CHAPTER-1

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
STATIC CHARACTERSTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. Accuracy is the degree of closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the
true value of the quantity being measured. The measured quantity may be different from
the true quantity due to effects of temperature humidity etc. Example- three readings
taken for a quantity (whose true value is 5.00)are 4.85,4.90,4.95,then 4.95 is more
accurate among three readings as it is much closer to 5.00.

2. Precision -The term precise means clearly or sharply different. Precision is the measure
of the reproducibility of the measurements for a given fixed value of a quantity. In other
words it is the measure of consistency or repeatability that is successive reading do not
differ. It is also defined as the capability of an instrument to show the same reading when
used each time. Example-five readings taken for a quantity are 4.85, 4.90, 4.85, 4.92,
4.85, then 4.85 is the most precise value of the quantity.

3. Resolution if the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary value it will be found that
the output does not changed at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment is
known as resolution, in other words it is the smallest change in a measured variable to
which an instrument will respond.

4. Sensitivity is the ratio of change in output of the instrument to a change of input or

measured quantity at steady state condition. The sensitivity of an instrument should be
high.
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭
Sensitivity =
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭
5. Range or span is the minimum and maximum values of a quantity for which an
instrument is designed to measure. Example if it is said range of a voltmeter is (0-100 V),
that means voltmeter can measure minimum value as 0V and maximum value as 100 V.

6. Tolerance is the term which specifies the maximum allowable deviation of a

manufactured device from a mentioned value. Example- length of a quantity is 10± 2 cm.
Then tolerance is from minimum value as (10-2)=8 to maximum value as (10+2)=12.

7. Reproducibility is defined as the degree of closeness by which the given value can be
repeatedly measured by different operators. Perfect reproducibility signifies that the
given readings that are taken for an input do not vary with time.
8. Error is the deviation of the true value from the desired value.
Error = Measured value - true value.
Classification of errors

I. Gross errors are caused by mistake in using instruments or meters, calculating

measurement and recording data results. The best example of these errors is a
person or operator reading pressure gage 1.01N/m2 as 1.10N/m2.
II. Blunders are final source of errors and these errors are caused by faulty recording
or due to a wrong value while recording a measurement, or misreading a scale or
forgetting a digit while reading a scale.
III. Measurement error is the result of the variation of a measurement of the true
value. The best example of the measurement error is, if electronic scales are
loaded with 1kg standard weight and the reading is 10002 grams, then the
measurement error is = (1002 grams-1000 grams) = 2 grams.
A. The Systematic errors that occur due to fault in the system or measuring device are
known as systematic errors. These errors may be classified into different categories.
 i. Instrumental Errors occur due to wrong construction of the measuring
instruments. These errors may occur due to hysteresis or friction. These types of
errors include loading effect and misuse of the instruments.
ii. Environmental Errors occur due to some external conditions of the instrument.
like pressure, temperature, humidity or due to magnetic fields.
iii. Observational Errors- these types of errors occurs due to wrong observations or
reading in the instruments particularly in case of energy meter reading.
iv. Theoretical Errors are caused by simplification of the model system. For example,
a theory states that the temperature of the system surrounding will not change the
readings taken when it actually does, then this factor will begin a source of error
in measurement.
B. Random Errors
Random errors are caused by the sudden change in experimental conditions and noise and
tiredness in the working persons. These errors are either positive or negative. An example
of the random errors is during changes in humidity, unexpected change in
temperature and fluctuation in voltage.

9. Drift is defined as the gradual shift in the indication over a period of time where in the
input variable does not change. Drift may be caused because of environment factors like
stray electric field strength, magnetic fields, thermal EMF, change in temperature
mechanical vibrations, etc. Drift is classified into three categories.(i) zero drift (ii) span
drift or sensitivity drift (iii) zonal drift

10. Dead zone is the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the
instrument the maximum change in input for which output is zero is called dead zone.
11. Threshold is the smallest measurable input below which no output change can be
identified.
12. Stability is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout its specified
storage life and operating life.
13. Bias is the constant error which occurs during the measurement of an instrument.
14. Linearity is defined as maximum deviation of output from idealized straight-line actual
readings linearity is simply a measure of the maximum deviation of the calibration points
from the ideal straight line.

