. Srinivasan BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Prof. P. Srinivasan BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
 24-11-2024

Prof. P. Srinivasan BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Prof. P. Srinivasan BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
 24-11-2024

Prof. P. Srinivasan BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Osgood-Ramberg Relation
Ex. If true stress-strain curve from the onset of plastic deformation to the
point at which necking begins is approximated as

where K and n are material constants.

Determine K and n for the following true stresses produce the
corresponding true plastic strains for steel

True Stress True

(MPa) Strain
350 0.10
415 0.20

Prof. P. Srinivasan BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
 24-11-2024

Sol.

By solving eq (1) & eq (2) for n

and

Prof. P. Srinivasan BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

10

Stress Intensity Factor

Stress and displacement fields in the vicinity of crack tip depends on

Plane Stress / Thin Section

Plane Strain / Thick Section

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

11

Stress Intensity Factor

KI : Stress Intensity Factor

• SIF elegantly characterizes a crack
• Depicts the strength of stress field

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

12

Stresses ahead of the crack tip

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

Stress Intensity Factor

KI : Stress Intensity Factor

• SIF elegantly characterizes a crack
• Depicts the strength of stress field
• KI represents SIF in Mode-I
• It was introduced by Irwin in honor of his collaborator KIES
• If we know KI, then stress field in terms of r and θ can be expressed

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Stress intensity factors for

several common geometries

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

Critical Stress Intensity Factor

KIC : Critical Stress Intensity Factor

• The stress intensity factors are used in design and analysis by
arguing that the material can withstand crack tip stresses up to a
critical value of stress intensity, termed KIC, beyond which the
crack propagates rapidly

• This critical stress intensity factor is then a measure of material

toughness

• α is a geometrical parameter equal to 1 for edge cracks and

generally on the order of unity for other situations

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Fracture Toughness: Problem

1. Calculate the maximum internal crack length allowable for a 7075-T651
aluminum alloy component that is loaded to a stress one half of its yield
strength. Assume that the value of Y is 1.35.

Solution

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

Fracture Toughness: Problem

Prob.1

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Fracture Toughness: Problem

2. A structural component in the form of a wide plate is to be fabricated
from a steel alloy with a plane strain fracture toughness of 77.0 MPam
and a yield strength of 1400 MPa. The flaw size resolution limit of the
flaw detection apparatus is 4.0 mm. If the design stress is one-half of the
yield strength and the value of Y is 1.0, determine whether or not a
critical flaw for this plate is subject to detection

Solution

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Miner’s Rule of Cumulative damage rule

• The percentage of fatigue life consumed by operation at one operating
• stress level depends on the magnitude of subsequent stress levels the
cumulative rule called Miner’s rule
• The summation of life consumed at each stress range must be less
than 1 to avoid failure

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

Miner’s Rule: Problmes

1) An offshore structure experienced the following loading history in terms of
stress ranges and no of cycles as shown in Table 1. Determine the percentage
fatigue life of the structure using Miner's cumulative damage rule

Sl. No Stress Range, σ No. of Applied Cycles, ni No. of Cycles for Failure, Nf
1 6 90 15000
2 9 60 1200
3 12 30 600

Solution
∑ ni/Nf = 90/15000 + 60/1200+30/600
= 0.006 + 0.05+0.05
= 0.106
= 0.106 < 1.0

 Structure is safe
Used 10.6% of fatigue life, (100 - 10.6 = 89.4)% remains

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Fatigue strength and fatigue life

Fatigue limit = Endurance limit

No fatigue limit  fatigue strength

is specified for an arbitrary number
of cycles (~ 108 cycles)

 Ferrous Materials: Steel, Ti show fatigue limit

 Non-Ferrous Materials: Al, Mg, Cu show no fatigue limit

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

SN Curve

• The data are condensed into a stress amplitude, ∆S, verses

number of cycles to failure, N, curve known as S-N curve

S-N curve for 4340 and A36 grade steel

23
Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Problems on SN Curve
1) Three identical fatigue specimens (denoted A, B, and C) are fabricated from a
non-ferrous alloy. Each is subjected to one of the maximum-minimum stress
cycles listed below; the frequency is the same for all three tests

(a) Rank the fatigue lifetimes of these three specimens from the longest to the shortest

(b) Now justify this ranking using a schematic S–N curve

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

Problems on SN Curve
Solution
To solve this problem, it is necessary to compute both the mean stress and
stress amplitude for each specimen.

Mean Stress Stress Amplitude

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras stress amplitudes are computed as Pilani Campus
BITS Pilani,

Problems on SN Curve
Solution

Based on the mean stress and stress amplitude, the fatigue lifetime for specimen C
will be greater than specimen B, which, in turn, will be greater than specimen A.

This conclusion is based upon the following S-N plot on which curves are plotted for
two σm values.
Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 24-11-2024

Fatigue mechanism
Stage 1: Crack Initiation
• Fatigue always begins at a crack

• Crack may start at a microscopic inclusion

• Crack may start at a "notch", or other stress
concentration

Stage 2: Crack Propagation

• Each tensile stress cycle causes the crack to
grow (~10-8 to 10-4 in/cycle)

Stage 3: Fracture
• Sudden, catastrophic failure with no warning

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Fatigue life
• The Fatigue Life, Nf, of a component is defined by the total number
of stress cycles required to cause failure
Nf = Ni + Np+ Nr

• Fatigue Life is divided into three stages namely

1. Crack Initiation (Ni) - Cycles required to initiate a crack due to

dislocation pile-ups or imperfections such as scratches, voids, etc

2. Crack Growth (Np) - Cycles required to grow the crack in a stable

manner to a critical size. Generally controlled by stress level

3. Rapid Fracture (Nr) - Very rapid critical crack growth occurs when the
crack length reaches a critical value. Since Rapid Fracture occurs
quickly, there is no Rapid Fracture term in the Fatigue Life expression

28
Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 24-11-2024

Paris' law
Region-A → slow or negligible crack growth
→ the rate of crack growth: nm per cycle

Region-B → stable crack growth defined by Paris’ law

→ the rate of crack growth: μm per cycle

increase in crack length

per loading cycle
• K = Range of stress intensity factors
• There exists a threshold value of K below which
fatigue cracks will not propagate
• C and P = Material constants

Region-C → unstable crack growth leading to failure

Kmax ≥ KC: fracture toughness, material will fail
→ the rate of crack growth: mm per cycle
29
Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Paris' law: Problem

1) A fatigue specimen has an inherent crack of length ao. It is acted by cycling loading.
Using Paris law as shown in the equation.

