CIEN 301 FLUID MECHANICS

LECTURERS:
M. S. AWOPETU
B. Eng. | M.Sc.| Ph.D. | MNSE | R.Eng
&
A. M. ADEFILA
B. Eng. | M.Sc | PGD
 COURSE OUTLINE
This course deals with
• the continuum concept,
• fluid statics,
• mass and momentum balances,
• the Bernoulli Equation,
• dimensional analysis,
• pipe flow problems,
• the design and the selection of pumps and the three forms of drag.
• Principles of boundary layer flows,
• compressible flow and flow measurement devices are introduced.
• Applications in pipe flow (e.g., Darcy-Weisbach, Hazen-Williams, Moody),
• open channel (Manning),
• pumps (e.g., power, operating point, parallel and series),
• flow measurement (e.g., weirs, orifices, flowmeters) and blowers (e.g., power, operating point, parallel, and
series).
 Fluid Mechanics

Fluid AND Mechanics

 FLUID
•A fluid is a substance that continuously deforms
(flows) under the application of a shear stress,
regardless of the magnitude of the stress.
•Fluids are an essential component of matter and
are distinct from solids in their mechanical
behavior.
•They encompass liquids, gases, and plasmas,
characterized by their ability to flow, adapt to the
shape of their containers, and lack a fixed shape.
 Characteristics of Fluids
Ability to Flow:
-Fluids move and spread out to fill any container, a property that distinguishes
them from rigid solids.
The flow depends on internal forces, pressure gradients, and external influences.
No Fixed Shape:
-Unlike solids, which maintain a definite shape, fluids take the shape of their
containers.
Continuum Assumption:
-On a macroscopic scale, fluids are treated as continuous media, meaning their
properties (e.g., pressure, temperature, velocity) are defined at every point.
 Characteristics of Fluids
Viscosity:
-A measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow or deformation. High-viscosity fluids
(like honey) flow more slowly, while low-viscosity fluids (like water) flow more
easily.
Density:
-Mass per unit volume, which may vary in gases due to compressibility but is
typically constant in liquids.
Compressibility:
-Liquids are largely incompressible, meaning their volume does not change
significantly under pressure.
-Gases, however, are compressible and can experience significant volume
changes with pressure or temperature changes.
Classification of Fluids
Liquids:
Have a definite volume but no fixed shape.
Molecules are closely packed with intermolecular forces holding them together, allowing for
relatively small compressibility.
Examples: Water, oil, mercury.
Gases:
No fixed shape or volume.
Molecules are far apart, moving freely and independently, leading to high compressibility.
Examples: Air, oxygen, nitrogen.
Plasmas:
An ionized state of matter consisting of charged particles.
Found in high-energy environments like stars and neon lights.
Example: Solar plasma.
Fluid Properties
Pressure:
-The force exerted per unit area by the fluid molecules in motion.
Fluids in a container exert pressure equally in all directions (Pascal’s Principle).
Surface Tension:
-The cohesive force at the surface of a liquid that minimizes surface area.
Buoyancy:
-An upward force exerted by a fluid on an object submerged in it, determined by Archimedes’
Principle.
Thermal Properties:
-Fluids expand or contract with temperature changes, influencing their density and flow
behavior.
Flow Behavior:
-Can be laminar (smooth and orderly) or turbulent (chaotic and irregular).
 Applications of Fluid Dynamics

Engineering:
-Hydraulics, aerodynamics, and fluid transport systems in pipelines.
Medicine:
-Blood flow analysis and respiratory fluid mechanics.
Natural Phenomena:
-Weather patterns, ocean currents, and volcanic eruptions.
Industrial Processes:
-Refrigeration, cooling systems, and chemical mixing.
 Fundamental Laws Governing Fluids
Conservation of Mass:
-Mass cannot be created or destroyed in a fluid system (Continuity
Equation).
Conservation of Momentum:
-Described by the Navier-Stokes equations, which account for viscous
and inertial forces.
Conservation of Energy:
-Fluids obey the principles of thermodynamics, linking pressure,
temperature, and energy transfer.
 Examples of Fluid Studies

