Engg.

Physics (BT-201) 2019

Oriental College of Technology, Bhopal

DEPARTMENT
OF
BASIC SCIENCE

LAB MANUAL (

“ENGG.PHYSICS”

BACHELOR OF BALCHER (B.T.) COURSE

SEMESTER – II
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ORIENTAL COLLEGE TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE

LABORATORY PLAN

Department Basic Scienc Session 2018-19

Name of Dr Shivali Verma Semester II
Faculty
Subject Engg.Physics Subject Code BT-201

Planned Date
Exp. Actual Date of HOD
Experiment CO of Remarks
No. Completion Verification
Completion

To Determine the Frequency of

1 A.C. Mains. CO1

To Determine the Energy Band

2 Gap of given semiconductor. CO1

To Plot the Characteristics curve

3 of P-N junction Diode. CO2

To Determine the numerical

4 aperture of given optical fiber. CO2

To plot the Characteristics curve

5 of Zener Diode. CO3

To Determine the Resolving power

6 of Telescope. CO3

To Determine the Wavelength of

sodium light by Newton’s ring
7 CO4
Experiment.

8 To Study the Properties of Laser. CO4

9 To determine the Hall coefficient CO5

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of given semicondutor

To determine the wavelength of

violet and green colour by using
10 CO5
Plane Diffraction Grating.

Plot the characteristic curve of

11 Giger Muller counter.

To determine the refractive index

of o-ray and e-ray for calcite prism
12 with the help of spectrometer

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ORIENTAL COLLEGE TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE

EXPERIMENT NO-1

AIM- To determine the frequency of A. C. mains by using an electric vibrator.

APPARATUS- Electric vibrator, table lamp, pulley, weight box, fishing cord, a. c. source.

THEORY- when a cord of mass per unit length m is connected to the vibrating rod of the vibrator
and stretched with a tension T, the cord vibrators in segments. If the length of the cord is then
adjusted until the nodes are clearly marked, the frequency of the stretched string is the same as of the
vibrating rod which is vibrating with the frequency of A.C. Mains. Its frequency of vibrating is given
by

And this is also frequency of A.C. mains.

FIGURE-

PROCEDURE-
1. Switch on current and see that the rod of the electric vibrator begins to vibrate.
2. Adjust the length of the rod till its free ends attain the vibrations of maximum amplitude.
After length of the vibrating cord by shifting the vibrator till the nodes are clearly defined.

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3. Mark the position of extreme node leaving out the first and last loop. Measure the length of
the vibrating cord and divide it by the no. of loops to get ‘l’ for some tension.
4. Take more sets by altering the length of the cord. Calculate the mean total tension applied to
the cord.
5. Repeat the experiment with different tensions.

OBSERVATION TABLE-
Mass per unit length-…………………………………

Mass of the pan-……………………………………….

S. NO. NO OF LENGTH LENGTH MASS MASS TOTAL TENSION

LOOPS OF OF ONE OF PAN ON PAN MASS T=Mg
(N) CORD LOOP (gm) (gm) (M) (gm) (gmcm/sec2)
(L) (L/N)
(in cm) (cm)

CACULATION-

Calculate six 𝜼1,2,𝜼3,𝜼4,𝜼5,𝜼6 by using below formula by changing the value of T & according to
table

Take mean

%error=

RESULT - The frequency of A. C. mains = ______ cycle/sec or Hz

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PRECAUTIONS-
1. The length of the steel rod must be initially adjusted so that it vibrates in resonance with a. c.
frequency. This is obtained when the free end of the rod vibrates with maximum amplitude.
2. There should be no friction in the pulley.
3. The cord should posses’ fairy constant mass per unit length.
4. The nodes and antinodes on the cord should be sharply defined.

VIVA VOCE:

01. Which type of waves are produced in Sonometer experiment?

Ans: Stationary Transverse waves
02. What are transverse waves?
Ans: If the vibrations of the particles are perpendicular to the propagation of the wave, those waves
are said to be transverse waves.
03. What is resonance?
Ans: If the applied frequency is equal to the natural frequency of a vibrating body then the body
vibrates with maximum amplitude.
04. What is the use of rheostat?
Ans: It is a variable resistance.
05. What is the frequency of a.c mains in INDIA?
Ans: 50 Hz.
06. What is the frequency of DC?
Ans: Zero
07.What is the difference between AC and DC?

Ans: Electricity flows in two ways: either in an alternating current (AC) or in a direct current (DC).
Electricity or "current" is nothing but the movement of electrons through a conductor, like a wire. The
difference between AC and DC lies in the direction in which the electrons flow. In DC, the electrons
flow steadily in a single direction, or "forward." In AC, electrons keep switching directions,
sometimes going "forward" and then going "backward."
08. What are stationary waves? How these are formed?
Ans: Stationary or standing waves are formed in a medium when two waves having equal amplitude
and frequency moving in opposite directions along the same line, interfere in a confined space.
Generally, such waves are formed by the superposition of a forward wave and the reflected wave.

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09. What are nodes and antinodes?

Ans: All standing wave patterns consist of nodes and antinodes. The nodes are points of no
displacement caused by the destructive interference of the two waves. The antinodes result from the
constructive interference of the two waves and thus undergo maximum displacement from the rest
position.

10. What do you mean by solenoid? What is the magnetic field at the centre of the solenoid?
Ans: A solenoid is a tightly wound helical coil of wire whose diameter is small compared to its length.
The magnetic field generated in the centre, or core, of a current carrying solenoid is
essentially uniform, and is directed along the axis of the solenoid. Outside the solenoid, the magnetic
field is far weaker.

11. Why a bulb is introduced in the circuit?

Ans : An introduction to a simple electrical circuit. The battery pushes the electricity along the wires
from the positive terminal, through the bulb and back to the negative terminal. This creates a circuit.
To turn out the light the circuit needs to be broken by adding a switch. It does not matter where the
switch goes as the effect is the same. The bulb glows because electricity flows through the filament.
When the bulb gets old the filament breaks and this breaks the circuit.

13. What is the function of horse shoe magnet in the circuit?

Ans: This shape creates a strong magnetic field between the poles. It is one type of
permanent magnet, meaning that it stays magnetized, as opposed to an electromagnet, the
magnetic field of which can be started and stopped. The purpose of a horseshoe magnet's shape is to
place the poles as close together as possible.

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ORIENTAL COLLEGE TECHNOLOGY, BHOPA

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE

EXPERIMENT NO-2
AIM: To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor using a junction diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Thermometer, oven, PN junction diode, D.C. Power supply.

THEORY:

A semiconductor doped or undoped always posses an energy gap between in conduction and valence band for
the conduction of electricity so that it goes from valence band to the conduction band. When PN junction kept
in reverse bias, the current flows through the junction due to minority charge carriers i.e. electrons in P region and
holes in N region. The concentration of these current carriers depends on the energy gap E. The saturated value of
reverse current Is depends on the temperature of junction diode and is given as

Log Is = log{A Nn Np(Vn/NpVp/Nn)e –E/kt}

Where Nn= density of electron in N region

Np= density of holes in P region

Vn=drift velocity of electrons

Vp=drift velocity of holes

K=Boltzmann constant

T=absolute temperature of junction diode

A=area of junction

FORMULA USED:

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FIGURE:

Diode Thermometer

Ammete
r

PROCEDUE:

1. First place the diode and the thermometer inside the oven and switch on the oven.
2. Switch off the oven when the temperature reaches 70o
3. When the temperature becomes steady note the readings of thermometer at a regular interval
of 5o C and corresponding to each value, note the readings of ammeter.
4. Plot the graph by taking log Is on Y-axis and 103. Find the slope of line and then energy band
gap by using the formula.
5. OBSERVATION TABLE:

Least count of ammeter

S.NO TEMPERATURE CURRENT TEMPERATURE 103/T LOG Is

IN OC IN A IN KELVIN (T)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

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CALCULATION:

Slope of line = Y2-Y1/X2-X1

Energy band gap = - slope of line/5.036

RESULT: The energy band gap of semiconductor diode= eV

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Maximum temperature should not exceed 70oC.

2. Silicon diode should not be used because it requires a temperature of 125oC. The thermometer
provided will not stand to this temperature.
3. Bulb of the thermometer should be inserted well in the oven.

Viva-Voice

Q.1: What is diode?

Ans: The diode consists of two electrodes one is cathode and another is anode. The cathode emits
electrons and the anode will attracts the emitted electrons when it is supplied by positive potential.

Q.2: What is energy band gap?

Ans: The gap between the bottom of conduction band and the top of valence band is called Energy
gap. To move the electrons from the valence band to conduction band the supplied external voltage
must be equal to energy band gap.

Q.3: What is valence band?

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Ans: The range of energy which is possessed by valence electrons is known as valence band. Here the
electrons which are situated at outer most orbits are called valence electrons. The valence band
consists of valence electrons which are having highest energy.

Q.4: What do you mean by conduction band?

Ans: The range of energies possessed by conducting electrons is known as conduction band. The
conduction electrons are responsible for the conduction of current in a conducting material. So, these
electrons are called as conduction electrons.

Q.5: Classify the solid materials on the basis of energy gap.

Ans: Based on the energy gap the solid materials are classified into 3 types they are: conductors,
insulators and semi conductors.

Q.6: Define conductors, insulators and Semi conductors.

Ans: Conductors: Those substances whose atoms have their outermost orbits incomplete are known
as conductors (e.g. Cu, Ag, Au etc.). In conductors, valence and conduction bands are found
overlapped into each other i.e. the energy gap is zero. Insulators: Those substances which have large
energy gap between their valence and conduction band, are called insulators (e.g. diamond, wood
etc.). Semi conductors: Those substances which have conductivity and resistivity properties in
between conductors and insulators are called semi conductors (e.g. Si, Ge). Energy gap of these
semiconductors lies between 0.5 to 1.1eV (Foe Ge it is 0.5 – 0.7eV).

Q.7: How many types of semi conductors are there?

Ans: Two types of semi conductors are there (i) Intrinsic or pure semi conductors and (ii) Extrinsic
or impure semi conductors.

Q.8: Define intrinsic and extrinsic semi conductor?

Ans: Intrinsic semi conductor: A pure semiconductor is known as intrinsic semi conductor. In these
semi conductors, if the temperature increases then the conductivity is also increases. At higher
temperatures due to collisions some electrons absorb energy and raises to conduction band then in
their places in valence band holes are created. In intrinsic semiconductor number of holes is equal to
number of electrons. Extrinsic semi conductor: A pure semiconductor after doping is called extrinsic
or impure semi conductor. Trivalent and penta-valent impurities are added to form P-type and N-type
semiconductors respectively.

Q.9: What do you mean by Fermi energy level?

Ans: The level upto which all the energy states are filled by electrons is known as Fermi level. The
average energy of charge carriers is calculated by Fermi energy level. In pure semi conductors Fermi

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energy level is at the centre of the valence and conduction bands. In extrinsic/impure P-type (N-type)
semiconductor Fermi energy level is near to the valence (conduction) band.

Q.10: Define Doping and Dopant?

Ans: The process of adding impurities to a pure semi conductor is called doping The material added
as impurity is called as Dopant.

Q.11: What are P-type and N-type semi conductors?

Ans: If we add trivalent impurities such as Aluminum to a pure semi conductor then the material is
called P-type semi conductor. If a pentavalent impurity such as Arsenic is added to a pure semi
conductor then the material is called N-type semi conductor

Q.12: Why P-type (N-type) semi conductor is called Acceptor (Donor)?

Ans: In P-type material 3 electrons of trivalent atom makes covalent bonds with Semiconductors such
as Si or Ge and there is a need of one more electron to make the system stable because Si or Ge has 4
electrons in their outermost orbits. For this reason P-type material is also known as Acceptor. On the
other hand, in case of N-type of material 4 electrons of pentavalent atom makes covalent bonds with
Semiconductors such as Si or Ge which have 4 electrons in their outermost orbits and hence there is
one free or excess electron remains present in the structure. For this reason N-type material is also
known as Donor.

Q.13: What is P-N junction diode?

Ans: If P-type and N-type semi conductors are combined to each other then the resultant structure is
called P-N junction diode. This means if trivalent impurity is doped to one end of the pure semi
conductor and pentavalent impurity to other end, a P-N junction diode can be formed.

Q.14: What do you mean by Forward Biasing?

Ans: When a battery’s positive terminal is connected to P-type material and battery’s negative
terminal is connected to N-type material of a P-N junction diode, then this mode of operation is said
to be in forward biasing. Here the holes of P are repelled by the positive terminal of the battery and
electrons of N are repelled by the negative terminal of the battery and hence both holes and electrons
moves towards the junction. As the applied voltage becomes large enough to destroy the depletion
barrier diode starts conducting. This Forward Biasing is also called as Low resistance connection. In
this mode of biasing the current flow is mainly due to majority charge carriers.

Q.15: What do you mean by Reverse Biasing?

Ans: When a battery’s positive terminal is connected to N-type material and battery’s negative
terminal is connected to P-type material of a P-N junction diode, then this mode of operation is said
to be in forward biasing. Here the holes of P are attracted by the negative polarity of the battery and
electrons of N are attracted by the positive polarity of the battery and hence both holes and electrons
move away from the junction and then this increases the width of depletion layer. This reverse

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Biasing is also called as High resistance connection. In this bias the current is mainly due to minority
charge carriers. In this mode, very small current flows across the junction.

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ORIENTAL COLLEGE TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE

EXPERIMENT NO. 3

AIM: To measure the numerical aperture of the given an optical fiber.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Laser Source, Fiber Holders, Optical Fiber,

THEORY: Numerical aperture is a basic descriptive characteristic of a specific fiber. It represents

the size or degree of openness of the input acceptance cone. Mathematically it is defined as the sine
half angle of the acceptance cone. Using snell’s law, the maxima angle with in which light will be
accepted into and guided through fiber is

NA=Sin(θ0)= (n12- n22)1/2

Where θ0 is the numerical aperture and n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the core and the
cladding. If the incident angle θ < θ0, the ray undergoes multiple internal reflections at core and
cladding interface and it is called the guided ray. If θ < θ0, the ray undergoes only partial reflection at
core cladding interface. In short length of straight fiber, ideally a ray launched at angle ө at the input
end should come out at the same angle ө from output end. Therefore, the far field at the output end
will also appear as a cone of semi angle өa emanating from the fiber end.
FORMULA USED:

Where L= Measure the diameter of the circular spot formed on the screen.

D= Distance from the output end of the fiber to screen.

FIGURE:

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PROCEDURE:

1. Mount Laser source, objective and detector on the respective holders.

2. Mount both the ends of the optical fiber on the fiber holders.

3. Align the difference objects as per the setup shown below.

4. Couple the light from the laser source onto one of the fiber ends using a microscopic objective
(provided with the kit).

5. Place the screen (sheet having circular markings) at some D distance from the output end of the
fiber such that it is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber. Now move the screen towards or away from
the output end of the fiber such that circular beam emanating from the fiber end covers the (1st or 2nd
or 3rd) circle on the screen.

6. Measure the distance between the output end of optical fiber and screen. Let this be L, also
measure the diameter of the circular spot formed on the screen. (Diameter is mentioned in mm).

S.NO. Diameter of Laser Spot D cm Distance between

Optical Fiber and
Screen L cm

1.

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CALCULATION:

RESULT:

Numerical Aperture of given optical fiber is=……………………………………

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Reading should be taken carefully.

2. Direct viewing of laser light should be avoided.

3. Laser light should be incident normally on the Screen.

Viva voce
1. Define optical fiber.
Ans. It is a cable which carries optical signal.

2. On which phenomenon light propagation take place in optical fiber

Ans. Total internal reflection.

3. What is total internal reflection?

Ans. When light travels from denser medium to rarer medium and angle of incidence is greater
than critical angle then light reflects back into same medium this phenomenon is called Total
internal reflection.

4. Define angle of acceptance

Ans. Angle at which light enter into optical fiber and Total Internal Reflection takes place.

5. What is physical significance of numerical aperture.

Ans. Light gathering ability of the fiber.

6. What are the types of optical fiber

Ans. There are two types of fiber (1) step index fiber (2) graded index fiber.

7. What is fractional refractive index?

Ans. It is the ratio of difference of the refractive indices of core and cladding to the refractive
index of core i.e.∆=n1-n2/n1

8. Which light source is used in experiment

Ans. Diode Laser

9. LASER stands for what?

Ans. Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

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10. How many type of fiber losses are there?

Ans.There are three types of fiber losses (1) Absorption (2) Rayleigh Scattering (3)
Geometrical losses

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ORIENTAL COLLEGE TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE

EXPERIMENT NO-3

AIM- To plot the characteristic curve of semiconductor diode.

APPARATUS- semiconductor diode, voltmeter, ammeter, a regulated power supply.

THEORY-
SEMICONDOUTOR DIODE: - A diode is a two terminal device. One terminal being known as
anode and other known as cathode. A diode should work like a switch. When its anode made positive
with respect to its cathode, the diode should act like a closed switch and when its anode made
negative with respect to its cathode, acts like an open switch.When a d. c. voltage is applied to a
device, the device is said to be biased. A p-n junction can be biased in two ways-

1. If the positive terminal of the d. c. supply is connected to p-region and negative terminal is
connected to n-region (cathode), the diode is said to be forward biased.
2. If the positive terminal of the d. c. supply is connected to n-region and negative terminal is
connected to p-region (cathode), the diode is said to be reverse biased.

FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS:- In forward bias the diode current increases rapidly as the
potential across the diode is increased. The diode starts conducting only after a certain voltage known
as threshold voltage. In the forward biased condition, majority charge carriers are responsible for
conduction. The number of these charge carriers injected at the junction increases with the voltage
and thus the current increases with voltage.

REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS:-Under reverse bias condition minority charge carriers take
part in the process of conduction. Here the leakage current flows in the circuit. This current is known
as reverse saturation current. It increases rapidly in the initial stage due to an exponential decrease of
diffusion current with increasing reverse voltage.
A A
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM-

V V

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PROCEDURE-
SEMICONDOUTOR DIODE: -

FORWARD BIAS:

1. Make the connection as shown in the circuit.

2. Vary the inbuilt d. c. supply voltage in steps of 0.1V and note down corresponding voltmeter
and ammeter readings.
3. Plot the graph of voltage (on x-axis) Vs current I (on y-axis).

REVERSE BIAS:

1. Make the connection as shown in the circuit.

2. Put the voltmeter range switch to 50V and ammeter range switch to 200 µA.
3. Vary the supply voltage in steps of 1V and note down corresponding voltmeter and ammeter
readings.
4. Plot the graph of voltage (on x-axis) Vs current I (on y-axis).

OBSERVATION TABLE-
SEMICONDOUTOR DIODE: -

FORWARD BIAS:

S. NO. VOLTAGE (V) CURRENT (mA)

Division Least count Total Division Least count Total

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REVERSE BIAS:

S. NO. VOLTAGE (V) CURRENT (µ A)

Division Least count Total Division Least count Total

RESULT- Forward and reverse bias characteristics of semiconductor diode is plotted on the graph.

PRECAUTIONS-
1. In the forward bias the p terminal of diode should be at positive potential an N terminal at
negative potential. While in reverse bias, the P terminal of diode should be at negative
potential and N terminal at the positive potential.
2. The positive marked terminal of voltmeter and ammeter should always be connected to the
positive terminal of the battery.
3. Current should not be passed for a long duration through the diode otherwise it will get
heated.
4. Increase the voltage gradually.
Vive-Voce

5. Q.1 What is diode?

6. Ans:A diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric transfer characteristic,

with low (ideally zero) resistance to current in one direction, and high (ideally infinite)
resistance in the other.

7. Q.2 What do you understand by P-N Junction diode?

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8. Ans: A Semiconductor diode is prepared by joining P and N sections of a semi conducting

material like germanium or silicon. The P type has excess number of holes while the N type
has excess number of electrons. Holes and electrons are respectively the charge carriers in P
and N type.

9. Q.3. Explain forward and reverse biasing in diode?

10. Ans: When the anode of an external battery is connected to the P side and cathode to the N
side, it is called forward biasing. When the anode of an external battery is connected to the N
side and the cathode to the P side, It is called reverse biasing.

11. Q.4. What do you mean by breakdown phenomenon?

12. Ans: If the potential difference in the reverse direction is increased beyond a certain critical
limit, the reverse current abruptly increases. This is known as BREAK DOWN.

13. Q.5 What is the difference between Zener diode and P-N Junction diode?.

14. Ans: A P-N Junction diode will let current go in only one direction (forward bias). If current
is applied in the opposite direction (reverse bias) then we would not have current on the other
end unless the voltage that you apply to it surpasses its Breakdown Voltage, but then diode
will be burn out. Zener diodes would act the same way as a P-N Junction diode except that in
reverse bias it would allow current to pass when the voltage surpasses its Breakdown Voltage
(Zener Voltage).

15. Q.6 What is the static resistance?

16. Ans: The static resistance of diode is defined as diode resistance measure when DC voltage is
applied above the knee voltage.

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ORIENTAL COLLEGE TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE

EXPERIMENT NO-4

AIM - To plot the characteristic curve of Zener diode.

APPARATUS- Zener diode, voltmeter, ammeter, a regulated power supply.

THEORY-
SEMICONDOUTOR DIODE: - A diode is a two terminal device. One terminal being known as
anode and other known as cathode. A diode should work like a switch. When its anode made positive
with respect to its cathode, the diode should act like a closed switch and when its anode made
negative with respect to its cathode, acts like an open switch.

When a d. c. voltage is applied to a device, the device is said to be biased. A p-n junction can be
biased in two ways-

1. If the positive terminal of the d. c. supply is connected to p-region and negative terminal is
connected to n-region (cathode), the diode is said to be forward biased.
2. If the positive terminal of the d. c. supply is connected to n-region and negative terminal is
connected to p-region (cathode), the diode is said to be reverse biased.

FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS:-

In forward bias the diode current increases rapidly as the potential across the diode is increased. The
diode starts conducting only after a certain voltage known as threshold voltage. In the forward biased
condition, majority charge carriers are responsible for conduction. The number of these charge
carriers injected at the junction increases with the voltage and thus the current increases with voltage.

REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS:-

Under reverse bias condition minority charge carriers take part in the process of conduction. Here the
leakage current flows in the circuit. This current is known as reverse saturation current. It increases
rapidly in the initial stage due to an exponential decrease of diffusion current with increasing reverse
voltage.

ZENER DIODE:-

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It is a p-n junction diode in which the quantity of impurity doped is more than that of an ordinary
diode. If a battery connected at the terminal of zener diode such that the positive terminal of the
battery is connected to p and negative to N, it is said to be in forward bias. The holes of p- region are
repelled by the positive electrode and more towards the junction and electrons of N- region are
repelled by the negative electrode and move towards the junction. Thus, electric conduction takes
place at junction. A potential difference across the diode increases, the current in the circuit also
increases. When the positive terminal of the battery is connected to N and negative connected to p, it
is said to be in reverse bias. The holes of P region move away from the junction and similarly the
electron of N region move away from the junction. Thus no current flows in the reverse bias due to
majority charge carriers. But the minority charge carriers of p region and holes of N region move
towards the junction due to which a very feeble current flows. On increasing the reverse voltage, a
stage is reached when the current suddenly increases. This potential is called breakdown voltage. The
reason is that when the reverse electric field at the junction increases, the covalent bond break and a
large number of charge carriers are produced. This is called zener breakdown.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM-
_
A A

V V

PROCEDURE-
ZENER DIODE:-

FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Make the connection as shown in the circuit.

2. Vary the forward voltage V in steps and note down the corresponding value of current.
3. Plot the graph of voltage (on x-axis) Vs current I (on y-axis).

REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS:

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1. Connect the zener in reverse polarity of the supply in the given terminal.
2. Increase the supply voltage in steps and note the corresponding readings of the ammeter.
3. At a particular voltage Vz the current is maximum. Plot the graph between current and
voltage.
OBSERVATION-
FORWARD BIAS:

Least count of voltmeter…………….

Least count of ammeter…………….

S. NO. VOLTAGE (V) CURRENT (µ A)

Division Least count Total Division Least count Total

REVERSE BIAS:

Least count of voltmeter…………….

Least count of ammeter…………….

S. NO. VOLTAGE (V) CURRENT (µ A)

Division Least count Total Division Least count Total

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RESULT- Forward and reverse bias characteristics of zener diode is plotted on the graph.

PRECAUTIONS-
4. In the forward bias the p terminal of diode should be at positive potential an N terminal at
negative potential. While in reverse bias, the P terminal of diode should be at negative
potential and N terminal at the positive potential.
5. The positive marked terminal of voltmeter and ammeter should always be connected to the
positive terminal of the battery.
6. Current should not be passed for a long duration through the diode otherwise it will get
heated.
7. Increase the voltage gradually.

1.What do you mean by P&N types semiconductors?

Ans: Extrinsic semiconductor in which trivalent impurity is added is known as P type
semiconductorExtrinsic semiconductor in which pentavalent impurity is added is known as N
type semiconductor.
2What are semiconductors?
Ans: Semiconductors are those materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and
insulators.
3What do you mean by intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?
Ans: A semiconductor is in extremely pure form is known as intrinsic semiconductor. A
semiconductor which contains some impurities is known as extrinsic \ semiconductor.

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4What is potential barrier?

Ans: In a P-N junction, the holes from the P side and electrons from the N side tend to
move to each other due to attraction of opposite charges. Now as the flow increases there
will be enough Positive charge in N side to resist the flow of further Positive charges from
P side. Thus a Potential barrier (Which opposes the further motion of charges) is formed.
5Which types of majority charge carriers are present in n type and p type semiconductor?
Ans: Majority charge carriers are present in n type and p type semiconductors are
electrons and holes.
6What do you mean by forward and reverse biasing of diode?
Ans: In forward bias, the p-type is connected with the positive terminal and the n-type is
connected with the negative terminal. In reverse bias, the p-type is connected with the
negative terminal and the n-type is connected with the positive terminal.
7What is the difference b/w PN junction diode and Zener diode?
Ans: Diode that conduct current only in forward biasing and conduct very small (of the
order of microamp.) current in reverse biasing is called PN junction diode whereas zener
diode allows the flow of current in both the biasing.A normal diode the conduction will be
permanently damaged for a large reverse current, but a zener diode will not.Amount of
doping for P and N semiconductor layers are different in the two devices.Diodes are
normally used for rectification, whereas zener diodes are used for voltage regulation.
8What do you mean by breakdown?
Ans: Breakdown refers the reverse bias condition of diode when minority charge c arriers
increase rapidly to very high value so that reverse bias current is increased to its maximum
value.
In Zener breakdown the electrostatic attraction between the negative electrons and a large
positive voltage is so great that it pulls electrons out of their covalent bonds and away from
their parent atoms. ie Electrons are transferred from the valence to the conduction band. In
this situation the current can still be limited by the limited number of free electrons producby
the applied voltage so it is possible to cause Zener breakdown without damaging the
semiconductor.

Avalanche breakdown Avalanche breakdown occurs when the applied voltage is so large
that electrons that are pulled from their covalent bonds are accelerated to great velocities.
These electrons collide with the silicon atoms and knock off more electrons. These electrons
are then also accelerated and subsequently collide with other atoms. Each collision produces
more electrons which lead to more collisions etc. The current in the semiconductor rapidly
increases and the material can quickly be destroyed.

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ORIENTAL COLLEGE TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE

EXPERIMENT NO-6
AIM: To determine resolving power of telescope

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Telescope with a rectangle variable slit, a scale with black lines of equal
width, meter scale

THEORY:

According to Rayleigh criterion, two objects of equal intensities are said to be just resolved when in their
diffraction pattern, the principal maxima of one coincides with the minima of other.
The resolving power of telescope is equal to the reciprocal of that angle subtended at the objective lens of the
telescope by the tow far points objects when their image formed in the focal plane of telescope are just resolved.
The light ray of wavelength λ from these objects are incident on the objective lens of telescope subtending angle θ
after refraction, they form images A & B in its focal plane. From the figure, it is clear that the angular separation
between maxima A and B= θ, but from the theory of diffraction at a circular aperture, the angular spread of
principal maxima α = 1.22 λ\d
Where, d is the diameter of circular aperture (or the objective of telescope)
According to Rayleigh criterion, for just resolution the principal maxima of image of one object must be at the
minima of the image of other object,
The angular separation between two minima = angular spread of principal maxima
Hence, resolving power of telescope = d\1.22 λ -----------1
If the width of slit mounted on the objective lens is a , when it just resolves the two strips at separation b on the
card board (or on the glass plate) kept at a distance D then, the angle subtended by the strips at the slit = b\D =
angular separation between the two principal maxima or the angular spread of the principal maxima = λ\a
Hence, just at the limit of resolution
λ\a = b\D or λ= ab\D -----------2
From eq’s 1 & 2 resolving power of telescope
RP = Dd\1.22ab -----------3
Knowing all the quantities in the above expression .the resolving power of the telescope can be calculated as

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Figure

FORMULA USED:

The resolving power of telescope

Where, d =diameter of the objective of telescope

D =distance of scale from the objective of telescope

a =width of slit mounted on the objective of telescope in the position of just resolution

b =separation between the two strips drawn on scale

PROCEDUE:

6. Mount the telescope on the stand with its axis horizontal and scale on another stand

7. Open the slit completely and focus the telescope on the lines to see their distance image.
Now gradually decrease the width of the slit by the micrometer screw till the separate
visibility of the two lines just disappear

Note the reading of micrometer screw in this position

8. The micrometer screw is rotated in the same direction till the slit is completely closed. the
reading of micrometer screw is again noted

9. Open the slit gradually till the two lines just appear to be separated from each other again
the reading of micrometer screw is noted

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10. Take mean of two reading of micrometer of just resolution and then take difference of this
value with the shut position

11. Measure the distance D between slit& scale with the help of measuring tape

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Least count of main scale = 0.05 cm

Least count of vernier scale = 0.0005 cm, d = 2.3 cm, b = 0.1 cm

S.NO Distance Micrometer position When the slit

Position of Width of the slit
between of just resolution is completely
just resolution
scale & start while enclosing closed end while
slit D the slit – A (in cm) B(in cm)
opening the (in cm)
(in cm) slit
C (in cm)
MS VS TR MS VS TR MS VS TR
1
2
3
4
Where-MS- main scale reading, VS- vernier scale reading, TR-total reading

CALCULATION:

EXPERIMENTALLY:

Formula used-

THEORITICALLY:

Formula used-

PERCENTAGE ERROR:

RESULT:

1. The theoretical value of resolving power = 31420.76 rad-1

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2. The experimental value of resolving power =

3. Percentage error =

PRECAUTIONS:

4. The axis of telescope must be horizontal.

5. The strips on the scale should be vertical.

6. To avoid the backlash error, the micrometer screw must always be turned in one direction.

7. The plane of the slit must be parallel to the scale.

8. The width of slit at the position of just resolution must be adjusted carefully.

Viva-Voice

Q.1 What is meant by Resolving Power?

Ans: It is defined as the reciprocal of smallest angle subtended at the objective by two distinct lines
(objects) which can be just resolve by the telescope.

Q.2 Why are you saying just resolve?

Ans: Two point sources are resolvable only when the central maxima in diffraction pattern of one
falls over the first minimum in the diffraction pattern of the other and vice-verca.

Q.3 Define Reyleigh Criterion?

Ans: According to Reyleigh Criterion, two point sources are resolvable only when the central maxima
in diffraction pattern of one falls over the first minimum in the diffraction pattern of the other and
vice-verca.

Q.4 What do you mean by diffraction?

Ans: The bending of light wave around the sharp edge of obstacle and spreading into geometrical
shadow of obstacle in path of light is called diffraction.

Q.5 On what factor the resolving power of telescope depend?

Ans: Large value of resolving power, we must have large sized aperture a. Thus, the telescope with
large diameter of the objective has a higher resolving power.

Q.6 Write to precautions.

Ans: (a) The slit should be clean as edges and narrow.

(b) Telescope, light source and slit pattern should be properly arranged while taking the observation.

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Q.7 What is the relation between resolving power and limit of resolution?

Ans: Resolving Power = 1 / Limit of resolution

Q.8 What is the effect on resolving power, when the pattern board taken far from the telescope? Ans:
Resolving power remain same.

Q.9 Can we increased a resolving power of telescope, if yes than how?

Ans: Yes, by increasing the diameter of objective len

Q.10 Which light is used in the experiment?

Ans: Ordinary light source is used in the experiment.

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ORIENTAL COLLEGE TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE

EXPERIMENT NO-7
AIM: To determine the wavelength of sodium light by using the method of Newton’s Ring.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Travelling microscope, sodium lamp, plano convex lens, reading lens,
plane glass plate

THEORY: When a plano convex lens of large radius of curvature is kept on a glass plate such that
the convex surface of the lens is in contact with the plate, a wedge shaped air film is formed between
the lens and the plate. The thickness of the film increases outward from the point of contact of lens
and the plate. Thus the air film is radially symmetrical about the point of contact. When light from a
monochromatic extended source is made to incident normally on the film and the film is seen in the
reflected part through a microscope, we get a dark spot at the centre surrounded with alternate
concentric bright and dark rings. These rings were first observed by Newton, therefore they are
named as Newton’s Rings. These rings are the fringes of equal thickness.AB is the light ray incident
normally on the curved surface of the lens (i.e. on the upper surface BF of the film) which is partially
reflected as BC and then partially transmitted from the upper surface CG of the lens as CD. The light
ray BE obtained due to partial transmission from the surface BE of the lens is partially reflected as EF
from the upper surface of the plate (i.e. the lower surface of the film) and then emerges as GH after
refraction through the lens. Thus we get CD and GH as the coherent interfering rays in the reflected
part.
Let ‘R’ be the radius of curvature of the surface in contact with plate ‘λ’ be the wavelength used. Dn
and Dn+1 be the diameter of nth and (n+p)th dark ring respectively.

D2 n = 4nλR and D2 n+p = 4(n+p)λR

D2 n+p - D2 n = 4λpR
λ = (D2 n+p - D2 n ) / 4 pR
and 1/f = (µ-1) [1/R1 – 1/R2 ], R can be calculate.

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FIGURE:

FORMULA USED:

where- = diameter of (n+p )th dark ring

= diameter of nth dark ring

R= radius of curvature

p= difference between n+p and n

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PROCEDUE:

1) The plano convex lens L is placed on the glass such that the curved surface of the lens is in
contact with the plate.
2) Now adjust the microscope in a position to obtain distinct Newton’s Rings in the field of
view. Now the distance of the microscope from the film is adjusted at the ring with dark
centre in well focus the centre of cross wire is adjusted at the centre of fringes pattern.
3) By counting the no. of fringes the microscope is moved to the extreme left to the pattern and
cross wire is adjusted tangentially in the middle of a clear nth dark fringe. Reading of the
microscope is noted.
4) The microscope is moved to the right and the readings of the micrometer are noted carefully
keeping the cross wire tangential on the consecutive dark rings. Now keep on moving the
tangential screw of the microscope in the same direction and note the reading for the right side
up to the nth dark ring.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

P=3

R=100

s. No. of Microscope reading Diameter Diameter D2n+p-D2n

no ring’s L.H.S.(L) R.H.S.(R) (LR) (LR)2 (in cm)
(in cm) (in cm) (in cm) (in cm)
M.S VS TR MS VS TR
1
2
3
4
5
6

CALCULATION: The radius of plano convex lens can be obtain with the help of formula-

1/f = (µ-1) [1/R1 – 1/R2 ], (R2 = ∞)

Thus, 1/f = (µ-1) [1/R1 ]

i.e. 1/200 = (1.5 – 1)/R1 =» R1 = 100 cm.

Put n-1, 2, 3 and p=3 so that n+p=4, 5, 6

=x1 , =x2 , x3

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%error=

RESULT: The wave length of the sodium light is ………………………

PRECAUTIONS:

1) The glass plate and the lens must be perfectly clean.

2) The plane glass plate ‘p’ must be inclined at an angle of 45º with the vertical so that the light
is incident normally on the film between the lens and the plate.
3) The radius of curvature of the plano convex lens must be large so that the wedge angle of the
film is small and the rings are of large diameters.
4) The source of light must be monochromatic and extended.
5) To avoid the back lash error, the tangential screw of the microscope should always be rotated
in one direction.

Viva voce

Q.(1). Define Interference.

Ans. Redistribution of energy is called Interference.

Q.(2). What are the types of interference?

Ans. There are two Types of interference (1)Division of wave front and (2) division of amplitude

Q.(3). On which type of interference does Newton ring based.

Ans. Division of amplitude.

Q.(4.) Which type of light is used in experiment?

Ans. monochromatic source (Sodium light)

Q.(5). Why fringes are circular?

Ans In this experiment fringes are of equal thickness due to the locus of the fringes of equal thickness
lies on a circle hence it is circular.

Q.(6). What is the standard wavelength of light used in experiment?

Ans. 5896 Å and 5890 Å

Q.(7).What is the condition for dark central spot?

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Ans. At the central spot thickness of film is zero.

Q.(8). What are the uses of this experiment?

Ans. (1) To determine the refractive index of liquid, (2)To determine the wavelength of light
(3)To determine the radius of curvature of lens.

Q.(9).Which type of lens is used in experiment.

Ans. Plano convex lens

Q.(10). What happened when experiment would be performed by white light.

Ans. A few distinct colored rings be seen

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ORIENTAL COLLEGE TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE

EXPERIMENT NO-8

AIM- To study the properties of laser

APPARATUS- He-Ne laser, optics lab, screen, duster

THEORY- laser is the acronym for light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of radiation .The
characteristic of a laser light are monochromaticity ,coherence in time and space ,narrow divergence of the
beam and high intensity.
He-Ne LASER: The He-Ne laser was developed in 1961 by Ali Javan. The lasing medium in the He-Ne laser
is a mixture of about 85% helium and 15% neon, with neon providing the lasing action. It employs a four level
pumping scheme. Transitions from level E3 to E4 and E4 toE1 are accomplished through a four photon
transitions in which energy is transferred mainly through heat .Pumping of neon to an excited state is not done
directly by the energy source .Rather, indirect pumping is exciting atoms of helium, which then transfer energy
to the new atom by way of electron collision.
Laser light like any other light is invisible to our eyes unless it is traveling in a direction which will permit it to
enter the eye and fall on the retina .When small particles. This scattered light enables us to see the laser beam.
It will be observed that whenever scattered occurs there will also be some absorption of the laser beam, and it
will weaken in intensity as a result.

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PROCEDURE-

1. Shake chowlk dust by blackboard eraser in front the laser and record of the scattering effects
that are observed.
2. Allow laser light to pass through a prism.
3. Observer the spectrum of colours that appears.
4. Allow beam to pass through optical fibre.
5. Allow beam to pass through polarizer and observer effect.
6. Allow beam to pass through divergence lens and observe the effect.
7. Allow beam to pass through different colours filter and observe the effect.
8. Allow beam to pass through diffraction grating of different grating elements.
9. Change the distance between source and the screen and note the effect on laser spot intensity
10. Focus the beam on the letter .Note the focus effect.

OBSERVATION-
1. When laser beam is passes through the prism it doest not disperse.
2. When laser beam is pass through the optical fibre it under goes total internal reflection.
3. When dust particle is spread up in the path of laser beam .It path is visualized due to
scattering.
4. When it is passé through the diverging lens it get diverge but less diverge.
5. When the distance between the laser source and screen is changed its intensity does not vary.
6. When laser passé through polarizer it intensity is change for max to min.
7. It is focused on the single point.
8. Diffraction pattern is found when laser passed through the diffraction grating and there
pattern are change for different grating elements grating
9. When it is passed through the red and yellow filter is intensity doest not change and for blue
colour filter it become minimum but for green colour filter it intensity become zero.

RESULT-
1. It is a monochromatic light beam.
2. It is a highly intense light beam.
3. He-Ne is less diverse light beam.
4. He-Ne is highly focused beam.
5. He-Ne laser beam follows all properties of the light such as
I Scattering
II Diffraction
III Polarization
IV Total internal reflection
6. Green colour best absorbent of He-Ne laser.

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PRECAUTION –
1. Do not look into laser or stare at bright mirror like reflections of the beam.
2. If the beam travels a long distance keep it close to the ground or overhead so that it does not
cross walkways at eye level.
3. Never point a laser on anyone.
4. Make sure the laser is always secured on a solid foundation.
5. Laser employs high voltages so never open the housing.

6. Viva voce

Q1. What is the full form of laser?

Ans. Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

Q2. How laser light is different from the ordinary light

Ans. It is a monochromatic, convergent, coherent and high intense beam of light. While ordinary light
is incoherent, divergent and low intense beam of light.

Q3. What is population inversion?

Ans. When the no. of atoms are more in higher energy state than the lower energy state, known as
population inversion. it is essential for stimulated emission.

Q4. What is pumping?

Ans. It is process to achieve population inversion.

Q5. What is laser?

Ans. It is a device which is used to convert ordinary light into laser light

Q6. What is meant by the term coherency?

Ans. When the light waves are in same phase and with all most same wavelength in light beam
known as coherent.

Q7. What is diffraction?

Ans. When the light bends or deviate from path due to obstacle known as diffraction.

Q8. Define Grating

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Ans. It is an arrangement in which there is a fine quality of glass on which parallel lines are ruled
equidistant with diamond point by an automatic shifting machine. The ruled lines works as opaque
and spacing works as transparent.

Q9. What is active medium?

Ans. it may be solid, liquid, or gas which achieves population inversion.

Q10. What is the action of the optical resonator?

Ans. It is the combination of two reflecting mirror which is used to increase the intensity of laser
light

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ORIENTAL COLLEGE TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE

EXPERIEMENT NO-9

AIM:- To determine the Hall coefficient of given semiconductor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-Electromagnets, power supply of electromagnet, Gauss
meter for measuring of magnetic flux, germanium crystal, stand, constant power supply.
THEORY:-When a current carry conductor is placed in the cross magnetic and electric
field a electric field is induced in the conductor which is perpendicular to the applied electric
and magnetic field. This effect is known as Hall Effect and induced potential difference is
known as Hall voltage.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect the power supply to the electromagnets .Switch on power supply adjust the
current (say 1amp).
2. With the help of Gauss meter measure the magnetic field if it is 1000gauss then carry the
next step otherwise by adjusting the electromagnets coil adjust magnetic field at
1000gauss
3. Connect the Hall crystal to constant current power supply in their respective sockets.
4. Switch on the power supply and adjust the current (Ix).
5. There may be some voltage in the (mv) meter even outside the magnetic field this is due to
imperfect alignment for four contacts of Ge,Hall voltage should alignment for four contacts of
Ge crystal and is generally known as zero field potential in case it’s value is compare to Hall
voltage it should be adjusted to a minimum possible .In all case this error should be subtracted
from the Hall voltage reading.
6. Now place the probe in the magnetic field as shown in figure and switch on the
electromagnetic power supply and adjust the current to any desired value .Rotate the Ge
crystal probe till it become perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage (VH) becomes
maximum in this adjustment.
7. Change the value of (Ix) insteps and note corresponding value of (Ix) and (VH). Take many
reading then plot a graph in VH and Ix values. It will be straight line .whose slope will be
given by VH/Ix.

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FIGURE

OBSERVATION-
Thickness of crystal-0.55cm
Magnetic field -1000gauss
S.No. Hall Current(Ix) Hall Voltage (VH)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
CALCULATION-

VH

Ix

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RESULT- The Hall coefficient of given semiconductor is………………volt cm/gauss amp.

PRECAUTION-
1. Handle the Ge crystal with care, it can break.
2. Handle the probe of gauss-meter with care it may damage in mishandling.
3. Does not use electromagnetic continuous at full current .It may be start heat.
4. Gap between poles of electromagnet must be remaining fix during one reading.

Viva voce

Q.1 Define Hall Effect?

Ans. When a current carrying specimen is placed in a transverse magnetic field then a voltage is
developed which is perpendicular to both, direction of current and magnetic field. This phenomenon
is known Hall Effect.

Q.2 What causes Hall Effect?

Ans. Whenever a charge moves in a mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic field it experiences
Lorentz force due to which it deflects from its path and Hall voltage is developed.

Q.3 What is Lorentz force?

Ans. If charge ‘q’ moves in a magnetic and electric field ‘B’ &’E’ respectively with velocity v then
force on it is given by F= qE+ Bqv.sinө

Q.4 What is Hall Coefficient?

Ans. It is the electric field developed per unit current density per unit magnetic field

Q.5 What are the uses of Hall Effect?

Ans. To determine the sign of charge carrier and charge carrier concentration

Q.6 Define Charge carrier concentration.

Ans. No. of charge carriers per unit volume.

Q.7 why Hall voltage differ for different type of charge carrier?

Ans. Because direction of Lorentz force is different for different type of charge carrier.

Q.8 what is unit Hall coefficient?

Ans. Ohm-meter/Tesla.

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Q.9 What is the unit of charge carrier concentration?

Ans. Per Cubic-centimeter.

Q10 Which type of magnet is used in the experiment, temporary or permanent?

Ans. Temporary.

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ORIENTAL COLLEGE TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE

EXPERIMENT NO –10

AIM – To determine the wavelength of violet and green light by using a diffraction grating.

APPARATUS - Plane transmission grating, mercury lamp, reading lamp and reading lens.

THEORY- when a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength λ (from the collimator) is
incident normally on a grating. By huygen’s principle each point of slit emits out secondary wavelets
in all directions which interfere and get focused in the focal plane of a convex lens. The path
difference between the diffracted waves at an angle θ from the corresponding points of two
consecutive slits is (e+d) sinθ . When this path difference is equal to integer multiple of wavelength λ,
principal maxima are obtained.

(e+d) sinθ= nλ where n= 0, 1, 2………………..n is called order of spectra

For n=0, we get zero order (or central) maxima and for n= ±1, ±2……….we get first order, second
order… maxima respectively on either side of zero order maxima.
Thus knowing the grating element (e+d) and the angle of diffraction θ in a particular order n, the
wavelength λ of light can be calculated.
Now if white light is made incidence on a grating, in each order the value of θ will be different,
corresponding to different wavelengths present in the incident white light. Thus we get spectrum in
each order. The first order (n=1) principal maxima of wavelengths in the incident light form the first
order spectrum. Similarly the second order (n=2) principal maxima of wavelengths in the incident
light form the second order spectrum.
Since angle of diffraction θ=0 for the principal maxima of all wavelengths corresponding to n=0,
therefore the zero order maxima is white in the direction of incident light (on either side of which
there are first order and second order spectrum).
FORMULA USED- The wavelength λ of a spectral line is calculated by the following formula
(e+d) sinθ= nλ Where e+d = 2.54/N , λ = [(2.54/N)sinθ]/n

Where e = grating element, θ = angle of diffraction, n = order of spectrum, N = number of lines ruled
per inch on grating

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FIGURE-

G
T

G2
@1 Second order

V2
G1
First order
V1

Zero order

V1

First order
G1
V2

Second order
Where G1-first order green G2

V1-first order violet

G2-second order green

V2- second order violet

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PROCEDURE-
1.The telescope is brought in the lines of collimator and the image of slit is focused at the point of
intersection of cross wire. This position of telescope on the circular scale is noted.
2.Then the telescope is turned exactly by 90° from the position and is clamped, so that axis of
telescope becomes exactly normal to the axis of collimator.
3.Now the grating is mounted on the table. Table is then gradually rotated till the image of slit
formed by light reflected from the grating surface is focused at the point if intersection of cross
wire in the telescope. In this condition the plane of grating makes an angle 45° with the incident
light.
4.Now the grating is turned 45° or 135° such that the ruled surface of grating comes towards the
telescope. The light incident from the collimator is normal on the grating. The rulings on the
grating are adjusted parallel to the slit.
5.The telescope from the position of direct image of the slit is rotated towards left till the first
order spectrum is seen. The telescope is then gradually rotated to coincide the violet and green
spectral lines and the readings of both veniers V1 and V2 are noted.
6.Then the telescope is further moved in the same direction to bring the second order spectrum in
the field of view and again the readings of both verniers V1 and V2 are noted by coinciding the
vertical cross wire on the spectral lines of same colors successfully.
7.Now the telescope is turned on the right side of the direct image of slit and again the readings of
both the verniers V1 and V2 are noted for same spectral lines in the first and second order
spectrum.
8.Then for the spectral line of each color, find the difference of readings of either side of slit for
the same vernier V1 (or V2). Take the mean and find the half of it which will give the angle of
direction θ for the spectral line of that colour.
9.Note the number of lines ruled per inch on the grating.

OBSERVATION-

Least count of main scale = 0.5°

Total number of vernier division = 30div
Least count of vernier scale = 0.5°/30’ = 30’/30’ = 1’

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR ANGLE OF DIFFRACTION:-

ORDER OF COLOR OF VERNIER POSITION OF POSITION OF 2θ=θ2-θ1 ANGLE OF

SPECTRUM SPECTRAL SCALE TELESCOPE(R) TELESCOPE(L) DIFFRACTION
LINE READING θ

MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR

FIRSTORDER VIOLET V1
V2
GREEN V1
V2

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SECOND VIOLET V1
V2
GREEN V1
V2

CALCULATION-
(e+d) sinθ= nλ

(for first order n=1 and for second n-2)

The no. of lines ruled per inch grating N = 15000

Grating element (e+d) = 2.54/15000 cm

RESULT-

The wavelength of violet and green colour for the given source of light

Colour of spectral line Observed wavelength Standard wavelength Percentage error

(in Å) (in Å)
Green

Violet

PRECAUTIONS-
1. The mechanical adjustment of the telescope should be correct.
2. The optical adjustment of the spectrometer must be made correctly.
3. The slit used should be as narrow as permissible.
4. In handling the grating do not touch the faces of glass.
5. The light incident from the collimator should fall normal on the grating.

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1. What do you mean by diffraction of light?

Ans: Diffraction is the bending of light as it passes around the edge of an
object. The amount of bending depends on the relative size of the
wavelength of light to the size of the opening.
2. What is diffraction grating?
Ans: It is an arrangement of equidistant and parallel slits drawn on any
transparent glass plate by a pointed diamond.
3. What is grating element?
Ans: e + d = grating element where e is the width of opaque space and d is the
width of transparent space.
4. What is grating equation?
Ans: nλ= (e+d)sinθ
5. What types of diffraction do you know?
Ans: There are two types of diffraction- Fraunhofer diffraction and Fresnel
diffraction.
6. What is the difference b/w Fraunhofer and Fresnel class
diffraction?
Ans:
Fraunhofer diffraction Fresnel diffraction

Source of light and screen are at Source of light and screen are at finite
infinite distance from diffracting distance from diffracting aperture.
aperture.

Lenses are used. No lens is used for observation

Wave front is always parallel Wave front may be parallel.

7. For diffraction what would be the size of aperture?

Ans: Size of aperture should be of the order of wavelength of light.
8. What is the difference b/w diffraction and interference?
Ans:

9. What are the various parts of spectrometer?

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Ans:
Interfence Diffraction

All the fringes have equal width. Width of maximas and minimas
are different.

All bright fringes have maximum Intensity of maximas decreases

intensity. with increasing order.

All dark fringes have zero Intensity of minimas increases

intensity. with increasing order.

Ans: The various parts of spectrometer are collimator, prism table and telescope.
10. What is the use of collimator?
Ans: A collimator is used to make incident light rays parallel.
11. What are the difference b/w grating spectra and prism spectra?
.
Prism spectrum Grating spectrum

It is due to dispersion It is due to diffraction

Only one spectrum is obtained. No. Of spectrums are obtained at

different order.

12. How angle of diffraction varies with wavelength?

Ans: Angle of diffraction is directly proportional to the wavelength.
13. How a diffraction grating is formed?
Ans: It is constructed by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a transparent
material such as glass with a fine diamond point.

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ORIENTAL COLLEGE TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE

EXPERIMENT NO-11

AIM- To study the characteristic of the Geiger Muller counter

APPARATUS REQUIRED-
Triode Geiger counting System (GCS), GM tube and a radioactive source.
PRINCIPLE -
When a gamma ray (or a charge particle) enters the gas filled GM tube, it ionizes the gas
inside it and the electric field applied between the electrodes drift, the electrons towards the
anode. The elections thus collected at the anode are counted various applied voltage using
Geiger Counting System. A graph is plotted for applied voltage vs. corrected counts (NB-N)
and hence the operating voltage is determined from the graph.
PROCEDURE-
1. The Geiger counter system GCS is connected to the GM tube, which is mounted on a stand
(vertical mount).
2. The radioactive source is placed in the source holder at a distance of about 5cm from the
tube.
3. The GCS is switched on and the counter is reset to zero.
4. The high voltage is increased slowly from minimum until the counting just starts. This
threshold voltage is noted.
5. The present time is set to be 20 seconds and the number of counts for this voltage is
recorded.
6. Now the voltage (V) is increased in steps (say50V) and the number of counts (N) is
recorded every time.
7. Increasing the voltage is stopped when the count rate suddenly increases. Any further
increase in voltage may damage the GM tube .The number of count starts decreasing at this
point. In this particular case the voltage should not be increased more than 950V.
8. The voltage is checked on digital multimeter at range 1000V DC after every setting before
taking readings the meter lead is disconnected so as to avoid unnecessary load across the G.M.
tube.
9. By removing the radioactive source the background count (NB) is recorded for 20 seconds.
10.A graph is plotted for applied voltage (V) vs corrected count rate (NB-N) .the threshold
voltage and the limits of the Geiger plateau are marked .The midpoint of the plateau region
gives the operating voltage of the tube. The tube must always be operated with this voltage
when it is used.

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FIGURE-

OBSERVATION-
S.No Applied No of count without No of count with Corrected
. voltage source N/20sec source NB/20sec counts(N-NB)20sec
(V) volts
1 450
2 500
3 550
4 600
5 650
6 700
7 750
8 800
9 850
10 900
11 950

GRAPH-
Plot graph between applied voltage (V) and corrected counts (N-NB)

Corrected Count
(N-NB)/20sec

Applied voltage (V) volts

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RESULT-
i) Threshold voltage=------------------Volts
ii) Operating voltage=-------------------Volts

PRECAUTIONS-
1. Reset counter after every set of reading by pressing reset switch.
2. Take out Beta source after every reading with the help of fork.
3. Do not hold beta source with fingers directly or put it vicinity to human body.

Vice voce

1. What is GM counter?
Ans: A Geiger counter (Geiger-Muller tube) is a device used for the detection of
charge particles.
2. What is quenching?
Ans: The process of preventing the unwanted pulses is known as quenching.
3. How quenching is achieved in GM counter?
Ans: Quenching is achieved by adding a quenching agent like ethyl alcohol vapour
in the tube.
4. What is the dead time, recovery time, and paralysis time?
Ans: There is an interval of time following the production of a pulse in the GM
tube during which no other pulse can be recorded. This interval is called the dead-
time of the system.After dead time, the tube takes nearly 100 microseconds before
regains its original working condition is known as recovery time. Sum of the dead
time and recovery time is known as paralysis time.
5. How ionization starts in GM tube?
Ans: The electrodes have a high voltage across them. The gas used is usually
Helium or Argon. When radiation enters the tube it can ionize the gas. The ions
(and electrons) are attracted to the electrodes and an electric current is produced.
A scaler counts the current pulses, and one obtains a "count" whenever radiation
ionizes the gas.

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6. What is threshold, and operating voltage of GM counter?

Ans: The threshold voltage is the voltage where the counter starts the counting (where
the counter gives first reading).Proper operation is when the voltage is in the plateau
region of the curve. This voltage is known as operating voltage.
7. What are various regions plotted in GM counter characteristics curve?
Ans: The various regions are proportional region, plateau region and discharge
region.

8. What is backward counting?

Ans: Backward counts are those counts which are already present in the GM tube.
9. Why the radioactive source is needed in GM counter.
Ans: To initiate primary ionization.

10. What is plateau region?

Ans: The region where number of counts is constant is called plateau region.

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ORIENTAL COLLEGE TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCE

EXPERIMENT NO.-12

AIM-To determine the refractive indices of the given calcite prism material corresponding to
ordinary and extra-ordinary rays by using sodium light..

APPARATUS - calcite prism, a spectrometer, a sodium vapour lamp.

THEORY- Light passing through a calcite crystal is split into two rays. This process, first reported
by Erasmus Bartholinus in 1669, is called double refraction. The two rays of light are each plane
polarized by the calcite such that the planes of polarization are mutually perpendicular. For normal
incidence (a Snell’s law angle of 0), the two planes of polarization are also perpendicular to the
plane of incidence.
For normal incidence (a 0 angle of incidence), Snell’s law predicts that the angle of refraction will
be 0. In the case of double refraction of a normally incident ray of light, at least one of the
two rays must violate Snell’s Law. For calcite, one of the two rays does indeed obey Snell’s Law; this
ray is called the ordinary ray (or O-ray). The other ray (and any ray that does not obey Snell’s Law)
is an extraordinary ray(or E-ray).
For ordinary rays the vibration direction, indicated by the electric vectors in our illustrations, is
perpendicular to the ray path. For extraordinary rays, the vibration direction is not perpendicular
to the ray path. The direction perpendicular to the vibration direction is called the wave normal.
Although Snell’s Law is not satisfied by the ray path for extraordinary rays, it is satisfied by the
wave normal of extraordinary rays. In other words, the wave normal direction for the refracted
ray is related to the wave normal direction for the incident ray by Snell’s Law.

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FORMULA USED-

where no is refractive index for the ordinary ray.

ne is refractive index for the extra-ordinary ray.
A is the angle of prism.
(Dm)e is the angle of minimum deviation for e-ray.
(Dm)o is the angle of minimum deviation for o-ray.

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RAY DIAGRAM:-

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PROCEDURE:-

• SETTING UP OF THE SPECTROMETER :

1. The spectrometer base is levelled using a spirit level.
2. The prism table is levelled first with the spirit level.
3. The spectrometer is set with the collimator towards the light source. The slit is adjusted to
be as narrow as possible. The image of the slit is adjusted to be at the center of the field of
view.
4. The eyepiece of the telescope is adjusted such that the crosswire are seen distinctly.
5. The telescope and the collimator are adjusted for parallel rays using Schuster's method.
6. The prism table is levelled optically with the help of prism.
7. The least count of the spectrometer is determined.

• MEASUREMENT OF REFRACTING ANGLE "A" OF THE PRISM :

1. The quartz (or calcite) prism is kept on the prism table with its refracting edge at the center
and pointing towards the collimator. The light from the collimator is incident upon both the
refracting surfaces simultaneously and they give rise to reflected images. See second fig.
2. The telescope is turned first to one side to receive the reflected image. When the image is in
the field of view, the telescope is clamped. With the help of the tangential screw, the vertical
cross wire of the telescope is slowly moved and it is coincided with the image of the slit. In
this position, the reading of the main scale and vernier scale of both windows are read and
recorded in Observation Table 1.
3. The telescope is unclamped and rotated to the other side till the reflected image from the
second refracting surface of the prism comes into the field of view. When the image of the slit
is sighted, the telescope is clamped and with the help of tangential screw, the vertical
crosswire is made to coincide with image of the slit. Again the readings of scales from both
the windows are recorded in Observation Table 1.
4. The Procedure is repeated thrice. From readings, the angle of the prism is determined. The
angle of the prism is equal to half of the difference between the readings in the two positions
of the telescope.

• MEASUREMENT OF THE ANGLE OF DEVIATION :

5. The prism table is rotated slowly till the prism base becomes nearly parallel to the
collimator beam. The telescope is turned to get the refracted image on the vertical cross wire.
Two yellow images of the slit are observed. One yellow image of the slit is coincided with
vertical cross wire.
6. Now the prism table is rotated so that the image moves to one side. The telescope is moved
with the help of the tangential screw so that it follows the image. Finally a position is reached
when the image becomes nearly stationary. A further rotation of the prism table in the same
direction makes the spectral line recede. By moving the prism table slowly twice or thrice, the
stationary position of the yellow line is ascertained. The cross wire of the telescope are made
to coincide with the yellow line. This is the position of minimum deviation. The position of
the telescope is read on both windows. The readings are recorded in Observation Table 2.
7. Now the second yellow image of the slit is coincided with the vertical cross wire. The
procedure in step 6 above is repeated to determine the minimum deviation position
corresponding to the second image.
8. The prism is removed from the prism table and the telescope is brought to view the image

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of the slit directly and its position is read and recorded in Observation Table 2. This position
corresponds to that of the undeviated image.
9. The angle through which the telescope has been rotated from undeviated position to
deviated position gives the angle of minimum deviation.
OBSERVATIONS:-

Angle of the prism "A".

Reflection from firstface Reflection from second face

Sr. Venire Difference a- Mean A=

b=theta (Deg.) theta theta /2
MSR VSR T.R. MSR VSR T.R.
No (Deg.)
(Deg.) (Deg.) (Deg.) (Deg.)
(Deg)
(a) (b)
V1
V2

Angle of minimum deviation (Dm)

Reflection Image Direct Image

Sr. Venire reading reading Mean of
No Difference Deviation
B=a-b angle
MSR VSR T.R. MSR VSR T.R. (Deg.) (b) (Deg.) Dm=B/2
(Deg.) (Deg.) (Deg.)
(a)
O- V1
Ray

V2

E- V1
ray

V2

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CALCULATIONS:-

%error=

RESULT:-

1. The refractive index for ordinary ray (no) = ……………with……….%error

2. The refractive index for extra-ordinary ray (ne) = --------------with-----------%error. .
.

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. The telescope and collimator should be individually set for parallel rays by Schuster's
method.
2. Slit should be made as narrow as possible.
3. Both windows should be read.
4. Prism should be properly placed on the prism table for measurement of angle of the
prism as well as for the angle of minimum deviation.

Viva Voice

Ques 1. What do you mean by polarization?

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Ans. The lack of symmetry about the direction of propagation of light is known as the
polarization of light.
Ques 2. What are optical rotations?
Ans . The rotations produced by a decimeter long column of the liquid containing 1 gm of
active substance in 1 cc of the solution.
Ques 3, What is Brewster’s law of polarization?
Ans. The tangent of the polarizing angle is mathematically equal to the refractive index of the
material i.e µ = tan (ip)
Ques 4. Define plane of vibration and plane of polarization.
Ans. The plane of polarization is that plane in which no vibrations occur and the plane in which
vibrations occur known as plane of vibration. The vibrations occur at the right angle to the plane
of polarization.
Ques 5. What do you mean by double refraction?
Ans. When a ray of light is refracted by a crystal of calcite it gives two
Ques s6. What is nicol prism?
Ans. It is an optical device which is made by calcite crystal to produce and analyze the plane
polarized light .
Ques 7. What do you mean by Snell’s law?
Ans. The sine of the angle of incidence to sine of the angle of refraction is equal to the
refractive index of the material.
Ques 8.What is mean by plane polarized and unpolarized light?
Ans. The plane polarized light is the light in which the vibrations take place only along one
straight line perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light while in unpolarized light
vibrations take place along all possible straight lines perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of light.
Ques9. What are the ordinary and extra ordinary lights?
Ans .Ordinary light obeys Snell’s law while extra ordinary doesn’t obey the Snell’s law.
Ques10. Define refractive index.
Ans. It is the ratio of velocity of light in vacuum to the velocity of light in any medium. µ = c / v

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