2020/2021

Electronic Circuits Laboratory

EE 248

Eng.Mashhour AL Tarayrah,
Dr. Hesham Enshasy
Electrical Engineering Department

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Major Topics covered and schedule in weeks:
Topic Week # Courses Covered

Introduction and Lab safety. 1 Introduction

2 EE 243
Lab equipment familiarization
3 EE 243
Diode characteristics
4 EE 243
Zener Diode characteristics
5 EE 243
Half- wave and Full-wave rectifier
6 EE 243
Half- wave and Full-wave rectifier (Con.)
7 EE 243
Clipper and Clamper circuits
Bipolar junction transistor characteristics 8 EE 243

Bipolar junction transistor characteristics (Con.) 9 EE 243

Common –Emitter amplifiers 10 EE 243

Common –Emitter amplifiers (Con.) 11 EE 243

12 EE 243
Introduction to MOSFET
MOSFET Common-Source Amplifier 13 EE 243

MOSFET Common-Source Amplifier (Con.) 14 EE 243

Final Exam 15

Specific Outcomes of Instruction (Lab Learning Outcomes):

1. An ability to run the Electronic lab measurement equipment. (5)

2. An ability to validate the theory of diodes. (1, 3, 5, 6)
3. An ability to Use Multisim software to simulate electronic circuits. (3, 5, 6)
4. An ability to Implement half and full wave rectifiers. (1, 3, 5, 6)
5. An ability to implement clipper and clamper circuits. (1, 3, 5, 6)
6. An ability to validate the BJT transistor bias circuit using load line. (1, 3, 5, 6)
7. An ability to Conduct and validate Common-Emitter bias BJT amplifier circuit. (1, 3, 5, 6)
8. An ability to perform basic operation of MOSFET. (1, 3, 5, 6)

Student Outcomes (SO) Addressed by the Lab:

Outcome Description Cont

z ribut
ion
General Engineering Student Outcomes

1. an ability to identify, formulate, and solve complex engineering problems by applying M

principles of engineering, science, and mathematics
an ability to apply engineering design to produce solutions that meet specified needs with
2.
consideration of public health, safety, and welfare, as well as global, cultural, social,
environmental, and economic factors
3. L
an ability to communicate effectively with a range of audiences
an ability to recognize ethical and professional responsibilities in engineering situations and
4.
make informed judgments, which must consider the impact of engineering solutions in global,
economic, environmental, and societal contexts
I
5. an ability to function effectively on a team whose members together provide leadership, create L
a collaborative and inclusive environment, establish goals, plan tasks, and meet objectives
6. an ability to develop and conduct appropriate experimentation, analyze and interpret data, and H
use engineering judgment to draw conclusions
7.
an ability to acquire and apply new knowledge as needed, using appropriate learning strategies

II
 Table of Content

Goal IV
General Guidelines V
Safety VI
General Report Guidelines VII
Week 2: 1
Experiment 1: Lab Equipment Familiarization 1
Week 3: 6
Experiment 2: Diode Characteristics 6
Week 4: 12
Experiment 3: Study of Zener diode in Break down Region 12
Week 5 and Week 6: 17
Experiment 4:Half-Wave And Full-Wave Rectifier 17
Week 7: 25
Experiment 5 : Clipper And Clamper Circuits 25
Week 8 and Week 9: 29
Experiment 6: Bipolar Junction Transistor Characteristics 29
Week 10 and Week 11: 33
Experiment 7 : Transistor AC Amplifiers 33
Week 12: 37
Experiment 8: Introduction to MOSFET 37
Week 13 and Week 14: 42
Experiment 9: MOSFET Common-Source Amplifier 42

III
Goal

The goal of this laboratory is to study electronics through experimentation. Upon completion of this course,
students should be able to use standard laboratory equipment to analyze the behavior of basic electronic
devices and to design and construct simple circuits containing these devices.