Hydraulics:
-Study of liquid properties under pressure.
Aerodynamics:
-Study of gases (air) in motion.
Hydrology:
-Study of fluid behavior in the environment (rivers,
lakes).
Fluid in Summary
-In summary, fluids are a vital aspect of
nature and technology, influencing disciplines
from engineering to biology. Their unique
properties of flow, compressibility, and
adaptability make them fundamental to
understanding and manipulating the physical
world.
 MECHANICS
-Mechanics is a branch of physics that studies the motion of objects,
the forces that cause these motions, and the interaction between
physical bodies. It provides a systematic framework for understanding
how objects move and respond to forces in the physical universe,
making it fundamental to science and engineering.
-Mechanics is divided into various subfields based on the type of
motion and forces involved, and it underpins disciplines such as
engineering, robotics, astrophysics, and biomechanics.
 Core Concepts of Mechanics
Motion:
-Refers to the change in position of an object over time relative to a reference point.
-Motion is described in terms of displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
Forces:
A force is a vector quantity that causes an object to accelerate or change its state of motion.
Forces can be contact forces (e.g., friction, tension) or non-contact forces (e.g., gravity,
electromagnetic forces).
Energy:
Mechanics explores how energy is transferred or transformed, particularly between potential
energy (stored energy) and kinetic energy (energy of motion).
 Core Concepts of Mechanics
Newton’s Laws of Motion:
First Law (Inertia): An object remains at rest or moves in a straight
line at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force.
Second Law: The net force on an object is equal to the mass of the
object multiplied by its acceleration .
Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Equilibrium:
A state where all forces acting on a system are balanced, resulting in
no net motion or constant velocity.
 Branches of Mechanics
Classical Mechanics:
-Studies macroscopic systems where speeds are much less than the speed of light
and quantum effects are negligible.
Subdivided into:
Kinematics: The study of motion without considering forces.
Dynamics: The study of forces and their effects on motion.
Statics: The study of objects in equilibrium.
Fluid Mechanics: Focuses on the behavior of fluids (liquids and gases).
 Branches of Mechanics
Relativistic Mechanics:
Developed by Albert Einstein, it deals with objects moving at speeds comparable
to the speed of light.
Key principles include time dilation and length contraction, described by the
theory of relativity.

Quantum Mechanics:
Studies the behavior of particles on the atomic and subatomic scale.
Focuses on probabilities, wave-particle duality, and uncertainty principles.
 Branches of Mechanics
Continuum Mechanics:
-Explores materials modeled as continuous, rather than discrete particles.
Includes solid mechanics and fluid mechanics.
Biomechanics:
-The application of mechanics to biological systems, such as the movement of the
human body and the forces acting on bones and muscles.
Engineering Mechanics:
-Applies principles of mechanics to solve engineering problems, including
structural analysis, machine design, and vibration analysis.
 Fundamental Quantities in Mechanics
Mass:
A measure of the amount of matter in an object, which
determines its resistance to acceleration.
Time:
The interval over which motion or force interactions occur.
Force:
The interaction that changes the motion of an object.
 Fundamental Quantities in Mechanics
Momentum:
The product of an object’s mass and velocity, indicating the quantity of
motion.
Work and Energy:
Work is the transfer of energy through force over a distance.
Energy is the ability to perform work.
Torque:
A measure of the rotational force applied to an object.
 Applications of Mechanics
Engineering:
Design and analysis of machines, structures, and systems.
Examples: Bridges, automobiles, aircraft.
Astronomy:
Understanding planetary motion, orbits, and the dynamics of celestial bodies.
Medicine:
Biomechanics aids in designing prosthetics, studying joint motion, and
understanding blood flow.
 Applications of Mechanics
Sports Science:
Analyzing motion to improve performance and reduce
injury.
Everyday Life:
Mechanics explains phenomena like how vehicles move,
why objects fall, or why certain tools are effective.
 Key Laws and Theories in Mechanics
1. Conservation Laws:
Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.
Conservation of Momentum: The total momentum of a closed system remains constant.
2. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion:
Describes the motion of planets around the sun.
3. Hooke’s Law:
Describes the behavior of springs under elastic deformation.
4. Bernoulli’s Principle:
In fluid mechanics, it explain how pressure and velocity are inversely related in fluid flow.
Importance of Mechanics
Mechanics is crucial for:
i. Predicting natural phenomena.
ii. Designing safe and efficient systems.
iii. Advancing technology and innovation.
iv. Improving understanding of the physical universe.

By studying mechanics, scientists and engineers can model, simulate,

and optimize the behavior of systems across various scales, making it a
cornerstone of physics and applied sciences.
 FLUID MECHANICS
• Fluid mechanics is a branch of physics that
studies the behavior of fluids (liquids, gases,
and plasmas) at rest and in motion.
• It focuses on understanding the forces,
motions, and interactions of fluids with their
surroundings, enabling the analysis of various
natural and engineered systems.
• Fluid mechanics is foundational in numerous
fields, including engineering, physics,
meteorology, biology, and environmental
science.
 Branches of Fluid Mechanics:
1.Fluid Statics:
-Concerned with fluids at rest.
-Key concepts include pressure variation in static fluids,
hydrostatic pressure, buoyancy, and Pascal’s law.
Example: The design of dams, reservoirs, and hydraulic systems.

2.Fluid Dynamics:
-Focuses on fluids in motion and the forces causing or resulting
from that motion.
-Involves concepts like flow velocity, turbulence, laminar and
turbulent flow, and energy conservation.
Example: Airflow over an aircraft wing, water flow in pipes.
 Branches of Fluid Mechanics:
Fluid Kinematics:
-Describes fluid motion without considering the forces causing it.
-Studies flow visualization, velocity fields, and streamlines.
Example: Observing water flowing around an obstacle.

