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Article
developed fast, high-fidelity gates that can be executed simultaneously a
across a two-dimensional qubit array. We calibrated and benchmarked
the processor at both the component and system level using a powerful
new tool: cross-entropy benchmarking11. Finally, we used component-
2 level fidelities to accurately predict the performance of the whole sys-
tem, further showing that quantum information behaves as expected

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the output of a pseudo-random quantum circuit11,13,14. Random circuits
google
Article " " F. Arute, et al., Nature 574, 505 (2019)
are a suitable choice for benchmarking because they do not possess
structure and therefore allow for limited guarantees of computational
a hardness10–12. We design the circuits to entangle b a set of quantum bits
(qubits) by repeated application of single-qubit and Single-qubit
two-qubitgate: logi-
0 25 ns
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of bitstrings, for example {0000101, 1011100, …}. Owing to quantum
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control resembles b
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12 ns
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of gate cycles (depth) grow.
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ideal probability computed via simulation on a classical computer. For
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Fig. 3 | Control operations for the quantum supremacy circuits. a, Example couplers are divided
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quantum circuit instance used in our experiment. Every cycle includes a layer linear cross-entropy benchmarking fidelity (see also
simultaneously across the entire array corresponding to shaded colours. Supplementary
Here
each of single- and two-qubit gates. The single-qubit gates are chosen randomly Information), which is the mean of the simulated probabilities
we show an intractable sequence (repeat ABCDCDAB); we also use different of the
from { X , Y , W }, where W = (X + Y )/ 2 and gates do not repeat sequentially.
The sequence of two-qubit gates is chosen according to a tiling pattern,
bitstrings we measured:
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coupler subsets along with a simplifiable sequence (repeat EFGHEFGH, not
shown) that can be simulated on a classical computer. b, Waveform of control
10 mm

coupling each qubit sequentially to its four nearest-neighbour qubits. The FXEB = 2n"P(xi)#i − 1
signals for single- and two-qubit gates. (1)
• Fig. 1 | The Sycamore processor. a, Layout of processor, showing a rectangular
array of 54 qubits (grey), each connected to its four nearest neighbours with
single-qubit gates chosen randomly from { X , Y , W } on all qubits, where nthese
of running is thecircuits
number onofthe
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is greaterofthan at xi
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followed by two-qubit gates on pairs of qubits. The sequences of gates computed for the ideal
least 0.1%. We expect that the full• data for Fig. 4b should have similar the
quantum circuit, and the average is over Sycamore chip.
which form the ‘supremacy circuits’ are designed to minimize the circuit observed bitstrings. Intuitively,
fidelities, but since the simulation timesFXEB is correlated
(red numbers) takewithtoo
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depth required to create a highly entangled state, which is needed for sample high-probability bitstrings. When there are no errors
check, we have archived the data (see ‘Data availability’ section). The in the
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be symmetric ranks, and this problem becomes more severe
TR when noise is considered. The ALS algorithm can avoid this
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(Q. Zhao, et al arXiv:1606.05535) (Z.-F. Gao et al, Phys. Rev. Research 2, 023300 (2020).)
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<latexit sha1_base64="Ym4qVf86p50626BGaWoJJ4trDPU=">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</latexit>
)
 =

Normalization:
<latexit sha1_base64="pBJuQ7Nd/lroIC83q9fp5utsWvE=">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</latexit>

•
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<latexit sha1_base64="aq6lugQpeUFXwY4/Xr2ijOOfacU=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="DolE82ZTdmKYUvHr70/tNdZJGkA=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="oXqPbYyFxuKp5zA/S40TWl4KoDA=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="yAI3g+nk+vdZoixe9jhn5I3wlos=">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</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="YGrob30OcXkKKWLNC20YpK7LGVo=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="pyUeJScTW1Jy5ZkuJONmf0VIzxQ=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="YrromxkOdqxhNev60tO/iAaQsU8=">AAACxXichVHPSxtBFP6ytlbTVqNeBC9Dg8VCK7NSUIKFQA/tUROjgithdzuJg7M/2J0EYrDe/Qc89NIWepD+B70WxFt76cE/QXqM4MWDbzdbREX7lp353jfve/MNzwmVjDXnJzlj4MHDwUdDw/nHT56OjBbGxlfjoBW5ouYGKojWHTsWSvqipqVWYj2MhO05Sqw522+T87W2iGIZ+Cu6E4pNz276siFdWxNVL5Sq7A0z2StLBU02Z9kq3LLZRzbDMmgpxcyX/zKfWTpglvQbuvOiXijyWZ4Guw3MDBSRxVJQ+AELHxDARQseBHxowgo2Yvo2YIIjJG4TXeIiQjI9F9hFnrQtqhJUYRO7TWuTso2M9SlPesap2qVbFP0RKRmm+R9+yHv8mH/np/zizl7dtEfipUO709eKsD66P1k9/6/Ko11j60p1r2eNBhZSr5K8hymTvMLt69s7B71qqTLdfc6/8r/k/ws/4T/pBX77zP22LCqf7vHjkJe0S4JoTObNodwGq3OzJuHl18XyYjawIUzhGWZoKvMo4z2WUKNbPuMIv/DbeGd4hjba/VIjl2kmcC2MvUsjhqUe</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="wOf2K8MfSa/fAPuSK7OPtcp1dtA=">AAACqnichVG7ThtBFD0s4f0ypIlEwQqLiALQGCGBEIUlmpS2iXnIBmt2PYYR493R7tgSWJQ0+QGKVEFKEbmFhpYmP5CCT0CUREpDwd31SggQ5I5m5syZe+6c0XW0kqFh7KbL6v7Q09vXPzA4NDwyOpYan9gM/UbgiqLrKz/YdngolPRE0UijxLYOBK87Smw5h+vR/VZTBKH0va/mSIvdOt/3ZE263BBVSU2VFSVXeUXaZR342vi22GvNl7nSB9yWJ5VUmi2wOOzXIJOANJLI+akrlFGFDxcN1CHgwRBW4AhplJABgyZuFy3iAkIyvhc4wSBpG5QlKIMTe0jrPp1KCevROaoZxmqXXlE0A1LamGF/2C92z36zNrtlD2/WasU1Ii9HtDsdrdCVsW+fNv79V1Wn3eDgSfWuZ4MaVmKvkrzrmIl+4Xb0zeOz+43VwkzrMztnd+T/B7th1/QDr/nX/ZkXhe/v+HHIS1wlQtSmzMumvAabiwsZwvmldHYtaVg/JjGNWerKMrL4ghyK9Mop2rjApTVnFawdq9RJtboSzUc8C6v6CPR7nZE=</latexit>
EE B