The purpose of the experiments described here is to acquaint the student with:

 Analog devices.
 Design of circuits.
 Instruments & procedures for electronic test & measurement.

The aim is to teach a practical skill that the student can use in the course of his or her own experimental
research projects in physics, electrical engineering, or another science.

At the end of this course, the student should be able to:

 Design and build simple circuits of his or her own design.

 Use electronic test & measurement instruments such as oscilloscopes, function generators, etc. in
experimental research.

IV
General Guidelines

Attendance Policy:
Students are required to attend all lab sessions. A student who misses a lab will receive a grade of zero for
the lab and any associated reports. No make-up labs will be given.

Homework Policy:
Every lab requires preparation prior to performing the experiments. Most of the labs require Multisim
simulations, and some of the labs require calculations of design parameters before beginning the
experiment. Students are required to perform this preparatory work prior to coming to the lab. In order to
fulfill the written communication component of the course, students are required to turn in pre-lab reports
written in a proposal format prior to performing the laboratory work.

Pre-lab reports:
Each pre-lab report is due at the beginning of the lab period. The required report format is found in the lab
manual. Each student is required to keep a copy of all pre-labs submitted. The pre-lab report should be used
as the basis of the lab report, which will be written sometime after completion of the lab. In certain cases,
an instructor may require the student to make corrections to simulations in the pre-lab reports, which will
be due the following lab meeting. A 10-point deduction will be taken on every resubmission.

Lab reports:
Lab report must be completed independently. You can share only the collected data sets with your lab
partner. Coping any part of the report from others is strictly prohibited and is against the college integrity
policy. Lab reports are always due the next session after the lab is completed. Late report will be subjected
to a penalty of 10% per day. Late reports will be accepted up to 3 days after the due date. No late reports
are accepted after that. A student who misses a lab report will receive a grade of zero.

V
Safety

Safety is always an important topic whenever laboratory work is being considered, and it is certainly true in
the case of EE 248 lab. Safety is important.

The experiments in the laboratory use low voltages and low currents. However, the lab equipment is
powered by the 220V, 60Hz, line voltage. Be careful with the line voltages. Do not touch exposed prongs on
the equipment plugs when connecting the equipment to the lines.

Take care when using power supplies, which may be low voltage but can supply currents in the ampere
range. Shorting such a supply can lead to a serious burn as high currents arc and can ignite flammable
material. This is precisely why a car battery needs to be treated with respect. The hundreds of amps a battery
can supply are sufficient to cause serious burns.

The equipment is heavy enough to be generally stable on the bench. Be sure to keep the equipment away
from the edges of the benches to avoid having a piece of equipment fall off the bench. Besides endangering
people who might be struck, falling equipment endangers everyone in vicinity by stressing the power cords,
possibly causing a line short or live fault on the equipment, not to mention damage to the expensive lab
equipment. In general electronic equipment does not survive harsh treatment.

The capacitors furnished in your lab are electrolytic capacitors with positive and negative terminals. Be sure
to always connect the positively marked terminal to the most positive terminal in your circuit. An excess
negative voltage applied to these capacitors can cause the device to overheat and explode.

VI
General Report Guidelines
A technical report is expected to contain the following items or subsections:

 Title page,
 Introduction,
 Theoretical discussion or background,
 Experimental procedure and methodology and experimental results,
 Discussion of results,
 Conclusion or summary,
 Acknowledgements,
 Appendices,
 References.

You may find some reports have one or more of these sections removed.

Title page: This page is the first page of the report and should act as the cover page. The title will often be
the same as the title given in the lab manual. The title is centered on the top half of the page and is written
in bold type, all capitals. Centered on the bottom half of the page is your name, the name of your lab
partner(s), the course name, the course title, the instructor or the name of the institution for whom the
report is being prepared.

Introduction: The introduction should explain the background of the work. It should put the experimental
work into perspective and should lead the reader into the subject matter. It should have at least one
sentence explaining why the work was undertaken. It should end with one or two sentences describing the
general experimental approach and results.

Theoretical discussion or background: This section is used to develop the theoretical aspects of the
experiment. Any relevant theory from class or from the lab manual can be used.

Experimental Procedure and Methodology and Experimental Results: This section is for explanation of
apparatus, circuit configuration, and procedures used in this experiment. The title will probably change from
experiment-to-experiment. You can put drawings and circuit diagrams into this section.

Discussion of experimental results: This section is probably the most important part of the report. The data
should be presented in a reduced form. Usually figures are the easiest form to present data, but tables or
lists can be used, where appropriate. Do not assume that the reader knows what you are talking about. Be
descriptive. Include sample calculations along with your calculated data. Do not present data or graphs
without explanation. Be sure to compare your measured results with those that you expected. Here is where
theory meets reality. If the results agree with the theory show how. If the results do not agree with the
predicted values, try to explain why you think they are different or where any errors in data-taking could
have occurred. Explain any anomalous data.

Conclusion-Summary: This section should provide closure to your report. Conclusions should be based on
the information described in the report. The conclusions may not exactly match the lab’s objectives, but
make sure your conclusions are supported by your data. Any advantages and/or limitations of the

VII
information presented here should be included. You may want to include any personal observation that may
not be reflected in the data, e.g., the problems encountered while using a particular instrument or when
performing a particular step in the experiment.

Acknowledgements: This section is used to acknowledge any technical or financial aid that was received in
support of this work. You should state who your lab partner was in this section.

Appendices: This section should contain any miscellaneous calculations, any mathematical derivations or
proofs, and any computer programs or SPICE simulations.

References: This section contains all bibliographical work cited in the report. Usually you will reference your
textbook and lab manual here. The format of these is

1. Author, Title of reference, page numbers, who published, where published, when published.
1. B. Grob, Basic Electronics, pg. 43 to 435, McGraw Hill, New York, NY, 1943.

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 King Faisal University – KFU
College Of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

Course: Electronic Circuits Lab – EE 248

Experiment # 1:
ABCD

University
Students:
ID:
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BBBBBB 11111111
CCCCCCC 22222222
DDDDDDD 33333333

Day: Monday.
12/1/2021

IX
INTRODUCTION

A fidget can be combined with resistors and capacitors to change the wave shape of an ac signal. The position
of the fidget in the circuit, with respect to the resistors and capacitors, causes the output wave shape to
change. The resistor and capacitor act as a smoothing filter. Four basic fidget/resistor/capacitor circuits were
studied. The resistor and capacitor values were changed over two orders of magnitude to make the RC time
constant much smaller and much larger than the period of the input signal. The output wave shapes were
studied as a function of resistor and capacitor values. It was found that the piecewise linear model of the
fidget could adequately explain the output wave shapes.

BACKGROUND

When an RC network is placed across the output of a sinusoidal signal, the wave shape is filtered. The output
wave shape is the input wave shape multiplied by a constant related to the RC time constant of the network
and is given by

where Vin= the input voltage, etc. (Define all terms) (Continue with enough discussion to explain the general
theoretical ideas, but don’t put in so much material as to make this section overly long).

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS

The circuit shown in Figure 1 was constructed. The quiescent emitter-to-ground voltage and the collector-
to-ground voltage were measured as R3 was systematically varied from 10 kΩ to 100 kΩ in 1Ω steps. The
output voltage was simultaneously measured using an oscilloscope. At no time during this measurement did
the output voltage wave shape become distorted. The measured values of VEO and VCO have been shown
in Figure 2, along with the derived value of VCE. The collector voltage, VCE, was independent of variations in
R3 except when R3 was varied from 43,445Ω to 43,447Ω. For these variations in R3 the collector voltage
dropped by almost two orders of magnitude.
Continue to describe each of your other measurements.
Include all data here and any preliminary discussion of the results.

DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The theory predicted that the output current could be written as

where, define terms here. By plotting the measured values of I0 vs Vin, on a semi-log graph, as shown in
Figure 6, it is seen that the output current is proportional to the exponential of the input voltage. Noting that
the output current increases by a factor of 10 every time the term (Vin/VT) increases by 2.3, it was possible

X
to determine the value of VT. VT was found to be constant and equal to 4.4 V. This value of VT is
approximately 2x larger than expected. The difference was probably due to the fact that VT is a function of
voltage and we only measured VT over a small range of voltages.

The value of V2 was determined to be

By plotting V2 vs. V1 on a log-log graph, the slope, m, was determined to be 2. This value of m agrees well
with the expected value of 2.0. Continue to compare all of your results with your expected results, including
any comparisons with SPICE simulations. For every SPICE simulation, include a net list or circuit diagram and
include the plots of the SPICE outputs, not the tables of node values.

CONCLUSIONS

The current-voltage relationships governing operation of a super-duper-widget were measured over the
range of input voltages from 0 V to 0.001 V. The output current was found to be proportional to the input
voltage while the input current was exponentially proportional to the output voltage. These input-output
relationships were those predicted by the text. If the input voltage had been varied over a somewhat larger
range, these relationships may not have been found.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This section is used to acknowledge any technical or financial aid that was received in support of this work.
You should state who your lab partner was in this section.

APPENDICES
This section should contain any miscellaneous calculations, any mathematical derivations or proofs, and any
computer programs or SPICE simulations.

REFERENCES
This section contains all bibliographical work cited in the report. Usually you will reference your textbook
and lab manual here. The format of these is

1. Author, Title of reference, page numbers, who published, where published, when published.

1. B. Grob, Basic Electronics, pg. 43 to 435, McGraw Hill, New York, NY, 1234.

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Electrical Engineering Department

Week 2:
Experiment 1: Lab Equipment Familiarization

OBJECTIVES:

 To be familiar with the main blocks of the oscilloscope and the functions of
each block.
 Understand how the oscilloscope work, and how to use the various controls.
 Generate and explore different waveforms that are commonly used.
 Compute and measure Vp-p, Vp, Vavg and Vrms.
 Measure the period and frequency of periodic ac signals.

Test Standard : IEEE 503-1978

THEORY:
• Oscilloscope
Using an Oscilloscope can be easy! The less you ask from it, the easier it is to use. Work
in any circuits & electronics lab relies heavily on the use of the digital multi-meter
(DMM), the Oscilloscope, and the Function Generator. You have already gained some
experience with the DMM; in this experiment we want you to become familiar with
the Oscilloscope.

The Oscilloscope is simply the most useful instrument available for testing circuits
because it allows you to see (observe) the signals at different points in the circuit. The
best way of investigating an electronic system is to monitor signals at the input and
output of each system block, checking that each block is operating as expected and is
correctly linked to the next. With a little practice, you will be able to find and correct
faults quickly and accurately. Also it can be employed to measure voltage, frequency
and phase shift. Many other quantities such as pulse width, rise time, fall time and
delay time can be investigated.

The function of an Oscilloscope is very simple. It draws a V/t

graph, a graph of voltage against time, voltage on the
vertical or Y-axis, and time on the horizontal or X-axis. As
you can see in Figure 1, the screen of an Oscilloscope almost
has 8 squares/divisions on the vertical axis, and 10
squares/divisions on the horizontal axis. Usually, these
squares are 1 cm in each direction.
Figure 1

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The Oscilloscope has extremely high input impedance (1 M, parallel with 25 pF),
which means it will not significantly affect the input signal. This is nice because you
can use it to test a circuit without worrying about causing the circuit to behave
differently. The probes are connected to an Oscilloscope using BNC’s( Baby N-
Connector).
An Oscilloscope can be separated into four major sections: Display, Vertical,
Horizontal and Triggering sections. Table 1 summarized these sections.