Compressible vs. Incompressible Flow:

-Compressible flow: Significant density changes, such as in high-speed
aerodynamics or gas flow.
-Incompressible flow: Negligible density changes, common in liquid flow or low-
speed gas flow.
Multiphase Flow:
-Studies interactions between different fluid phases (e.g., liquid-liquid, liquid-
gas).
Example: Oil-water separation, boiling, and condensation.
 Fundamental Principles of Fluid
Mechanics:
i. Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation):
-Mass cannot be created or destroyed in a fluid
system.
-For steady flow:

Where ρ is density, A is cross-sectional area, and v

is velocity.
ii. Conservation of Momentum (Newton’s Second
Law):
-Describes how forces (pressure, viscous, and
external) affect the motion of fluids.
Fundamental Principles of Fluid
Mechanics:
iii. Conservationof Energy (First Law of Thermodynamics):
-Energy in a fluid system is conserved.
-Includes kinetic, potential, and internal energy contributions.

iv. Bernoulli’s Equation:

-Describes the relationship between pressure, velocity, and
elevation in incompressible, non-viscous fluid flow:
v. Viscosity:
-The property of a fluid that resists shear flow.
-Newtonian fluids have constant viscosity (e.g., water), while
non-Newtonian fluids do not (e.g., blood, ketchup).
 Applications of Fluid Mechanics:
i. Engineering:
-Design of turbines, pumps, compressors,
pipelines, and aircraft.
-Hydropower generation.
ii. Environmental Science:
-Modeling weather patterns, ocean currents, and
pollutant dispersion.
iii. Medicine and Biology:
-Blood flow in the circulatory system, respiratory
airflow, and drug delivery systems.
•
 Applications of Fluid
Mechanics:
iv. Aerospace and Automotive:
-Aerodynamics of vehicles and aircraft.
-Fuel injection systems and engine
cooling.

v. Energy Systems:
-Wind and solar energy harvesting.
-Oil and gas extraction and transport.
 Governing Equations in Fluid
Mechanics:
1.Navier-Stokes Equations: Describe the
motion of viscous fluid substances.
2.Euler’s Equations: Simplified equations for
inviscid flow (negligible viscosity).
3.Reynolds Number (Re): Determines flow
type (laminar or turbulent).
 NOTE
Fluid mechanics provides essential tools
for understanding and controlling fluid
behavior in various contexts. Its
principles and equations are crucial for
solving practical problems in
engineering, environmental
management, and scientific research.
•
 CONTINUUM CONCEPT
• In fluid mechanics, the continuum concept is a
fundamental theoretical assumption that treats fluids
(liquids and gases) as continuous, homogeneous media,
rather than as discrete collections of molecules.

• This concept allows fluid properties such as velocity,

pressure, density, and temperature to be defined at every
point in the fluid and treated as continuous functions of
space and time.

• The continuum concept simplifies the mathematical

analysis of fluid motion and is the basis for many fluid
 CONTINUUM CONCEPT
• Fluids are composed of randomly moving and
colliding molecules. This poses challenges when
we want to find the value of a fluid property (such
as velocity, temperature, density etc.) at a point in
a fluid. If a molecule coincidentally exists at your
chosen point, this result is very different to if there
is no molecule at your chosen point. To bypass
the unpredictability of the motion of fluid
molecules, we use the continuum assumption in
most cases, to find fluid properties.
 FLUID STATIC

Fluid statics (hydrostatics | aerostatic),

is the branch of fluid mechanics that
studies fluids at rest. It focuses on
understanding the behavior of fluids when
they are not in motion and the forces they
exert on surfaces or within the fluid itself
due to their weight or pressure.
 FLUID STATICS
• Much of what we value in life is fluid:
a breath of fresh air;
the hot blue flame in our gas cooker;
the water we drink, swim in, and bathe in;
the blood in our veins.

• What exactly is a fluid? Can we understand fluids

with the laws already existence, or will new laws
emerge from their study?
 FLUID STATIC
Applications:
 Designing dams and reservoirs
 Understanding atmospheric pressure variations
 Calculating forces on submerged structures like ships and
submarines
 Designing hydraulic systems like brakes and lifts

-Fluid statics is foundational for understanding fluid behavior in

real-world engineering, physics, and environmental studies.
 DENSITY
Question: Which weighs more, a ton of
feathers or a ton of bricks?
This old riddle plays with the distinction
between mass and density. A ton is a ton,
of course; but bricks have much greater
density than feathers, and so we are
tempted to think of them as heavier.
 Density
•Density, as you will see, is an important
characteristic of substances. It is crucial, for
example, in determining whether an object
sinks or floats in a fluid. Density is the mass
per unit volume of a substance or object. In
equation form, density is defined as
ρ = M/V
Take-Home Experiment Sugar and Salt
-A pile of sugar and a pile of salt look pretty
similar, but which weighs more? If the volumes of
both piles are the same, any difference in mass is
due to their different densities (including the air
space between crystals). Which do you think has
the greater density? What values did you find?

