EBC 2102 Eng. Surv. I Dept.

of Building & Civil (TUM)

SETTING OUT OF SIMPLE ANGLES

i. Using the 3-4-5 method

To set out right angles in the field, a measuring tape, two ranging rods, pegs and three
persons are required. The first person holds together the zero and 12 meter marks of the
tape as shown in figure 1. The second person holds the 3-meter mark and the third 8-meter
mark. When all sides of the tape are stretched, a triangle with lengths 3m, 4m and 5m sides
is formed. This is a right angled triangle and can be used to determine a perpendicular
direction.

Figure 1

ii. Arc bisector method

Consider Figure 2. A line has to be perpendicular to the chainline from A. A long rope with
a loop at both ends and a measuring tape are used. Place one loop of the rope around peg
A and put a peg through the other loop. Make a circle on the ground while keeping the rope
straight such that the circle bisects the chainline twice. Mark pegs on both intersections on
the chainline e.g as B and C and bisect line BC. The point bisector of BC i.e D established
when produced to A makes a perpendicular to the chainline.

Figure 2

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EBC 2102 Eng. Surv. I Dept. of Building & Civil (TUM)

iii. Swinging tape method.

With the zero mark of the tape held on the feature to be picked, the tape is swang along
the chainline so as to determine the smallest reading on the bisection. The point on the
chainline where the smallest reading is gotten is the point making a perpendicular bisector
to the feature.

Figure 3

iv. Using equipments e.g optical square

Assume AB is the chainline and D is the feature due for offsetting. Place ranging rods along
points on the chainline say AB With the optical square fitted with a plumb bob suspended
below, move to a point on the chainline such that the plumb bob is directly above a point
on the chainline. While sighting through the prism openings (I.e the top prism should see
rod A, the bottom rod B while the central prism rod C). Move along the chainline while
sighting the three parts of the prism to a point where all the rods on the prism are on a
straight line.

Figure 4

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EBC 2102 Eng. Surv. I Dept. of Building & Civil (TUM)

FIELD SURVEY PROCEDURE

The following steps are normally followed to successfully execute a chain survey exercise;
i. Reconnaissance.
It’s the preliminary inspection of the area to be surveyed. While visiting the area, the
surveyor carries along maps of the area to determine the extents and boundaries of the
site. During this stage the surveyor may determine possible positions of chainlines and
chain stations. He may mark and witness them for further referencing when executing the
actual work. Reconnaissance is necessary for preparation of field party and costing. During
this stage, it may be easy to know/judge how long the survey will take, hence know whether
to prepare for accommodation. Also determination of best and cost effective equipments
for the job, possible times of the day for execution due to weather conditions, safety e.t.c.
ii. Marking of stations.
Stations are marked using pegs. It’s important to have as minimum stations as possible but
not less than three (for triangulation purposes). Stations should if possible be choses on the
extremes of the site. After they are marked, it’s important to witness them for future
referencing. Pegs used to mark the stations are not driven flush, rather are left at about
200mm above ground, but firmly driven. For hard places where pegs cannot be used, paint
may be the alternative. Also the direction of the magnetic north with reference to the
baseline is measured and recorded.

iii. Taking measurements (Chainline measurements and offsets to features).

This entails several steps i.e,
⎯ Ranging along the base line. Ranging rods are erected on both ends of the line. A chain
is stretched along the chainline and its end marked with a chain arrow. Once
measurements are fully taken along first chain, its dragged ahead along the chainline
to the next full chainlength. Ranging is done again and the process repeated until the
entire chain is covered.
⎯ Offsets are taken to features and respective booking done. Each point of features is
normally represented by two readings i.e its respective reading along the chainline
and its offset reading.
iv. Reductions and Plotting
Computations are done for any bookings that need it. Also check computations are done
before plotting to ensure no blunders were committed. For cases where errors were
incurred, distribution of the same is done if necessary. Plotting is normally done on white
sheets of drawing papers spread on a drawing table and using the necessary drawing
instruments. With the digital era, plotting can be done using CAD applications. Included in
the plan is the title of the plan, legend defining the icons representing features and the
North direction.

CHAIN SURVEYING OBSTACLES

Obstacles can be divided into three i.e,
⎯ Obstacles to ranging but not chaining.
⎯ Obstacles to chaining but not ranging.
⎯ Obstacles to both ranging and chaining.

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EBC 2102 Eng. Surv. I Dept. of Building & Civil (TUM)

Obstacles to ranging but not chaining.

This occurs when both ends of the survey line are not visible from intermediate stations. The case
might be as shown in figure 5.