15. Hysteresis means a lag between input and output in a system upon a change in direction.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERSTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. Speed of response is defined as the rapidity with which an instrument response to the
changes in the measured quantity.
2. Dynamic error is the difference between the true and measured value with no static
error(error under non-varying conditions).
3. Lag-Every system requires its own time to respond to the changes in input this time is
called as lag. Simply we can say that lag means response delay.
4. Fidelity is defined as the degree to which a measurement system is capable of faithfully
reproducing the changes in input without any dynamic error(error under varying
conditions).

CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.

• Absolute Instruments: These instruments give the value of quantity to be measured in

terms of deflection and instrument constants. ex: Tangent Galvanometer
• Secondary Instruments: These instruments give directly the value of quantity to be
measured by the amount of deflection which is pre-calibrated by comparison with
absolute instruments.
• Indicating instruments: These instruments indicate the value of voltage, current, power
etc. directly on a graduated dial in analog meters and LCD or LED display in digital
meters. Ex: Ammeter, voltmeter, Wattmeter...
• Integrating Instruments: These instruments measures the total amount, either the
quantity of electricity or the electric energy supplied to a circuit over a period of time.
Ex: Energy meter, Ampere hour meter
• Recording Instruments: These instruments register the quantity to be measured in a
given time, and are provided with a pen which moves over graph paper. Ex: Recording
voltmeter, ECG, EEG.
Deflecting, controlling and damping arrangements in indicating type of instruments
In order to ensure proper operation of indicating instruments, the following three torques are
required:
• Deflecting torque.
• Controlling torque.
• Damping torque.

DEFLECTING TORQUE
One important requirement in indicating instruments is the arrangement for producing operating
or deflecting torque (Td) when the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure the given
electrical quantity.
This is achieved by utilizing the various effects of electric current or voltage. The deflecting
torque causes the moving system to move from its zero position. The deflecting torque is
produced by utilizing one or more of the following effects of current or voltage:

• Magnetic effect ————————— Moving-iron instruments.

• Electrodynamic effect ————— (i) Moving coil instruments, (ii) Dynamometer type.
• Electromagnetic induction effect ————Induction type instruments.
• Thermal effect ———————————Hot-wire instruments.
• Chemical effect ——————————–Electrolytic instruments.
• Electrostatic effect —————————-Electrostatic voltmeters
The table below gives information about the electrical measuring instruments in which deflecting
torque is produced by utilizing the first three effects.
CONTROLLING TORQUE
The controlling torque (Tc) opposes the deflecting torque and increases with the deflection of the
moving system. The pointer comes to rest at a position where the two opposing torques are equal
i.e. Td = Tc. The controlling torque performs two functions.
1) Controlling torque increases with the deflection of the moving system so that the final position
of the pointer on the scale will be according to the magnitude of an electrical quantity (i.e.
current or voltage or power) to be measured.
2) Controlling torque brings the pointer back to zero when the deflecting torque is removed. If it
were not provided, the pointer once deflected would not return to zero position on removing the
deflecting torque. The controlling torque in indicating instruments may be provided by one of
the following two methods:

1. Spring control.
2. Gravity control.

Spring Control Method

This is the most common method of providing controlling torque, in electrical instruments. A
spiral hairspring made of some non-magnetic material like phosphor bronze is attached to the
moving system of the instrument as shown in the figure.
Springs also serve the additional purpose of leading current to the moving system (i.e. operating
coil). With that deflection of the pointer, the spring is twisted in the opposite direction. This twist
in the spring provides the controlling torque.
As the torsion torque of a spiral spring is proportional to the angle of twist, the controlling torque
(Tc ) is directly proportional to the angle of deflection of pointer (θ) i.e. Tc α θ. The pointer will
come to rest at a position where controlling torque is equal to the deflecting torque i.e. Td =Tc.
In an instrument where the deflecting torque is uniform, spring control provides a uniform scale
over the whole range. The balance weight is attached to counterbalance the weight of the pointer
and other moving parts.
Gravity Control Method

In this method, a small weight is attached to the moving system, which provides necessary
controlling torque. In the zero position of the pointer, the control weight hangs vertically
downward and therefore provides no controlling torque.

However, under the action of deflecting torque, the pointer moves from zero position and control
weight moves in opposite direction. Due to gravity, the control weight would tend to come in
original position (i.e. vertical) and thus provides an opposing or controlling torque. The pointer
comes to rest at a position where controlling torque is equal to the deflecting torque.In this
method, controlling torque (Tc) is proportional to the sin of angle of deflection (θ) i.e. Tc α sin θ.