What method did you use to determine these

values?
In the riddle regarding the feathers and bricks, the
masses are the same, but the volume occupied by the
feathers is much greater, since their density is much
lower. The SI unit of density is kg/m3

The metric system was originally devised so that water

would have a density of 1 g/cm3 equivalent to 103 kg/m3

Thus the basic mass unit, the kilogram, was first devised
to be the mass of 1000 mL of water, which has a volume
of 1000 cm3
Table 1: Densities of various substances
 Densities of various substances
• As you can see by examining Table 1, the density of an
object may help identify its composition. The density of
gold, for example, is about 2.5 times the density of iron,
which is about 2.5 times the density of aluminum.
• Density also reveals something about the phase of the
matter and its substructure. Notice that the densities of
liquids and solids are roughly comparable, consistent
with the fact that their atoms are in close contact.
• The densities of gases are much less than those of
liquids and solids, because the atoms in gases are
separated by large amounts of empty space.
Example 1: Calculating the Mass of a Reservoir From Its Volume

A reservoir has a surface area of 50.0 km2 and an

average depth of 40.0 m. What mass of water is held
behind the dam?

Strategy
We can calculate the volume V of the reservoir from its
dimensions, and find the density of water ρ in Table 1.
Then the mass m can be found from the definition of
density
ρ = m/V
Solution
 Discussion
• A large reservoir contains a very large mass of water. In
this example, the weight of the water in the reservoir is
mg = 1.96×1013 N , where g is the acceleration due to
the Earth’s gravity (about 9.80 m/s2
• It is reasonable to ask whether the dam must supply a
force equal to thistremendous weight.
• The answer is no. As we shall see later in the course of
study, the force the dam must supply can be much
smaller than the weight of the water it holds back.
 Specific Gravity

•The specific gravity of a substance is the

ratio of its density to that of water at 4oC,
which is 1000 kg/m3. Specific gravity is a
dimensionless quantity numerically equal to
the density quoted in g/cm3. For example,
the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6, and
the specific gravity of water at 100oC is
0.998.
Example:
The mass of water is directly related to its volume because the density of water is
1 gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) at standard conditions. This means:

Mass = Volume x Density

Given:
Volume = 75 cm³
Density of water = 1 g/cm³

Mass = 75cm3 x 1g/cm3 = 75g

Answer:
The mass of 75 cubic centimeters of water is 75 grams.
 Pressure
You have no doubt heard the word pressure being used
in relation to blood (high or low blood pressure) and in
relation to the weather (high- and low-pressure weather
systems). These are only two of many examples of
pressures in fluids. Pressure P is defined as
P = F/A

where F is a force applied to an area A that is

perpendicular to the force.
P = F/A
 P = F/A : DISCUSSION
• A given force can have a significantly different effect depending on the area over
which the force is exerted.
The SI unit for pressure is the pascal, where
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
• In addition to the pascal, there are many other units for pressure that are in
common use. In meteorology, atmospheric pressure is often described in units
of millibar (mb), where
100 mb = 1×105 Pa .
• Pounds per square inch (lb/in2 or psi) is still sometimes used as a measure of tire
pressure, and millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) is still often used in the
measurement of blood pressure.
Note: Pressure is defined for all states of matter but is particularly important when
discussing fluids.
Example:
An astronaut is working outside the International Space Station where the
atmospheric pressure is essentially zero. The pressure gauge on her air
tank reads 6.90×106 Pa . What force does the air inside the tank exert on
the flat end of the cylindrical tank, a disk 0.150 m in diameter?

Solution
By rearranging the definition of pressure to solve for force, we see that
F = PA. Here, the pressure P is given, as is the area of the end of the
cylinder A , given by A = πr2 Thus,
F = (6.90×106 N/m2) (3.14)(0.0750 m)2 = 1.22×105 N.

Discussion
Wow! No wonder the tank must be strong. Since we found F = PA , we
see that the force exerted by a pressure is directly proportional to thearea
acted upon as well as the pressure itself.
A pile of sugar and a pile of salt look pretty similar, but which weighs more?
If the volumes of both piles are the same, any difference in mass is due to
their different densities (including the air space between crystals). Which do
you think has the greater density? What values did you find?
If you have equal volumes of sugar and salt, the difference in their

푚푎
masses comes from their densities. Density Comparison Density (ρ)

�=
is given by:
푣표푙 푚

Table Sugar (Sucrose, C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁) has a density of approximately

1.59 g/cm³.
Table Salt (Sodium Chloride, NaCl) has a density of approximately
2.16 g/cm³.

As can be seen, Salt has greater density

 NOW! Which Weighs More?

Since salt has a greater density than

sugar, a pile of salt will weigh more
than an equal-volume pile of sugar.
This is because the sodium chloride
molecules pack more tightly together
than sucrose molecules, leaving less
empty space in between.
Example:
Atmospheric pressure is about 1.01 x105Pa. How large a
force does the atmospheric exert on a 2cm2 area on top of
your head

Solution:
Because P =F/A,
where F is perpendicular to A, we have F = PA.
Assuming that 2cm2 of your head is flat (nearly correct) and
that the force due to the atmosphere is perpendicular to the
surface (as it is), we have:

F = PA = (1.01 x105N/m2) x (2 x 10-4m2) the answer is

approximately 20N
 Pressure due to weight of fluid
The pressure P of a fluid or liquid is define as force per
unit area of the said fluid.
visualise an immaginary water collumn of area (a x b) in a
rectangular pull of water.