(c.f. random vector) L A

EE
J. Eisert, M. Cramer, and M. B. Plenio, Rev. Mod. Phys, 277, 82 (2010)

M.B. Hastings, J. Stat. Mech.: Theory Exp. P08024 (2007)

A B
 A B

16 16

(Γ = 0.4)
 Transverse eld Ising
Random (Γ = 0.4)
fi
•

• 2
• Kitaev
•

•
<latexit sha1_base64="XkC8uXv0uT1Qilx+79HHlBouX2k=">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</latexit>
 Good reviews:

(MPS)
(U. Schollwöck, Annals. of Physics 326, 96 (2011))
(R. Orús, Annals. of Physics 349, 117 (2014))

N MPS

index i

• MPS "tensor train decomposition"

(I. V. Oseledets, SIAM J. Sci. Comput. 33, 2295 (2011))

• 1×1 " "( ) MPS

 MPS
SVD SVD of <latexit sha1_base64="6m/gbzqlDKBTUkwq2Gwhy8OFn50=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="ZJBeaV1Kz1gTxGyxRTby2eZDpYE=">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</latexit>

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(row) (column) (row) (column)

…
= aN/2

a:
 = = aN/2

=χ

χ
N N

• N S ~ O(1)
χ N
• EE N χ N
 :

=
=
=

“ "

= = = 1
=
 =1 =

θ
=
θ*
MPS
“ ”
 :MPS with χ

A B
A

ρA
 MPS

MPS EE
MPS

EE MPS
 MPS

16

Random
(Γ=0.4)
Distance
Distance

bond dimension bond dimension

•

• EE S = log N

Tree tensor network state (TTN)

MPS Tree tensor network state

"scale"
(renormalization)
 TTN

TTN MPS

TTN

Isometry:

A A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B A A A A B B B B B B B B B B B B
MERA (G. Vidal, Phys. Rev. Lett. 99, 220405 (2007))
(G. Vidal, Phys. Rev. Lett. 101, 110501 (2008))

Multi-scale Entanglement Renormalization Ansatz (MERA)

Isometry:
TTN MERA
Unitary tensor:
MERA
Nc (N ) :N-site

Nc (N ) log N
rank ⇢A  ⇠
SA = Tr ⇢A log ⇢A  (log ) log N

A A A B BB B B B B B B B B B B A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B B
A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A B
=2
=3 =4
 EE
B

L A

d =1 MPS

Q. MPS d>1

A. Tensor Product State (TPS)!

 TPS TNS

TPS (Tensor Product State) (AKLT, T. Nishino, K. Okunishi, …)

PEPS (Projected Entangled-Pair State)

(F. Verstraete and J. Cirac, arXiv:cond-mat/0407066)

2 TPS
4+1

s
Virtual i, j, k, l

D
D→∞
 TPS (PEPS)

=D

A B
Nc (L) = 4L
A
Nc (L) = 2dLd 1
d )
Nc (L) 2dLd 1
rank ⇢A  D ⇠D
B d 1
SA = Tr ⇢A log ⇢A  2dL log D
TPS !
TPS
MPS TPS

MPS
d N = Ld

MPS: O(N )
d 1 TPS
TPS: O(e L
) (PEPS)

d>1 TPS

TPS
 TPS
•

• TRG, HOTRG, SRG, TNR, loop-TNR, ...

• MPS
• (Y. Hieida et al (1999) , J. Jordan et al, Phys. Rev. Lett. 101, 250602 (2008))

•
PRL 101, 250602 (2008) PHYSICAL
• T. Nishino and K. Okunishi, JPSJ 65, 891 (1996), R. Orús et
al, Phys. Rev. B 80, 094403 (2009).
•

• bMPS: H. J. Liao et al, PRL 118, 137202 (2017), Z. Y. Xie

et al,PRB 96, 045128 (2017).
• CTM: Chih-Yuan Lee et al, PRB 98, 224414 (2018) .
•

• S. Jharomi and R. Orús, PRB 99, 195105 (2019).

FIG. 2 (color online). The environment E ½r~1 ;~r2 # for a link
type r is first approximated by an infinite strip F ½~r1 ;r~2 # and
by a six-tensor network G ½~r1 ;r~2 # . These reductions can be
•

• 2
• Kitaev
•

•
 PEPS, TPS (for 2d system)
(a) (b) (c)

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~eN ~O(N)

• …
•
 *

256=28

256 × 256 → 216

256=28
→ 16- (a = 2)

→ 2N →N- (a = 2)
256 × 256 256=28

256=28
1. 256 × 256
•

A ≃

2. 2 × 2 × ...× 2 16
• MPS
•

MPS
 256=28

256=28
1. 256 × 256

A ≃
 256=28

MPS case 1

256=28
2. 2 × 2 × ...× 2 16

0 1 2 … 254 255
256 257 258 …

… 216-1

16
 256=28

256=28
2. 2 × 2 × ...× 2 16

0
1

2
3

16
case 1
2. 2 × 2 × ...× 2 16

" "

case 1

" "
" "
λ

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(row) (column)

case 1 random
 Z.-Y. Han et al, Phys. Rev. X 8, 031012 (2018).

N
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=0 1

Z.-Y. Han et al, Phys. Rev. X 8, 031012 (2018).

<latexit sha1_base64="uw8KgSzv2MgXTgPinGcdthpJmzE=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="vOJX0Msp2QRw56wrP2TXE8H3N2E=">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</latexit>
 the bond dimensions in MPS has similar effects
FIG. 4. Bond dimensions of the MPS trained with jT j ¼ 1000
increasing the number
MNIST samples, constrainedoftohidden variables
Dmax ¼ 800. in other
Final average NLLge
erative
reaches models.
16.8. Each pixel in this figure corresponds to the bond
In Fig. of
dimension 2(b), we plot
the right leg ofLtheastensor
a function oftosystem
associated size N
the identical
coordinate
trained oninjTthej ¼
original
100 image.
random patterns. As shown in t
figure, with Dmax fixed, L increases linearly with syste
size N, which
because these indicates
learnthat our model the gives a wor
Z.-Y. Hanbondset al, Phys. to mediate
Rev. X 8, 031012 correlations
(2018).
between the rows of the images.
The samples directly generated after training are shown
in Fig. 5(a). We also show a few original samples from the

Cost (Negative Log Likelihood)

training set in Fig. 5(b) for comparison. Although many of
the generated images cannot be recognized as digits, some
aspects of the result are worth mentioning. Firstly, the MPS
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learned to leave margins blank, which is the most obvious

common feature in the MNIST database. Secondly, the
activated pixels compose pen strokes that can be extracted
from the digits. Finally, a few of the samples could already
be recognized as digits. Unlike the discriminative learning
task carried out in Ref. [32], it seems we need to use much
larger bond dimensions to achieve a good performance in
the unsupervised task. We postulate the reason to be that,
in the classification
Bondtask, local features
dimension of MPSof an image are
sufficient for predicting the label. Thus, MPS is not
FIG. 3. NLL
required average longer-range
to remember of a MPS trained using between
correlation jT j ¼ 10
* MNIST images
pixels. For of size modeling,
generative 28 × 28, with varying
however, it ismaximum
necessarybo
dimensions Dmax . The
because learning horizontal
the joint dashed from
distribution line indicates
the data t
Images generation
Shannon entropy of the training set ln jT j, which is also t
minimal value of L. The inset images are generated by the MP
trained with different Dmax (denoted by the arrows).
MPS

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(a) Generated (b) Original

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 In the first experiment we used 100 randomly selected images the test NLL obtained by the tree-structure factor graph is
to train TTNs with different Dmax . The results are shown in 175.8, and the result of the MPS is 101.45, with corresponding
Fig. 5, where we can see that as the NLL gradually decreases, Dmax = 100. For the TTN in a 1D data representation [as
the quality of the generated samples becomes better. The depicted in Fig. 2(b)] with Dmax = 50, the test NLL already
training NLL will decrease to its theoretical minimum as Dmax reduces to 96.88. With the same Dmax , the TTN performed on
increases to |T | while the sampling image will be exactly the a 2D data representation [as depicted in Figs. 2(a) and 2(c)]
same as the one in the training set. can do even better, giving a NLL around 94.25. However, we
In Fig. 6 we plot the two-site correlation function of pixels. see from Table I that when compared to the state-of-the-art
In each row, we randomly select three pixels, then calculate machine learning models, the tensor network models still have
the correlation function of the selected pixels with all other a lot of space to improve: the RBM using 500 hidden neurons
pixels. The values of the correlations are represented by and 25-step contrastive divergence could reach a NLL of
color. The real correlations extracted from the original data approximately 86.3, and PixelCNN with seven layers gives
are illustrated in the top row, and correlations constructed a NLL around 81.3.
from the learned MPS and TTN are shown in the bottom
<latexit sha1_base64="vOJX0Msp2QRw56wrP2TXE8H3N2E=">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</latexit>

In Fig. 7 we draw the sampled images from the TTN

rows for comparison. For the TTN and MPS, Dmax is 50 trained on 50 000 MNIST images, using the sampling
(S. Cheng et al, Phys. Rev. B 99, 155131 (2019). )
and 100, respectively, which corresponds MPS
the smallest test NLL. As we can see, in the original data
to the models with
TABLE I. Test NLL of different models for the binary MNIST
set, the correlation between pixels consists of short-range data set.
correlation and a small number of long-range correlations.
However, the MPS model can faithfully represent the short- Model Test NLL
range correlation of pixels, while the TTN model performs
well in both short-range and long-range correlations. Tree factor graph 175.8
Next, we carried out experimentsPHYSICAL
WANG, XIANG, AND ZHANG
TTN
using the whole MNIST
REVIEW B 99, 155131 (2019) MPS
TTN, 1D
101.5
96.9
data
nical forms for eachset with
tensor: upper 50 000lefttraining images to quantitatively compare
canonical,
l, and right canonical, depending on which index TTN, 2D 94.3
thecanonical
lly left. The three performance
forms are shownof the TTN with existing popular machine
in the
g diagrammatic notation: RBM 86.3a [43]
learning models. The performance is characterized by evalu-
VAE 84.8a [45]
ating the NLL on the 10 000 test images. We also applied the
. PixelCNN 81.3 [10]
same data set to the tree-structure factor graph and the MPS
generative model and compare using the same data set the test a
Approximated NLL.
on the right side represents the identity matrix.
echnically easy to canonicalize a tensor in the TTN.
mple, we can start from one end of the tree and use (a)
decomposition of the tensor to push the noncanonical 155131-7
he tensor to the adjacent tensor. By repeating this
ally, one will push all noncanonical parts of the TTN
one tensor, called the central tensor, and all other
are in one of the three canonical forms. Analogous
ixed-canonical form of MPSs, we call this form the
anonical form of the TTN.
the TTN is in the canonical form, many calculations

TN
simple, for example, the normalization factor Z fi-
comes the squared norm of a tensor:
(b) (c)
 This procedure can be straightforwardly generalized by replacing bits with
quarternaries (2D) or octals (3D), that is, by replacing 1D line segments with
squares (2D) or cubes (3D). The maximal Schmidt numbers are the then
numbergiven by parametrizing the solution
of variables
equation (4) in 2D and equation (5) in 3D. than one order of magnitude. The conceptual simi
tensor network algorithm presented here and tho
tum physics opens the possibility of conducting co
Matrix product state algorithm. The INSE comprises a coupled
Nikita Gourianov set ofon
et. al.,
dynamics partial
Nat. Comput. Sci.
a quantum 2, 20 (2022).
computer.
differential equations for the velocity field V and pressure p:
Naiver-Stokes Results
∇· = Quantifying interscale correlations. Throughout
low the standard approach in computational flu
discretize the computational domain.
δ = Each
u spatiala
/(40A)
+ ( · ∇) = −∇ + ∇ cretized by 2N grid points, where N is a 0positive in
the velocity field tensor shown
where ν is the kinematic viscosity and ∇ is the nabla operator. After discretizing
the computational domain as described at the beginning of this Article, we !
( )= ( )ˆ
=

components ui are discrete fun

NATURE COMPUTATIONAL
4 × 4 grid × 8 grid 2022 |and
SCIENCE | VOL 28| JANUARY its Cartesian
30–37 | www.nature.com/natcomputsci
points rq, where K16 × 16
is the griddimension and
spatial
unit vectors. We measure the interscale correlati
Schmidt (singular value) decomposition to system
computational grid into sub-grids, as illustrated in
We decompose (for details, see the Schmidt decom
in the Methods) each component ui on this 2N × 2
tions R and f on a coarse and a fine subgrid, respe

NATURE COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCE | VOL 2 | JANUARY 2022 |

 y the black dashed line corresponds to DNS. The gray shaded area W is for solutions on a 28!×!28 grid. The blue shaded area M is
on (2). c, Same as in b but for the 3D simulations shown in Fig. 3. In b and c, T0 is the characteristic timescale on which the quickest
1
low fields can traverse
1 the2box (Set-up3 of numerical
4 experiments
5 section6 in the Methods).
7 d, Scaling of = ( ) with the
he 2D and 3D systems in b and c, respectively.
n th bipartition

nels a and b correspond to a square with edge length Lbox on a 2 10

Nikita
10
grid. a,et.
!×!2Gourianov Theal.,subgrid
Nat. Comput. Sci. 2, 20 (2022).
bles parametrizing
uation theRed
(2) for n!=!2. solution (NVPS)
dots are the 22by more
!×!22
grid points Xk of the coarse ! ( ) grid. Each blue square
agnitude. The conceptual similarity between the ( d) = () ( ) ( ) = +
e 28!×!28 grid points xk of the fine grid. b, The Schmidt numbers 99(n,!t) on a logarithmic scale
orithm presented here and those used in quan-
9% accurate representation of DNS solutions
he possibility of conducting computational fluid to the INSE at four different
=
times (Fig. 2). The
to DNS.
ntum The gray shaded areaTN
computer. W is for solutions Positions
on a 28!×!2X8 kgrid. The blueto
correspond
TN
shaded area Mgrid
a quadratic is with 2n × 2n points
D simulations shown in Fig. 3. In b and c, T0 is the characteristic timescale
(coarse grid), and on whichtothe
xl correspond quickest
a fine sub-grid with 2N − n × 2N − n
-up of numerical experiments section in the Methods). grid points.
d, Scaling The of functions
= Rα and ( f)α with
obeythethe orthonormality
cale correlations. Throughout this work we fol- condition
espectively.
pproach in computational fluid dynamics and ! !
utational domain. Each spatial dimension is dis- ( ) ( )= ( ) ( )=
points, where N is a positive integer. In this way,
NVPS) by more !( )
rity between the ( )= ( ) (δαβ is) the( Kronecker
where ) =delta. +The parameter n = 1, …, N − 1
e used in quan-! labels the possible bipartitions of the square lattice in coarse and
=
mputational
(
NATURE = fluid (
)COMPUTATIONAL )ˆSCIENCE fine grids (in Fig. 1a N = 10 and n = 2). The Schmidt number d(n)
ARTICLES
denotes the number of retained terms nin the summation in equa-
a
=
Positions Xb k correspondtion to (2),
a quadratic grid with
and each product Rαfα is 2
n
× 2 points
weighted byNa−Schmidt coefficient
y/Lbox
omponents ui are discrete (coarse
2562
grid),ofand
functions xl correspond
the grid to acoefficients
λα ≥ 0. These fine sub-grid
appearwith 2 × 2 order λ1 ≥ λ2... ≥ λd(n),
N−n
in descending
n
99%
subgrid 45
1

gridand points.
ˆ are The functions Rα and d(n)fαwill
obeyonlythe
addorthonormality
TDJ, t/T0 = 0.25

is the spatial dimension

3/4
Cartesian
44
so varying or remove the least important of
TDJ, t/T0 = 0.75

his work
easure thewe
interscale condition by using the the orthonormal basis functions. Here we take d(n) as a quantita-
fol- correlations 43
TDJ, t/T0 = 1.25

TDJ, t/T0 = 1.75

dalue) decomposition
and to systematically divide the tive measure for the interscale correlations of turbulent flows at a
1/2
dynamics
d(n)

!1a for K = 2. given bipartition

42 rank
! n of the lattice: d(n) = 1 corresponds to an uncor-
, 1,0242 grid

into sub-grids,
1/4
imension is dis- as illustrated in Fig. , 2562 grid

( ) ( )= ( ) ( )=
details, see the Schmidt decomposition section related product state, and with increasing → d(n) the flow becomes
4 , χ99 = 25

eger. In this way,

0 x/Lbox

ch component ui on this 12 × 2 grid 1into func- more strongly correlated between the coarse and the fine grid.
N N
0 1/4 1/2 3/4

oarse and a fine subgrid, respectively:

1 2 3 4
nNote
5 6 7 8 9
1dexhibits no interscale
that although the d(n) = 1 product state
th bipartition
 Nikita Gourianov et. al., Nat. Comput. Sci. 2, 20 (2022).
ARTICLES NATU
1 MPS a
t =0.25 t =0.75 t =1.25 t =1.75
x/Lbox
0.2 0.5 0.8 0.2 0.5 0.8 0.2 0.5 0.8 0.2 0.5 0.8
0.7

grid

y/Lbox
DNS 0.5

0.3

1 2N 0.7
0.5
χ = 118
0.3

0.7

χ = 74 0.5

0.3

0.7
χ = 33 0.5

0.3

0.7
2
362 grid 0.5

( 2 3 0.3

2 2
0.7
256 grid 0.5
22 23 0.3

0.7
MPS 2
128 grid 0.5

0.3

–97 –50 0 50 97
∆
× V/T0
•

• 2
• Kitaev
•

•
 iTPS

2 4
iTPS

1.
2. iTPS

TPS

• MPS
•

•
 D D2

χ
Corner transfer matrix Edge tenso

Corner transfer matrix Edge tensor

" "χ

χ
χ∝O(D2) O(D10)
1

, ,

,
• TeNeS
•
*
 n .
mal- A. Basic idea
hown

the
iTPS
Variational optimization schemes are commonly used
1,3
in MPS based algorithms, and have already been ap-
on of plied to finite PEPS,2,5,6 but not yet to iPEPS. The main
iTPS idea is to iteratively optimize one tensor after the other
1. until convergence is reached. Optimizing a single ten-
sor A (while keeping all other tensors fixed) boils down
to minimizing the energy with respect to tensor A,

and h (A)|Ĥ| (A)i A~ † HA

~
min E(A) = min = min
P. Corboz, Phys.(2)
Rev. B 94, 035133 (2016).
A A h (A)| (A)i ~ A
A ~ † NA
~
L. Vanderstraeten et al , Phys. Rev. B 94, 155123 (2016).
where the tensor A and its conjugate have H.-J.
beenLiao et al, Phys. Rev. X 9, 31041 (2019).
reshaped
rner into vectors. The matrices N and H correspond to the
2.
nsor (reshaped) tensor network representing the norm and the
expectation value of Ĥ excluding the tensor A and its
conjugate A† , respectively, see Fig. 2. Minimizing with
ght-, respect to A† yields a generalized eigenvalue problem,
until !
@ ~ † HA
A ~ iTPS
ence = 0, ! HA ~ = ENA.~ (3)
@A~† A ~ † NA
~
iTPS
iTPS

-
τ

Subset 1:
Subset 1:
Subset 2:

Subset 2:
iTPS

iTPS

Bond dimension = D
Bond dimension = D
Bond dimension = D
Bond dimension = D

....

Bond dimension = D
Bond dimension = D

Copy Copy
iTPS

Bond dimension = D
Bond dimension = D

O(D10)
Full update (cf. R. Orus et al, Phys. Rev. B 80, 094403 (2009))

=
: Non-negative diagonal matrix

Simple update (H. G. Jiang et al, Phys. Rev. Lett. 101, 090603 (2008))
 iTPS
Simple update (H. G. Jiang et al, Phys. Rev. Lett. 101, 090603 (2008))

=
: Non-negative diagonal matrix

QR O(D5)
Truncation to

SVD bond-dimension D

Matrix

: Non-negative diagonal matrix

Simple update
•

• full update
 QMC
H. YAMAGUCHI et al.
RE COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09063-7
1.0
0.9 J6 J1
(a)
0.8 site 1
J2 J5
1 0.7
0.6 J4 J3 site 2

M/Msat
0.5
0.4 site 1

Intensity
7/9 H
0.3
H=0
0.2 site 2
0.1
M /MS

5/9 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.5 0.5
(b) (c)

(< Sx>2+<Sy>2+<Sz>2 )1/2

0.4 site 1 site 1
3/9 0.4
Spin 0 1 2 0.3
0.3 site 2
<Sz > 0.2
1/9 Magnon
0.1 site 2 0.2
0
0 1 2 3 0 0.1
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 var
B/J H/|J1| P(1
g. 1 Calculated magnetization process for the spin-1/2 KAFM with the den
FIG. 4. The ground states under magnetic fields obtained from
earest-neighbor interactionD.
R. Okuma, J. Nakamura,
The tensor network method
T. Okubo with the
et al, H. Yamaguchi, Y. Sasaki, T. Okubo,
D = 6 iTPS calculation. (a) Normalized magnetization curve, (b)
rojected entangledNat.
pair Commun.
state (PEPS)10,
is used.
1229The vertical and horizontal
(2019). Phys. Rev. B 98, 094402 (2018).
average local magnetization, (c) average local moment at T = 0
xes represent magnetization M divided by saturated magnetization Ms and
calculated using the tensor network method assuming the ratios of
 Tensor Netwok Solver (TeNeS)
Y. Motoyama, T. Okubo, et al., Comput. Phys. Commun. 279, 108437 (2022).

https://github.com/issp-center-dev/TeNeS
TPS iTPS

MPI/OpenMP 1
3-site unit cell

mptensor 0.8
D = 10
@sekirei 72node
0.6 ~4
mVMC HPhi input le
0.4

0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
•

•
•

•
•
fi
•

• 2
• Kitaev
•

•
theory of interacting metals: they propose that the ground state has a u
certain structure and a set of elementary excitations that are consistent c
with this structure. In contrast to the Fermi liquid case, however, the o
elementary excitations consist of spinons and other exotic particles,
which are coupled by gauge fields. A theory of this type — that is, pro- 1
posing a ‘spinon Fermi surface’ coupled to a U(1) gauge field — has c
had some success in explaining data from experiments on κ-(BEDT- t
TTF)2Cu2(CN)3 (refs 65, 66). Related theories have been proposed for s
ZnCu3(OH)6Cl2 (ref. 67) and Na4Ir3O8 (ref. 68). However, comparisons l

b
:
?
+

c
Spin liquid (RVB)

+…

Figure 3 | Valence-bond states of frustrated(L. antiferromagnets. In a VBS

Balents, Nature (2010)) s
state (a), a specific pattern of entangled pairs of spins — the valence bonds b
— is formed. Entangled pairs are indicated by ovals that cover two points (
on the triangular lattice. By contrast, in a RVB state, the wavefunction is a m

204
© 2010 Macmillan Publishers L
 A. Kitaev, Annals of Physics 321, 2 (2006)
x-bond z-bond

y-bond

<latexit sha1_base64="YoDhTzLVC6kCVibdFC/8I23RIjI=">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</latexit>

1 2

iTPS
6 3
<latexit sha1_base64="W682k5HZHC55Sa9dltWKkHJWjdg=">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</latexit>

(T. okubo et al, unpublished)

0.009
5 4
0.008
<latexit sha1_base64="cFFhOyPz1gKc+oU0jPVajnqB3dw=">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</latexit>

Full update
±1 0.007
Variational update
0.006
• Vortex free: <latexit sha1_base64="s3koN5z1pYei9Ww0KRpq0huHBkU=">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</latexit>

0.005
p: plaquette
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
0
0.1% 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
 T. Okubo, K. Shinjo, Y. Yamaji et al, Phys. Rev. B 96, 054434 (2017).