Table 1: The four major sections of the oscilloscope.

Controls the graph on the CRT.

Display
POWER Turns ac mains on and off.
Section
INTENSITY Adjusts the brightness of the trace.

Supplies the information for the Y-axis (or vertical axis). Usually the
scope has two channels. This means two signals can be viewed at once.

Vertical sensitivity controls the number of volts between

VOLTS/DIV
each horizontal line on the screen.

Allows you to move the trace up or down as you see it fit.

This way you can zero the trace when no voltage is applied,
POSITION
or if you are viewing two waves at once you can separate
them.
Vertical
Channel 1/A: shows only channel 1’s signal.
Section VERT MODE
Channel 2/B: shows only channel 2’s signal.

Called coupling switch.

AC coupling: the scope will display the AC component;
block any DC component from being displayed.
AC/GND/DC DC coupling: the scope will display the complete signal
including the DC component.
GND: Disconnects the input signal from the system so you
can establish a zero line.

Horizontal The horizontal axis on a scope changes with respect to time.

Section POSITION Allows you to adjust the wave to the left or right.

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Electrical Engineering Department

Controls the rate at which the trace travels between

TIME/DIV divisions. Set it to one second and the trace will take a
second to travel between one division and the next.

This tells the scope when to trigger or start the beginning of a trace.
Helps it to "lock-on" to the trace.

Allows the user to vary the waveform in order to

LEVEL
synchronize the start of the wave.

Triggering AUTO Automatically operates trigger on its own action.

Section
Set to Channel 1/A or Channel 2/B. Whichever works
SOURCE
better.

Flips the waveform on both channels by determining

SLOPE + - whether the slope triggers on the positive or the negative
slope.

• Coaxial Cables
The cables you are using to connect the FG and the Scope, are called coaxial cables,
and they contain two coaxial conductors with characteristic impedance of 50 . The
center or inner (High) conductor carries the signal and the outer conductor is typically
connected to ground (Low) at one or both ends of the cable. Figure 2 shows a cross
section of a coaxial cable. Properly grounded coaxial cables are reducing or prevent
the noise and interference signals.

Outer insulation Outer conductor Inner insulation Inner

conductor

Figure 2: A cross section of a coaxial cable.

• Function Generator
The Function Generator can produce periodic signals of varying frequency, amplitude,
and several different shapes including: Sine, Square and Triangular signals, TTL/CMOS
digital pulses, …etc. Both frequency and amplitude can be varied.

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Electrical Engineering Department

PROCEDURE:
PART A – Using Oscilloscope and Function Generator
1- Turn on the Oscilloscope, press on CH1 to display only channel 1 signal. Set the
Oscilloscope’s Volts/Division knob for channel 1 to 2 V/DIV, and set the sweep
Seconds/Division knob to 0.25 ms/DIV.
2- On the menu appear on the oscilloscope screen as shown in Figure 3. Choose the
coupling to be GND and move the trace to the middle of the screen by using the
vertical position knob. When you finish set the coupling switch to AC again.

Figure 3: oscilloscope screen.

3- Turn on the Function Generator and connect the output of it to the input of CH1 on
the Oscilloscope.

4- While observing the signal on the Oscilloscope, turn the amplitude potentiometer
knob and the frequency knob of the Function Generator to get 8 V pp, 1 kHz on the
Oscilloscope screen.

5- Draw the signal displayed on the Oscilloscope screen.

6- Turn the “Volts/Division” knob for channel 1 in the CW and then CCW directions.
How does that affect what you see on the Oscilloscope?

7- Turn the “Seconds/Division” knob for channel 1 in the CW and then CCW directions.
How does that affect what you see on the Oscilloscope?

8- Turn the “Vertical Position” knob for channel 1 in the CW and then CCW directions.
And turn the “Horizontal Position” knob in the CW and then CCW directions. What
are the affects of these knobs on the signal?