Figure 5
Method 1 – alignment
Assuming the surveyor is standing at P and three chainmen/assistants at points A, B and Q as shown
in figure 6, ranging can be achieved as follows;

Figure 6
i. The surveyor at P aligns the chainman at A by directing him appropriately to move to a point
A1 such that he is along line BP.
ii. The chainman at Q aligns the chainman at B by directing him appropriately to move to a
point B1 such that he is along line A1Q.
iii. The process is repeated until all the chainmen and the surveyor are on a common straight
line PAnBnQ.

Method 2 – random line

This method is used when both ends are not intervisible from intermediate points hence making it
impossible to employ method 1. Figure 7 shows such a scenario.

Figure 7

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EBC 2102 Eng. Surv. I Dept. of Building & Civil (TUM)

The obstacle is normally overcome as follows taking into consideration figure 8;

Figure 8
i. Produce a random line PQ at a convenient direction. Ensure that distance QQ1 is
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minimized.
ii. Measure distances PQ1 and QQ1. The point Q1 is normally selected such that lines QQ1
and PQ1 are perpendicular.
iii. Since triangles PAA1 , PBB1 and PQQ1 are similar, then distances AA1 and BB1 can be
computed as follows;

Distances QQ1, PQ1, PA1 and PB1 are normally chained (measured) on the ground. They
are then used to compute AA1 and BB1 which are then produced as perpendiculars PQ1
to obtain points A and B respectively.

Obstacles to chaining but not ranging.

There may be two common scenarios with these obstacles;
⎯ Obstacles that can be chained around.
⎯ Obstacles that can’t be chained around.

Obstacles that can be chained around.

Solution 1:
Consider the case of a pond as shown in figure 9 below.

Figure 9

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EBC 2102 Eng. Surv. I Dept. of Building & Civil (TUM)

The following procedure is followed;

i. Select two points A and B along the chainline.
ii. Erect a perpendicular at point A towards a point C.
iii. Mark C and measure distances AC and BC.
iv. Compute distance AB by Pythagoras theorem.

Solution 2: (Based on figure 10).

Figure 10
i. Mark points A and B on both ends of the obstacle.
ii. Produce a random line BC from point B and mark point C.
iii. With zero mark of the tape at A, swing the tape to cut line BC at a point which gives the
least distance.
iv. Compute distance AB by Pythagoras theorem.

Obstacles that cannot be chained around.

These include obstacles e.g a river. The following solutions can be adopted; Line CAB
marks/indicates the chainline along which distances AB can’t be chained due to the obstacle i.e a
river. The following procedure is adopted to overcome the obstacle (see figure 11).

Figure 11
i. At point A, erect a perpendicular line AD to the chainline and mark point D.
ii. Choose a random point C along a chainline and erect a line CE perpendicular to chainline.
iii. Mark a point F along CE such that distance CF=AD.

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EBC 2102 Eng. Surv. I Dept. of Building & Civil (TUM)

iv. Since triangle DFE and BAD are similar, distance AB can be determined by,

CHAIN SURVEYING ERRORS

When chaining or taping distances, we can distinguish between mistakes and errors. The latter is
either cumulative or compensating and may be due to natural causes or manipulation. Mistakes are
committed by inexperienced or careless surveyors and are avoidable. They may be due to;

Cumulative and compensating errors

They are brought about by;
i. Absolute length being different from the designated nominal length of the measured unit
(compensating). Correction is normally obtained by;

Where,
Ca is the correction applied
C is the correction for one unit length
l is the nominal length of the tape
L is the total length measured

ii. The temperature at which the measurements are made being different from that at which
the C standardized correction (compensating).

Ct is the correction for temperature.

α is the coefficient for linear expansion of the material or tape.
tm is the mean temperature during measurements
to is the at which the tape was standardized.

iii. The pull or tension applied to the measuring unit being different from that of
standardization (cumulative).

Cp is the correction for pull

P is the applied pull
P0 is the standardized pull
A is the cross-section area of tape
E is the modulus elasticity of the tape.

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EBC 2102 Eng. Surv. I Dept. of Building & Civil (TUM)

iv. The measuring unit standardized on a flat ground or in catenary is held above the ground
during measurement hence sagging (cumulative). Correction;

Where
Cs is the correction for sag
L is the length measured
W is the weight of the tape per span length
P is the pull applied during measurements

v. The ground is sloping or inclined to the horizontal and the measurements carried out along
the slope (cumulative).

Where
Cg is the correction for slope
H is the difference in level between the ends
L is the slope distance or distance measured