G.Jackeli, et al., PRL 102, 017205 (2009)

Na2IrO3
(Y. Yamaji et al. Phys. Rev. Lett. 113, 107201(2014)) iTPS
Kitaev + Heisenberg + Off-diagonal interactions
+
2nd and 3rd nearest neighbor interactions

-5 0.05
• -5.2 Zigzag 16-sites
0.04
-5.4 (X,Y) (Z) 120°
IC
-5.6 0.03
-5.8 iPEPS
zigzag phase is 0.02
• iTPS -6
consistent with
-6.2 the experiments 0.01
-6.4 iPEPS

-6.6 0
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
Na2IrO3
 loops are suppressed.
III. VARIATIONAL ANSATZE Interestingly, the variational energy bec
A. Loop gas states (within machine precision) as approaching t
H.-Y. Lee, R. Kanako,
φet=al,0Nat. Commun.
where the11,excitation
1639 (2020). gap closes a
in with defining a product stateH.-Y. |#(θLee,)!R.=
Kanako,Note
T.O. and
thatN. ZKawashima, PRB 101, 035140 (2020)
O(1) (x) in Eq. (4) becomes critic
with a local magnetic state given by [25],
$ √which leads √
to the critical LG st
K
γ#
ΓΓ′ model: α-RuCl 3 sin θ ( 2 3 − 3, 2 − 3). Remarkably, the LG
LEE, KANEKO, OKUBO, AND KA

|σ̂ |θ , γ ! = δγ γ # cos θ + (1 − δγ γ # ) √ , (2) with (qc , rc ) at φ = 0 which implies that th

2
the critical LG state exhibiting macroscopi
TPS
ng the intertriangle bond at site α. For instance, more, its low-energy physics is described b
Fig. 1(a), we assign state |θ , y!. Applying the [25] which is consistent with the expected
“ ” Therefore, according to this circumstantial e
r Q̂LG defined in Ref. [24] on top of |#(θ )!
LG state |ψLG
MMUNICATIONS (θ )! ≡ Q̂LG |#(θ )!, which is simply
| https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15320-x conclude that the LG ansatz ARTICLE
at φ = 0 is the e
ion of all possible loop configurations of magnetic FIG. 1. (a) Schematics of the sta
bonds defined in the model [Eq. (1)]
and yellow colors, respectively. (b)
a Magnetization b Flux corresponding magnetic states of the
h is defined in Eq. (2), and x, y, z denot
1
0.4 exact 0.8
NP1 NP1 -0.38 | 0 (a)
the flux numbers or eigenvalue(b)
0.15 ±1, Wp = ±1}. Since 0.8 the operat
| 0.6 Abelian
matrices, the time-reversal (TR)
P 0.3 P 1 number, i.e., T V̂p T −1 = −V̂p , an
dE[%]
-0.4 0.3 is spontaneously 0.6broken in eige
0.1 0.4
E non-Abelian [22] that the ground states do not
0.2 0.2 (that is, the CSLs) and live in
P2 Zig-zag (3)
P2 Zig-zag 0.2 {Ŵp = 1, V̂p = 1}.0.4
In addition, th
N N -0.42 cal phase transition
√ between the n
0.05 0.1 #
CSLs at J /J = 3 [22].
0.1 KSL 0 0.2
mpty site denotesKSL
state
|θ , γα ! whereas the loop- 0
-0.44 0 0.25 0.5 III. VARIATIONA
e stands for0 σ̂ γ |θ , γα ! depending on the direction –0.2 0A. Loop gas
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1
as depicted 0in Fig.0.1 1(b). Due0.2 0.3
to the 0
LG operator, 0.1 0.2 0.3
! We begin with defining a
/ |θ , γα !α with a local magneti

Γ/ K  Γ/ K  α
 (a) 4.0

3.0
RESEARCH LETTER
2.0

1.0 a b Majorana observed. F

Electron fermion in a tilted fi
0.0 B inset of Fig.
B Cold
Hot 90°. For θ =
-1.0 same critic
µ0H∥ ≈ 6 T
Cold Hot demonstra
0.01 0.1 1
contrast to
anisotropy
RESEARCH LETTER Z2 flux Above H
(b)
4.0 liar spin-liq
c 0H (T)
netic resona
2.5
the presenc
3.0 4 6 2.0 8 10 12
1 spin excitat

(×10–3 W K–2 m–1)

2.0Conventional paramagnet
1.0 1/2 expected in
JK/kB ≈ 80 K

xy /[T(π/6)(kB /")]
2.0

2D
0 0
1 To study
Spin liquid
1.5 (Kitaev paramagnet)
0 20 40 60
H = H ∗, κ
1.0 Half-integer
TN1.0 quantized plateau c
60° H
obtained by
8
respect to t

2
a 1/2
H|| is determin
0.0

xy/T
0.5

TN (K)
6 0H = 7 T ( = 45°) compared t
Zigzag
H = 4.6 T ( = 60°)
AFM order 0 thermal Ha
0.01 0.1 1 0.0 0
3 4 5 6 Non- 7 8 9κxy/T at θ =
4
topological
T (K) H = H ∗ at
T. Okubo, J. Nasu, T. Misawa, Y. Motome, in preparation. of the temp
Fig.24 | Temperature dependence of the
Y. Kasahara et al., Nature 559, 227 (2018).thermal Hall conductance.
erable belo
, Vol. 57, No.11, 633 (2022). The main panel shows κ xy /T in fields tilted at θ = 45° and 60° (see inset
setup.
Fig. 2a) at µ0H⊥ = 7 T and 4.6 T, respectively, where a quantized Intherma
the AF
0
Hall conductance
4 plateau
6 is observed10at low temperatures.
H||* 8 12 The
Upon right sca
enter
2D 2
is the 2D thermal Hall conductance κxy /T in
Topological units of (π/6)(itive
phase kB /ħin ). The
sign
violet dashed line represents H
0 || (T) the half-integer thermal Hall conductance
transition point
exhibits a p
2D 2
κ
Fig. 1 | Chiral xy / [ T (π/ 6) (k / ħ )] = 1 / 2 . The inset
Majorana edge Bcurrents and temperature–magnetic field
shows the same data θin=a60°
widerand
temperature regime. Error bars represent one standard deviation.
•