Because in this method controlling torque (Tc) is not directly proportional to the angle of
deflection (θ) but it is proportional to sin θ therefore, gravity control instruments have non-
uniform scales; being crowded in beginning.

DAMPING TORQUE
A damping torque is produced by a damping or stopping force which acts on the moving system
only when it is moving and always opposes its motion. Such a torque is necessary to bring the
pointer to rest quickly. If there is no damping torque, then the pointer will keep moving to and
fro about its final deflected position for some time before coming to rest, due to the inertia of the
moving system.
This damping torque acts only when the pointer is in motion and always opposes the motion. The
position of the pointer when stationary is, therefore, not affected by damping torque. The degree
of damping decides the behavior of the moving system.
If the instrument is under-damped, the pointer will oscillate about the final position for some
time before coming to rest. On the other hand, if the instrument is over damped, the pointer will
become slow and lethargic.

However, if the degree of damping is adjusted to such a value that the pointer comes up to the
correct reading quickly without oscillating about it, the instrument is said to be critically damped.

Types of Damping Torque

The damping torque in indicating instruments can be provided by:

• Air friction damping.
• Fluid friction damping.
• Eddy current damping.

Air Friction Damping

Arrangements of air friction damping are shown in fig. (a) and fig. (b). In the arrangement
shown in fig (a), a light aluminum piston is attached to the spindle that carries the pointer and
moves with a very little clearance in a rectangular or circular air chamber closed at one end.
The cushioning action of the air on the piston damps out any tendency of the pointer to oscillate
about the final deflected position. This method is not favored these days and the one shown in
fig. (b) is preferred.
In this method, one or two light aluminum vanes are attached to the same spindle that carries the
pointer. As the pointer moves, the vanes swing and compress the air. The pressure of compressed
air on the vanes provides the necessary damping force to reduce the tendency of the pointer to
oscillate.

Fluid Friction Damping

In this method, discs or vanes attached to the spindle of the moving system are kept immersed in
a pot containing oil of high viscosity. As the pointer moves, the friction between the oil and
vanes opposes the motion of the pointer and thus necessary damping is provided.

The fluid friction damping method is not suitable for portable instruments because of the oil
contained in the instrument. In general, fluid friction damping is not employed in indicating
instrument, although one can find its use in Kelvin electrostatic voltmeter.

Eddy Current Damping

Two methods of eddy current damping are generally used. In the first method, as shown in the
figure, a thin aluminum or copper disc is attached to the moving system is allowed to pass
between the poles of a permanent magnet. As the pointer moves, the disc cuts across the
magnetic field and eddy currents are induced in the disc.

These eddy currents react with the field of the magnet to produce a force which opposes the
motion according to Lenz’s Law. In this way, eddy current damping torque reduces the
oscillations of the pointer.

In the second method, the coil which produces the deflecting torque is wound on aluminum
former. As coil moves in the field of the instrument, eddy currents are induced in the aluminum
former to provide the necessary damping torque.

Calibration of instruments.

All the static characteristics of measuring instruments are obtained in one form or another by a
process called calibration.
Calibration procedures involve a comparison of the particular instrument with either
a) a primary standard
b) a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instruments be calibrated.
c) an instrument of known accuracy

The formal definition of calibration by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
(BIPM) which is the coordinator of the worldwide measurement system and is tasked with
ensuring worldwide unification of measurements, is the following: "Operation that, under
specified conditions, in a first step, establishes a relation between the quantity values with
measurement uncertainties provided by measurement standards and corresponding indications
with associated measurement uncertainties (of the calibrated instrument or secondary standard)
and, in a second step, uses this information to establish a relation for obtaining a measurement
result from an indication."A basic definition of calibration is that calibration is the process of
comparing a device under test (DUT) of an unknown value with a reference standard of a known
value. Calibration of an instrument in its purest sense is the process of determining its accuracy.

Calibration of instruments needs to be carried out on a regular basis as the accuracy of all
measuring devices degrade over time.. The instruments tend to deviate owing to hard operating
conditions, mechanical shocks or exposure to extreme temperature or pressure. Frequency of
calibration would depend on the tolerance level. When the objective of the measurement is
critical calibration would need to be carried out more frequently and with great accuracy.

The types of calibration are pressure calibration, temperature calibration, flow calibration, pipette
calibration, electrical calibration, and mechanical calibration

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