If C and P are the material constants, find the number of cycles that need to be
completed for the crack length to increase to af for the cases given below

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

Paris' law: Problem

Solution

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Paris' law: Problem

2) A material with a plane-strain fracture toughness of 𝐾𝐼𝐶 = 55 MPa-m^1/2 has a edge
crack in a very wide panel. If 𝜎F = 1380 MPa and the design stress is limited to 50% of
that value, compute the maximum allowable fatigue flaw size that can grow during cyclic
loading. If the initial crack had a total crack length of 1.25 mm, how many loading cycles,
N, (from zero to the design stress) could the panel endure? Assume that fatigue crack
growth rates varied with the stress intensity factor range raised to the fourth power (P=4).
The proportionality constant may be taken as C = 1.10×10-39.
Solution
Final crack length ?

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

Paris' law: Problem

3) A 1.0-in. diameter aluminium bar is subjected to reversed axial loading of 1120 lb at 50 cycles per second.
A circumferential crack, 0.004-in. deep, extends radially inward from the outside surface. The axial load is
applied remote from the crack. Estimate the crack depth after 250 hours of operation, assuming a Paris
exponent of P = 2.7 and a stress intensity range of 1.5 ksi-in.1/2 corresponding to a growth rate of 0.036
in./106 cycles. The configuration factor 𝑌 may be approximated as 𝑌 = [1.12 + 𝛼(1.3𝛼 – 0.88)]/(1 – 0.92𝛼),
where 𝛼 = 𝑎/𝑤, such that 𝑎 is the crack width and 𝑤 is the radius of the round bar.

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Paris' law: Problem

Solution

Geometric Factor Stress Range

Find C and N ?

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

Introduction to Creep

• Creep is time dependent, permanent deformation of the material

when subjected to a constant load or stress
• Creep always increases with temperature
• Examples: turbine blades, steam generators
• Critical Temperature for Creep is 40% of the Melting Temp
• If T > 0.40 TM Creep is likely to start (TM = Melting temperature)

35
Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Creep test

36
Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 24-11-2024

Creep test

Instantaneous deformation: Mainly elastic

Primary Creep: creep rate decreases with time: resistance offered to the dislocation motion by
grain boundary
Secondary Creep: steady-state creep rate i.e., constant slope: recovery and work hardening
operates simultaneously
Tertiary Creep: creep rate increases with time: work hardening alone dominates
37
Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Creep: stress and temperature effects

With Increasing stress or temperature:

• The instantaneous strain increases

• The steady-state creep rate increases

• The time to rupture decreases

Dependence of creep strain rate on

stress; stress versus rupture lifetime for
a low carbon-nickel alloy at three temp

38
Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 24-11-2024

Secondary Creep

• Strain rate is constant

• Strain hardening is balanced by recovery
Stress Exponent (material parameter)
Strain Rate
Activation Energy for
Creep(Material Parameter)

Material Constant Applied Stress

39
Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Secondary Creep
1) The activation energy for self-diffusion in copper is 500 Joule/mol. A copper
specimen creeps at 0.002 mm/mm/h when a stress of 300 MPa is applied at
600oC. If the creep rate of copper is dependent on self-diffusion, determine the
creep rate if the temperature is 800oC

Solution

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

Secondary Creep
2) Steady-state creep rate data are given below for nickel at 1000°C (1273 K)

σ [MPa]
10-4 15
10-6 4.5
If it is known that the activation energy for creep is 272,000 J/mol, Compute the
steady-state creep rate at a temperature of 850°C (1123 K) and a stress level of 25 MPa.

Solution

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Secondary Creep

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

Creep failure: LM Parameter

• Larson-Miller parameters is used representing creep-rupture

• For a material, it is derived from the stress and temp dependence of
the creep rate and time to rupture
• The rate equation is expressed as

PLM= T [C + log (tr)]

where,
C is a constant (usually on the order of 20)
T is temp in Kelvin
tr is rupture lifetime in hours,
PLM is Larson-Miller parameter
Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Creep failure: LM Parameter

Using the Larson–Miller data for S-590 iron as shown, predict the time
to rupture for a component subjected to a stress of 140 MPa at 800 C
Solution
From Figure, at 140 MPa the value
of the LM parameter is 24x103

Thus,
PLM= T [C + log (tr)]
24x103 = T [C + log (tr)]
24x103 = ( 800+273) [ 20+ log (tr)]
20+ log (tr) = 22.37 Logarithm stress versus the LM
parameter for an S-590 iron
tr = 233 hour (9.7 days)

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 24-11-2024

Creep failure: LM Parameter

An Astroly jet engine blade will be used at 871oC at a stress level of 200
MPa. Using the Larsen-Miller diagram shown in Figure
a) Determine the life of the blade, assuming C = 20
b) Estimate the maximum service temperature possible if a life of 500
hours is required

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Creep failure: LM Parameter

Dr Faizan Mohammad Rashid, PhD, IIT-Madras BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus