Physical Science
• is the study of the inorganic world.
• involves the study of non-living aspects
of natural science including physics,
chemistry, astronomy, geology,
meteorology and oceanography.
Unit 1
Nucleosynthesis: The
Beginning of the
Elements
Give evidence for and describe
the formation of heavier
1 elements during star formation
Objective and evolution
At the end
of the unit, Explain how the concept of
you should 2 atomic number led to the
be able to: synthesis of new elements
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Big Bang Theory
1. The big bang theory, a cosmological model that describes how
the universe started its expansion about 13.8 billion years ago,
states that the universe continues to move and expand.
2. The universe began as a singularity or a point containing all
space, time, matter and energy
3. It expanded rapidly in nothingness through a rapid yet peaceful
process called inflation and cooled down as it expanded
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Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
• Big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN), also known as
primordial nucleosynthesis, is the process of producing
light elements during the big bang expansion
• It yields two stable isotopes of hydrogen, two isotopes of
helium, some lithium atoms and beryllium isotopes
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The concept of the atom and its subatomic
particles:
a. The atom is the basic unit of matter.
b. The atom consists mainly of three subatomic particles:
positively-charged protons and uncharged neutrons, both
of which are found in the nucleus; and the electron, which
resides in orbitals outside the nucleus.
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The atomic and mass numbers of an element:
a. The atomic number (denoted as Ζ ) corresponds to the
number of protons in the atom.
b. The mass number (represented by Α ) refers to the total
number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
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i. The sum of protons (p) and neutrons (n) is equal to the
mass number.
Α=𝑝+𝑛
ii. To determine the number of neutrons, recall that Ζ = 𝑝,
therefore, Α= Ζ+𝑛
𝑛 = Α−Ζ
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Find the number of neutrons of
Aluminum:
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Find the number of neutrons of Helium:
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Find the number of neutrons of Neon:
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The concept of the isotope:
a. Isotopes are members of a family of an element that all
have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.
b. The most stable isotope of an element has a mass number
that is numerically closest to its atomic mass (the weight of
one atom of that element).
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Complete the table below.
Element Mass Number Atomic Protons Neutrons
Number
Be 4 5
C 6 6
Ar 36 18
Mg 24 12
K 19 20
Learn about It!
Complete the table below.
Element Mass Number Atomic Protons Neutrons
Number
Be 9 4 4 5
C 12 6 6 6
Ar 36 18 18 18
Mg 24 12 12 12
K 39 19 19 20
Check Your Understanding
Complete the table below:
Element Mass Number Atomic Protons Neutrons
Number
Li 3 3
Cl 37 17
Na 11 12
Al 27 14
S 16 16
Check Your Understanding
Complete the table below:
Element Mass Number Atomic Proton Neutrons
Number s
Li 6 3 3 3
Cl 37 17 17 20
Na 23 11 11 12
Al 27 13 13 14
S 32 16 16 16
Learn about It!
D and T are
shorthand
symbols for
deuterium and
tritium, known
isotopes of
hydrogen.
Learn about It!
1. A proton (p) and a neutron (n) may fuse together to
yield a high-energy photon (γ) and an isotope of
hydrogen (H) called deuterium (D or 2H, with one p
and one n)
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2. TwoD nuclei may fuse together to form either
of the following:
a. The radioactive H isotope b. The isotope helium-3 (He-
tritium (T or 3H, with one p 3 or 3He, with two p and
and two n) and one p; or one n) along with one n
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3. Helium-4 (He-4 or 4He, with two p and two n) may be
formed from three fusion reactions
a. The fusion of one p and a T atom
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b. The fusion of D with T
c. The fusion of D with He-3
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4. He-4 may still undergo further fusion in the presence of a
T atom, yielding the lithium-7 atom (Li-7 or 7Li, with three
p and four n) and a γ
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• Li-7 may react with one p to produce two stable He-4
nuclei
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5. He-4 may also fuse with He-3 to yield the unstable isotope
beryllium-7 (Be-7 or 7Be, with four p and three n) along
with one γ
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• Beryllium-7 also reacts with a neutron and decays to the
unstable lithium-7, with the subsequent release of a
proton.
Learn about It!
Let’s Try!
a. 2H + 3H
b. 2H + 3He
c. 4He + 3H
d. p + n
e. 7Li + p
Learn about It!
Big Bang Theory
• The correlation between predicted and observed cosmic
abundances of H and He was the major proof of the big
bang theory
• Almost all available neutrons have combined with protons, forming
24% He-4 by mass
• About 74% H by mass remained uncombined
• Collectively, hydrogen and helium were calculated to be the most
abundant element in the universe, accounting for 98% of all matter
by mass.
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Big Bang Theory
• To verify these observations, scientists measured
abundances of primordial material in unprocessed gas in
some parts of the universe with no stars as well as in
parts of meteorites known as chondrites that commonly
fall to Earth
Key Points
The big bang theory is a cosmological model that
1 describes how the universe started its expansion
about 13.8 billion years ago.
Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of producing
2 light elements during the big bang expansion.
The correlation between the predicted and observed
3 cosmic abundances of hydrogen and helium was the
major proof of the big bang theory.
Check Your Understanding
Determine the products of the following nucleosynthesis
reactions.
a. 2H +p
b. 2H + 2H
c. 4He + 3He
d. 3H + 4He
e. 7Be +n
Challenge Yourself
Why is a neutron released during the fusion of two
deuterium atoms?
Bibliography
Clayton, D.D. 1968. Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis. Chicago, USA: University of
Chicago Press.
Constan, Z. “Learn Nuclear Science with Marbles.” National Science Foundation 2017. Accessed July 13,
2018. http://www.jinaweb.org/outreach/marble/Marble%20Nuclei%20Project%20-
%20Activities%20Student%20Worksheet.pdf
Langer, N. “Nucleosynthesis.” Bonn University SS 2012. Accessed December 8, 2016. https:// astro.uni-
bonn.de/~nlanger/siu_web/nucscript/Nucleo.pdf
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. “The Big Bang.” Accessed December 8, 2016.
http://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-powered-the-big-bang/
National Geographic. “Origins of the Universe—An Expanding World.” Accessed December 8, 2016.
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/universe/origins-universe-article/
Bibliography
Overton, Tina, et al. 2010. Shriver and Atkins’ Inorganic Chemistry. 5th ed. London: Oxford University
Press.