• 2
• Kitaev
•

•
(a) (b) (c)

D
cf.
 N. Yoshioka, T.O, Y. Suzuki, Y. Koisumi, and W. Mizukami, arXiv:2210.14109

• 10 × 10 1 *E
• 10 × 10
(a) 2d J1-J2 Heisenberg model (b) 2d Fermi-Hubbard model

1month
Runtime [s]

1day 1month
1hour 1day
1hour

System size N System size N

20 - 30 …
 NISQ: Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum computer
•

NISQ

VQE: Variational Quantum Eigen solver

(A. Peruzzo, et al, Nature Communications, vol.5, 4213 (2014). )

NISQ

θ
 VQE
1.
•

2. VQE
•

• cf. VMC, DMRG, PEPS/TPS)

• (cf. iPEPS/iTPS, iMPS)
• NISQ ?

•
 NISQ
1.
2. NISQ

3.

NISQ
TNS

0
0

QC

0
0

QC
rep. of

0
0

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TNS
TNS New

0
0

gates

0
0
 1.

• MERA, PEPS

(c)

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2. (a) (d)

(b)
cf.
1,1
(c)

• isometric TNS
• FIG. 1. Schematic representationIsometric TNform in
of the canonical
M.P. Zaletel
1D and 2D. (a) Left and right isometries et al,
are represented by
• arrows whose orientation indicatesPRL 124, 037201
whether A A = (2020)
† †
BB = 1
We view the isometry as an RG-like procedure from the larg
• Hilbert space (incoming arrow) to the smaller one (outgoing
arrow). (b) A 1D MPS can by brought into a mixed canoni
cal form with orthogonality center ⇤. Note that each dangling
physical index implicitly has an incoming arrow. (c) Expec

0
0

tation values of local operators can be directly obtained from

⇤. (d) 2D canonical form with a center column ⇤ and row

TNS QC

0
0

(highlighted in red). The orthogonality center tensor i

QC
marked by a red dot. In blue we indicate an example of a

(for a small rep. of subregion with only outgoing arrows, whose boundary map i

0
0

system)
consequently an isometry.
TNS
TNS
.
0
0

0
0

tensors A, ⇤, B and write

3. NISQ

• TNS

•
0
0

QC optimized
by NISQ
0

TNS
0
0
4.

• iTPS
TNS TNS
• TNS
•

optimized
TNS
QC
larger system evaluated
by supercomputer
 1 2

±1
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•
6 3
•
• 5 4
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"Vortex free"

Wi = 1 ,
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D=2
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 Vortex free
H.-Y. Lee, R. Kanako, T.O. and N. Kawashima, PRL 123, 087203 (2019)

Vortex free
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Non zero elements:

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(D=2, TPO)
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<latexit sha1_base64="o9yYeoDgANMt6DrpOFay0A5u3AA=">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</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="5pGKh0Kh2GqTRcauZLwn9JCYp/Y=">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</latexit>
 H.-Y. Lee, R. Kanako, T.O. and N. Kawashima, PRL 123, 087203 (2019)
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+ + ... <latexit sha1_base64="5pGKh0Kh2GqTRcauZLwn9JCYp/Y=">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</latexit>

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: <latexit sha1_base64="WWTnu8rNRSnaLMIya3g6yc5ApgY=">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</latexit>

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:# of graphs
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...
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Loop gas state (LGS) :
H.-Y. Lee, R. Kanako, T.O. and N. Kawashima, PRL 123, 087203 (2019)

vortex free

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(1,1,1)

Q |111> LGS
• D=2, iTPS <latexit sha1_base64="fWqO2LGaLc/mVAyJ4LDcQ7ogyi8=">AAACl3ichVG7SgNBFD2u72eiNopNMESsZFYERRAFQVIaNQ9IouyuYxwy+2B3E9DoD/gDClYRLMQ/sLXxByz8BLFUsLHw7mZBNKh3mJkzZ+65c4arO1J4PmNPHUpnV3dPb1//wODQ8EgsPjqW8+yaa/CsYUvbLeiax6WweNYXvuQFx+WaqUue16vrwX2+zl1P2NaOf+TwsqlVLHEgDM0navdEVdWSq1kVyRMrib14ks2xMBLtQI1AElFs2vE7lLAPGwZqMMFhwScsocGjUYQKBoe4MhrEuYREeM9xigHS1iiLU4ZGbJXWCp2KEWvROajphWqDXpE0XVImkGKP7Ia9sgd2y57Zx6+1GmGNwMsR7XpLy5292NnE9vu/KpN2H4dfqj89+zjAUuhVkHcnZIJfGC19/fj8dXt5K9WYYVfshfw32RO7px9Y9TfjOsO3Lv/wo5OXsEqAqE3qz6a0g9z8nEo4s5BcW4oa1ocpTGOWurKINaSxiSy94uICTVwpk8qqsqGkW6lKR6QZx7dQMp/SvZV7</latexit>

• C6 +
• <latexit sha1_base64="iGoO2UUsxY3zAvBhwG/e0/0mJCM=">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</latexit>

Vortex free LGS

2d

LGS
LGS
 n string gas state (SGS) (H.-Y. Lee, R. Kanako, T.O. and N. Kawashima, PRL 123, 087203 (2019))

3
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It indicates that the norm of | 0 i is exactly mapped " "

of all dimer configurations: R̂DG
| ψn⟩ D = 2n iTPS.
into the partition function of the critical classical model
• which guarantees the criticality of | 0 i[35]. In addition,
the Ising conformal field theory (CFT) with the central
charge c = 1/2 is known to characterize the critical LG .
<latexit sha1_base64="5Qb/LsEo95dpbmpA1zYQW0ILSz0=">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</latexit>
model[34], which is consistent with theExactKSL of KHM[36–
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(8)
2 Due to :[Ĥlocal dimer
38]. 4 8
D ↵ , Ŵp ] = 0, it is obvious that R̂G commutes
The LG structure encoded in the ⌧ -tensor is useful in
# of 0 1 the vortex excitation
describing 2 of the KSL. To see this, with Ŵp for any G, and hence R̂DG does; [R̂DG , Ŵp ] = 0.
In fact, determines density
[R̂DG ,of the
] = dimers
parameters
E/J -0.16349 -0.19643 -0.19681
we first note that the
z -0.19682
⌧ -tensor is invariant under a gauge we can easily prove Q̂LG 0 and that
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the DG operator respects all symmetries of the KSL [33].