P = F/A = F/ab = w/ab = mg/ab = ρvg/ab = ρabhg/ab =

ρgh
 Example
In Example 1 on slide 46, we
calculated the mass of water in a large
reservoir. We will now consider the
pressure and force acting on the dam
retaining water. The dam is 500 m
wide, and the water is 80.0 m deep at
the dam.
(a) What is the average pressure on
the dam due to the water?
(b) Calculate the force exerted against
the dam and compare it with the
weight of water in the dam (previously
found to be1.96×1013 N ).
Solution (a)
The average pressure P due to the weight of the water is the pressure at
the average depth h of 40.0 m, since pressure increases linearly with
depth.

The average pressure due to the weight of the fluid is

P = ρgh
P = 103kg/m3 x 9.80m/s2 x 40.0m
P = 3.92 x105 or 392KPa
Solution for (b)
The force exerted on the dam by the water is the average pressure times
the area of contact:
F = PA.

We have already found the value for P

The area of the dam is A = 80.0 m×500 m = 4.00×104 m2
so that
F = (3.92×105 N/m2)(4.00×104 m2)
= 1.57×1010 N.
 Discussion
Although this force seems large, it is small compared with the
1.96×1013 N weight of the water in the reservoir, in fact, it is only
0.0800% of the weight.

Note that the pressure found in part (a) is completely independent of

the width and length of the lake, it depends only on its average depth
at the dam.

Thus the force depends only on the water’s average depth and the
dimensions of the dam, not on the horizontal extent of the reservoir.

In the diagram, the thickness of the dam increases with depth to

balance the increasing force due to the increasing pressure.
 Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure is another example of pressure
due to the weight of a fluid, in this case due to the
weight of air above a given height.
The atmospheric pressure at the Earth’s surface varies
a little due to the large-scale flow of the atmosphere
induced by the Earth’s rotation (this creates weather
“highs” and “lows”).
However, the average pressure at sea level is given by
the standard atmospheric pressure Patm , measured to
be
1 atmosphere (atm) = Patm = 1.01×105 N/m2 = 101 kPa
Atmospheric
pressure

This relationship
means that, on
average, at sea level,
a column of air above
1.00 m2 of the Earth’s
surface has a weight
of 1.01×105 N,
equivalent to 1 atm.
Example:
Calculate the average
density of the atmosphere, Solution
given that it extends to an Entering known values into the
altitude of 120 km. expression for ρ yields
Strategy
If we solve P = hρg for ρ= 1.01×105 N/m2
density, we see that (120×103 m)(9.80 m/s2)
ρ = P/hg
We then take P to be ρ = 8.59×10−2 kg/m3
atmospheric pressure, h is
given, and g is known, and
so we can use this to
calculate ρ
Discussion
This result is the average density of air
between the Earth’s surface and the top of the
Earth’s atmosphere, which essentially ends at
120 km.

The density of air at sea level is 1.29 kg/m3

about 15 times its average value. Because air is
so compressible, its density has its highest
value near the Earth’s surface and declines
rapidly with altitude
Example
Calculating Depth Below the Surface of Water: What Depth of Water
Creates the Same Pressure as the Entire Atmosphere?

Strategy Solution
We begin by solving the Entering the known values into
equation
the expression for h gives
P = hρg for depth h
h = P/ρg.
h = 1.01×105 N/m2
(1.00×103kg/m3)(9.80 m/s2
Then we take P to be 1.00 atm
and ρ to be the density of the
water that creates the pressure. = 10.3 m.
Discussion
Just 10.3m of water creates the same pressure as 120km of air.
Since water is nearly incompressible, we can neglect any change in
its density over this depth.

What do you suppose is the total pressure at a depth of 10.3m in a

swimming pool? Does the atmospheric pressure on the water’s
surface affect the pressure below? The answer is yes. This seems
only logical, since both the water’s weight and the atmosphere’s
weight must be supported.

So the total pressure at a depth of 10.3m is 2atm, half from the

water above and half from the air above. We shall see in Pascal’s
Principle that fluid pressures always add in this way.
 Guage pressure versus absolute pressure
Absolute pressure is the total pressure at a point while gauge pressure
is relative to the local atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure may be
positive or negative depending upon the fact whether the pressure is
more or less than the atmospheric pressure.

PGUAGE = PTOTAL - PATM

PTOTAL = PGUAGE + PATM
Pressure is Isotropic

Imagine a static fluid and consider a small cubic

element of it deep within the fluid as shown in the
figure. Since this fluid element is in equilibrium,
therefore, forces acting on each lateral face of
this element must also be equal in magnitude.
Because the areas of each face are equal,
therefore, the pressure on each of the lateral
faces must also be the same. In the limit as the
cube element reduces to a point, the forces on
the top and bottom surfaces also become equal.
Thus, the pressure exerted by a fluid at any point
is the same in all directions, the pressure is
isotropic.
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Fluid Kinematics gives the geometry of fluid motion.
It is a branch of fluid mechanics, which describes
the fluid motion, and it’s consequences without
consideration of the nature of forces causing the
motion.

Fluid kinematics is the study of velocity as a

function of space and time in the flow field. From
velocity, pressure variations and hence, forces
acting on the fluid can be determined.
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Types of fluid flow
1. Steady and Un-steady flows
2. Uniform and Non-uniform flows
3. Laminar and Turbulent flows
4. Compressible and Incompressible flows
5. Rotational and Irrotational flows
6. One, Two and Three dimensional flows
 Steady and Unsteady Flow in Fluid
Mechanics
Fluid flow can be categorized into steady Summary
and unsteady based on whether its A fluid flow is steady if its
properties (velocity, pressure, and properties at a given point do not
density) change with time. change with time.

Steady Flow
Steady flow is the type of flow in which the Characteristics:
various flow parameters and fluid • Velocity, pressure, and density
properties at any point do not change with remain constant at each point
time. In a steady flow, any property may vary over time.
from point to point in the field, but all
properties remain constant with time at every • Streamlines remain fixed.
point
 Steady Flow
Examples:
Mathematical Representation:
• Water flowing at a
constant rate through a �(푽풆풍풐  , 푷풓풆풔풔풓풆, 푫풆풏풔 )
=�
�
pipe.
• Airflow over an airplane
(This means no change in these
wing in cruising flight. properties over time.)
• A river flowing at a
uniform speed.
 Unsteady Flow

• Unsteady flow is the type Characteristics:

of flow in which the
various flow parameters • Velocity, pressure,
and fluid properties at any and density fluctuate
point change with time. over time.
• Flow patterns and
A fluid flow is unsteady if
its properties change with streamlines can shift.
time at a given point.
 Unsteady Flow

Examples:
• Water gushing from a • Mathematical Representation:

faucet being turned

on/off. �(푽풆풍풐  , 푷풓풆풔풔풓풆, 푫풆풏풔 )
≠�
�
• Wind gusts in a storm.
• Blood flow in arteries (This means the properties vary with
time.)
during a heartbeat.
Difference between Steady and Unsteady Flow
Feature Steady Flow Unsteady Flow

Time Dependence Does not change with Changes with time

time
Velocity at a point Constant Varies

Example Water flow in the pipe Water waves in the

at constant rate occeran

Mathematical � �
� �
=0 ≠0
Condition
 Uniform Versus Non-Uniform Flow
Uniform Flow: Characteristics:
• A flow is uniform if the velocity • Velocity remains the same
and other fluid properties (such
as pressure and density) do not at every cross-section of
change with position in the the flow.
direction of flow.
• No acceleration or
• Uniform Flow is the type of flow
in which velocity and other flow deceleration along the
parameters at any instant of time flow direction.
do not change with respect to • Occurs in idealized or
space.
well-controlled conditions.
 Uniform Flow

Examples: Mathematical Condition:

• Water flowing through a
straight pipe of constant
�(푽풆풍풐  , 푷풓풆풔풔풓풆, 푫풆풏풔 )
=�
diameter at a constant rate. ��

• Air moving at a constant

speed through a wind tunnel. Where x is the direction of flow
• A river flowing at a uniform
depth and width.
 Non-Uniform Flow
Characteristics:
A flow is non-uniform if • Velocity varies from one
velocity and other point to another along the
properties change with flow direction.
position along the • Common in real-world
direction of flow. applications due to
obstacles, varying cross-
sections, or friction.
 Non-Uniform Flow
Mathematical Condition:
Examples:
• Water flowing in a pipe
with varying diameter
�(푽풆풍풐  , 푷풓풆풔풔풓풆, 푫풆풏풔 )
(e.g., a nozzle or diffuser). ≠�
��
• Wind blowing through a
city with buildings
causing obstructions.
• A river that widens or
narrows along its course.
Differences between Uniform and Non-Uniform
Flow
Feature Uniform Flow Non-Uniform Flow
Velocity Change in Flow Constant Varies
Direction
Acceleration Along Flow None Present

Common Occurrence Controlled Natural and real-world

environments scenarios

Examples Water in a straight Water in a nozzle or river

pipe
Compressible versus Incompressible Fluids
Fluids are classified as Characteristics:
compressible or
incompressible based on • Density does not
whether their density changes change significantly
significantly with pressure
variations. with pressure or
temperature.
Incompressible Fluids • Common in low-speed
• A fluid is considered flows (e.g., liquid flows).
incompressible if its density
remains nearly constant • Simplifies fluid
during flow.
dynamics equations.
 Incompressible Fluid
Examples: Mathematical Condition:

��
Liquids (e.g., water, oil) are

�
typically treated as ≈0
incompressible because
their density changes very
little under normal (where ρ is density and p is
conditions. pressure).
 Compressible Fluids
Characteristics:
A fluid is compressible if • Density varies with
its density changes pressure and temperature.
significantly due to • Important in high-speed
pressure or temperature flows.
variations.
• Requires more complex
equations for analysis.
 Compressible Fluid

Examples: • Mathematical Condition:

• Gases (e.g., air, steam,
natural gas) because
they expand and ��
�
≠0
contract with pressure
changes.
• Supersonic airflow
around aircraft (e.g., jet
engines, rockets).
Difference between Incompressible and
Compressible Fluid
Feature Incompressible Fluid Compressible Fluid

Density Change with Negligible Significant

Pressure
Common in Liquid and Low-speed High-speed gases
gases
Example water, oil, low-speed air Air in jet engines, steam
in turbines

Equation Simplicity Easier to analyze More complex

equations (e.g., Navier-
Stokes with
 Laminar and turbulent flows
Laminar Flow is a type of flow in which the fluid particles move along well
defined paths or stream-lines. The fluid particles move in laminas or layers gliding
smoothly over one another. The behavior of fluid particles in motion is a criterion.

Turbulent Flow is a type of flow in which the fluid particles move in zigzag
way in the flow field. Fluid particles move randomly from one layer to another.
Reynolds number is a criterion.

We can assume that for a flow in pipe, for Reynolds No. less than 2000, the flow is
laminar; between 2000-4000, the flow is transitional; and greater than 4000, the
flow is turbulent.
 Rotational and Ir-rotational flows

Rotational flow is the type of flow in which the fluid particles

while flowing along stream-lines also rotate about their own
axis.

Ir-rotational flow is the type of flow in which the fluid

particles while flowing along stream-lines do not rotate about
their own axis.
One, Two and Three Dimensional Flows

The number of space dimensions needed to define the flow

field completely governs dimensionality of flow field. Flow is
classified as one, two and three dimensional depending upon
the number of space co-ordinates required to specify the
velocity fields.
One-dimensional flow is the type of flow in which flow parameters
such as velocity is a function of time and one space coordinate only.
For Ex., V=V(x,t) – 1-D, unsteady ; V=V(x) – 1-D, steady

Two-dimensional flow is the type of flow in which flow parameters

describing the flow vary in two space coordinates and time.
For Ex., V=V(x,y,t) – 2-D, unsteady; V=V(x,y) – 2-D, steady

Three-dimensional flow is the type of flow in which the flow

parameters describing the flow vary in three space coordinates and time.
For Ex., V=V(x,y,z,t) – 3-D, unsteady ; V=V(x,y,z) – 3D, steady
 MASS AND MOMENTUM BALANCE
THE GENERAL CONSERVATION LAWS
1. Mass Conservation
2. Total Energy Conservation
3. Momentum Conservation

• For a system viewed as a whole, conservation

means that there is no net gain nor loss of any of
these three quantities, even though there may be
some redistribution of them within a system.
 MASS AND MOMENTUM BALANCE

1. The system V
2. The surrounding S
3. The boundary B, also known as the control surface, across which
the system interacts in some manner with its surroundings
MASS AND MOMENTUM BALANCE
(a) System and its
surroundings;

(b) transfers to and from a

system. For a chemical
reaction, creation and
destruction terms would
also be included inside the
system.
The interaction between system and surroundings is typically
by one or more of the following mechanisms:

Let X denote mass or momentum over a finite time period, the

general conservation law for X is:

Nonreacting system
Xin - Xout = ΔXsystem

For a mass balance on species i in a reacting system

Xiin -Xiout + Xicreated + Xidestroved = ΔXisystem
 MASS AND MOMENTUM BALANCE
The interaction between system and surroundings is typically by one or
more of the following mechanisms:
1. A flowing stream, either entering or leaving the system.
2. A "contact" force on the boundary, usually normal or tangential to it,
and commonly called a stress.
3. A "body" force, due to an external field that acts throughout the
system, of which gravity is the prime example.
4. Useful work, such as electrical energy entering a motor or shaft work
leaving a turbine.
 MASS AND MOMENTUM BALANCE
Mass is a fundamental property of matter, representing the amount of
matter in an object. It is measured in kilograms (kg) or grams (g) and
remains constant regardless of location (unlike weight, which depends
on gravity).
Measured in kilograms (kg) or (g)
• It is constant everywhere in the universe (it does not change with
location).
• It is a scalar quantity (has only magnitude, no direction).
 MASS AND MOMENTUM BALANCE
Momentum is the quantity of motion an object has. It is a fundamental
concept in physics, defined as the product of an object's mass and
velocity.