transformation g = ˆ , i.e. gii0 gjj 0 gkk0 ⌧i0 j 0 k0 = ⌧ijk , and
ΔE/Eex 0.17 0.002
thus 0.0007 - Therefore, its multiplication to | 0 i does not contaminate
the features of the KSL regardless of z. Moreover, it
gii0 gjj 0 gkk0 |Ti00 j 0 k0 i = |Tijk
0
i. can be expressed as the polynomial function of the KHM
Hamiltonian, which may be the reason why it improves
With a trivial gauge transformation I2 being a two- the energy of the ansatz quite efficiently. The first key
dimensional identity matrix, they form a Z2 invariant observation is that we can graphically represent Eq. (1)
• raised to the n-th power as the linear combination of
gauge group (IGG). String-like action of g on links would
twist the gauge fields[15] along the string and hence cre- elements of D as
• ate two vortices Ŵp = 1 at both ends as demonstrated
below:

LGS
NISQ ,
Here, the number of sites in the system is assumed to
 LG isometric TN
LGS QLG
QLG vortex free <latexit sha1_base64="PLbYnl2wyXjTl9jmYZaUmXEfx4w=">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</latexit>

1 2

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=1 6 3
Q̂ LG =
5 4

Wi = 1
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D=2 Non zero elements:

<latexit sha1_base64="5pGKh0Kh2GqTRcauZLwn9JCYp/Y=">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</latexit>

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: " "
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spin virtual leg

Control state
|0> →
control target
qubit qubit |1> → σ

LGS

|0>

(|1> )
 <latexit sha1_base64="itf8JOCM3DmJhnPtXWU6sNRHkck=">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</latexit>

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<latexit sha1_base64="U8Mq87rKaD935RVSNZdZ4gVeHyQ=">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</latexit>

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<latexit sha1_base64="c2SbhQYU6fXUqUPH+9e5xe3Gov8=">AAACinichVE9SwNBEH05v2M0URvBJhgUqzARwahNQAtLkxgT0BDuzlVPL3fH3SUQg39AW8XCSsFC/Ae2Nv4Bi/wEsVSwsXDuciAajLPs7tu382bfMoqla45L1ApJPb19/QODQ+HhyMhoNDY2vuWYNVsVBdXUTbukyI7QNUMUXM3VRcmyhVxVdFFUjla9+2Jd2I5mGptuwxLlqrxvaHuaKrtMZQ8rsQQlyY94J0gFIIEgNszYA3awCxMqaqhCwIDLWIcMh8c2UiBYzJXRZM5mpPn3AicIs7bGWYIzZGaPeN3n03bAGnz2ajq+WuVXdJ42K+OYoWe6ozd6ont6oc8/azX9Gp6XBu9KWyusSvR0Mv/xr6rKu4uDb1VXzy72kPa9auzd8hnvF2pbXz++fMsv52aas3RDr+z/mlr0yD8w6u/qbVbkrrr4UdiLX8VD3KbU76Z0gq35ZIpxdiGRSQcNG8QUpjHHXVlEBuvYQIFfETjDOS6kiDQvLUkr7VQpFGgm8COktS9HEJEC</latexit>

• →
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<latexit sha1_base64="o9yYeoDgANMt6DrpOFay0A5u3AA=">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</latexit>

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• → <latexit sha1_base64="wujF11inCiVgFG9Hi3Yqm4lFvOc=">AAADYXichVHLahRBFL094yMZH5nEjZBN4ZAXSKgJQkRUAgbGZWaSSQKpWFR3KjOVqX7QVTMQO/0D/oALVwouxD9w68YfUMjalbiM4MaFt7sniTEYq+mqU6fuOXWK60ZaGUvpoVMqX7p85erIaOXa9Rs3x6rjE+sm7MeebHuhDuNNVxipVSDbVlktN6NYCt/VcsPtPcnONwYyNioM1ux+JLd90QnUrvKERYpXv7CusEkr5Yna66WzLOqqOTL9iDDT93li7pqZtHXm7MCwWAQdLZnOF2JmDghjlROf5cYfNoT5wnZjP7FrccqiONzhCRM66oqUnN7MC4rsHYMePy4qrND/JFODqYCwhvB9wZezAiuComruWaJ5IyVN3uDVGp2n+SDnQX0IajAcK2H1AzDYgRA86IMPEgKwiDUIMPhtQR0oRMhtQ4JcjEjl5xJSqKC2j1USKwSyPZw7uNsasgHuM0+Tqz28ReMfo5LAFP1M39Ej+om+p9/or396JblHlmUfV7fQyoiPvbi9+vO/Kh9XC91T1YWZLezC/TyrwuxRzmSv8Ar94PnLo9UHralkmr6h3zH/a3pIP+ILgsEP721Ttl5dkMfFLLlLhrBN9b+bch6sL8zXETfv1ZYeDxs2ApNwB2axK4uwBE9hBdrgOQ8d1+k5uvS1PFqulieK0pIz1NyCM6M8+RsEQd3Z</latexit>
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• DG
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 Energy density
0
-0.02
•
-0.04
• -0.06
• DG -0.08
-0.1
Unitary
-0.12
-0.14
-0.16
-0.18 Dimer Gas Imaginary DG

-0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Szuki-Trotter decomposition
 i

24-site
0 0
Non-Unitary
-0.02 -0.02
-0.04 -0.04
-0.06 -0.06
-0.08 -0.08
-0.1 Non-Unitary gate -0.1
-0.12 -0.12
-0.14 -0.14
Dimer Gas
-0.16 -0.16
Dimer Gas
-0.18 -0.18
-0.2 -0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

• 24
•

• 2
• Kitaev
•

•
•

•
 2022 2

•
•