= 푚 × 푣
Formula for Momentum

Where:

푚= Mass of the object (kg)

= Momentum (measured in kg m/s)

푣= Velocity of the object (m/s)

 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
ENERGY POSSESED BY THE FLUID BY VIRTUE OF ITS
MOTION:-

POTENTIAL ENERGY: It is the energy possessed of a liquid by

virtue of its position or location in space. It is expressed by
Potential Head which is denoted by Z(m).
PRESSURE ENERGY: It is the energy possessed of a liquid by
virtue of the pressure at which it is maintained. It is measured
by Piezometer tube. Pressure head h= p/w (m),
KINETIC ENERGY: It is the energy possessed by the liquid by
virtue of motion or velocity. It is expressed as v2 /2g(m)
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

• BERNOULLI’S THEOREM: In a steady continuous

flow of a frictionless incompressible fluid, the sum
of potential energy head, the pressure head and
the kinetic head is same at all the points.i.e. sum
of the potential head, pressure head and kinetic
head is constant
DERIVATION OF BERNOULI’S EQUATION

LAMINAR AND STEADY

velocity does not change with time
INVISCID
shear forces due to viscosity are
negligible
INCOMPRESSIBLE
density can be assumed to be constant
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
STEP 1: Consider a Small Fluid
Element
We analyze a streamlined flow of
an incompressible fluid in a pipe of
varying cross-section. Consider a
fluid element moving from point 1
to point 2 as shown in the diagram
푣12 푣22
�1 + + = �2 + +
1 2
� 2� � 2�
DERIVATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
A1, A2 → Cross-sectional areas at
points 1 and 2

V1 , V2→ Fluid velocities at points 1

and 2

P1, P2 → Pressures at points 1 and

2

h1, h2→ Heights of points 1 and 2

above a reference level

ρ→ Fluid density
 DERIVATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Step 2: Apply Work-Energy Theorem
According to the work-energy principle, the net work done on the fluid
element is equal to its change in kinetic energy and potential energy.
Work done by pressure forces: Work = Force x Distance

Since pressure force is given by PA and distance moved is ds,

Work done at point 1 = P1A1ds1
Work done at point 2 = P2A2ds2

So, the net work done by pressure forces is:

P1A1ds1 - P2A2ds2

Since the volume of the fluid element is constant (continuity equation),

A1ds1 = A2ds2 = dV Thus, Net work done = (P1 - P2)dV
 DERIVATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Step 3: Consider Changes in Kinetic and Potential Energy

1 1
The change in kinetic energy of the fluid element:
∆퐾 = 푚푣2 − 푚푣21 2
2 2
Since , 푚 = �� , we get:
1
∆KE = ρdV(푣22 − 푣21 )
2
The change in potential energy of the fluid element:

∆푃 = 푚�ℎ2 − 푚�ℎ1

∆푃 = ��� (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
 DERIVATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Step 4: Apply Conservation of Energy
According to the work-energy theorem,
Net work done = change in kinetic energy + change in potential energy
(푃1 − 푃2 )� = �� (푣22 − 푣21 ) + ��� (ℎ2 − ℎ2 )
1
2

Dividing by dV: 푃1 − 푃2 = �(푣22 − 푣21 ) + ��(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )

1
2

Open the bracket and rearranging,

1 1
푃1 + �푣1 + ��ℎ1 = 푃2 + �푣22 + ��ℎ2
2
2 2
Since points 1 and 2 are arbitrary, we generalize it as:
1
푃 + �푣2 + ��ℎ = 푐표푛 푎푛
2
Practical application of Bernoulli’s
Equation
Venturimeter
Orificemeter
Pitot tube.
 Venturimeter
• A Venturimeter is a device used
for measuring the rate of flow of
fluid flowing through a pipe. It
applies the Bernouli’s principle
 Venturimeter
• CONSTRUCTION
1.Short convergent part: It is that
portion where fluid get converges
i.e. radius decreases .
2. Throat : It is middle portion of
venturi .Here the velocity of fluid
increases and pressure
decreases .It possesses the least
cross-section area .
3.Diverging part : In this portion
the fluid diverges.
 Venturimeter
1.Here we have considered two cross
4. Now there is a pressure difference
section , first at the inlet and the second of the fluid at the two sections .at the
one at the throat. The difference in the section 1 i.e. at the inlet the pressure
pressure heads of these two sections is of the fluid is maximum and the
used to calculate the flow through velocity is the minimum and at the
Venturimeter. section2 i.e. at the throat the velocity
2. As the water enters at the inlet of the fluid is maximum and the
section i.e. in the converging part it pressure is minimum.
converges and reaches to the throat. 5. The pressure difference at the two
3.The throat has the uniform cross sections can be seen in the
section area and least area in the manometer attached at both the
venturimeter. As the water enter in the sections.
throat its velocity gets increases and 6. This pressure difference is used to
due to increase in the velocity the calculate the rate flow of a fluid
pressure drops to the minimum. flowing through a pipe.
 Venturimeter
APPLICATIONS ADVANTAGES
1. Plumbing: It is used in pipelines 1.It can be installed in any direction .
at waste water collection systems 2.It can be used for dirty fluids.
and treatment plants because of 3.Smooth construction and low cone
their overall design structure allows angle.
solids to pass through it instead of
4.High pressure recovery and low
collecting in front of it. permanent pressure drop.
3.Carburetors: The venturi allows
the carburetor to adjust and
DISADVANTAGES
calibrate the distribution of fuel and
air to the engine as needed. 1.Cannot be used in pipes having
small diameter.
2.Size and cost is high. 3.Non linear
4.Maintenance is not easy.