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9- Turn the “Level” knob in the CW and then CCW directions until the signal become
unstable. What is the affect of this knob on the signal?

10- Go to the Trigger Block. Choose Source. Different choices will appear: CH1, CH2,
External and Line. Choose the Triggering Source to External. What happen to the
signal? Explain. (When you finish set it back to CH1).

11- How many screen divisions of the Oscilloscope:

1) Horizontally: . . . . . . . . . . .

2) Vertically: . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3) Subdivisions: . . . . . . . . . .

12- For a sine wave of 250 kHz, what is the “Second/Division” needed to display 2.5
cycles on the Oscilloscope screen?

PART B - Measuring Time , Frequency and Amplitude

1. Connect the output of a Function Generator to the CH1 input of the Oscilloscope.
2. Set the sine waveforms listed in Table 2. Use the Oscilloscope and (Digital Multi-
Meter) DMM to complete the rest of the table.
3. Sketch the waveforms. Record the HORZ. and VERT. settings.
Table 2: Results

Freq. and Amplitude Vrms (V) Vavg (V)

f = 500 Hz @ 800 mVp-p

f = 10 kHz @ 10Vp-p

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Electrical Engineering Department

Week 3:
Experiment 2: Diode Characteristics

OBJECTIVES:

 To be familiar with the basics properties of the junction Diodes.

 To study the characteristics of the Diode and investigate the I-V curve.
 Test Standard : IEEE 503-1978

THEORY:

Figure 1: Diode.

The diode is a two-terminal semiconductor device with a nonlinear i-v characteristic.

The current flows in only one direction through the diode from the anode to the
cathode. There are three operating regions for the diode:
 Forward biased.
 Reverse biased.
 Reverse breakdown.

From examining Figure 1, you should note that the Anode (A) corresponds to the P-
type side while the Cathode (K) corresponds to the N-type side of the diode.

Ideal Diode Equation:

The relationship between the diode current and voltage is given by the diode equation

𝑽𝑫
⁄𝒏𝑽
𝑰𝑫 = 𝑰𝒔 (𝒆 𝑻 − 𝟏) 1

The terms in Equation (1) are defined as follows:

ID = the diode current (amperes).
VD = the voltage across the diode (volts).
IS = the reverse saturation current or the reverse leakage current (amperes).

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Electrical Engineering Department

IS is a function of the diode material, the doping densities on the p-side and n-side of
the diode, the geometry of the diode, the applied voltage, and temperature. IS is
usually of the order of 1μA to 1mA for a germanium diode at room temperature and
of the order of 1pA for a silicon diode at room temperature. IS increases as the
temperature rises. VT = kT/q = the thermal equivalent voltage = 0.0258 V at room
temperature where

q = 1.6 x 10-19 Coulombs = the electric charge,

k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K = Boltzmann's constant,
and
T = absolute temperature (Kelvin) [room temperature = 300K].
n = the ideality factor or the emission coefficient.

Cut-in Voltage Vγ:

A sketch of a diode characteristic, as it would be measured, is shown in Figure 2. The

figure shows the forward I-V characteristics. The characteristics shown in Figure 3 are
the combination of the forward and reverse characteristics. Appreciable conduction
occurs from around 0.4V to 0.7V for silicon and from around 0.2V to 0.4V for
germanium at room temperature. The value of Vγ is a function of the current at which
Vγ is measured. This point is discussed below and is one of the concepts you should
master from this experiment. If the applied voltage exceeds Vγ, the diode current
increases rapidly.

Figure 2: Diode forward I-V characteristic showing the definition of Vγ.

The complete diode characteristic is shown in Figure 3, piecing together the forward-
biased data and the reverse-biased data. Note that the scales of +V and –V may differ
by a factor of 100, and while +I may be mA or A, –I is likely to be μA or nA.

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Electrical Engineering Department

Figure 3: Diode forward I-V characteristic showing the definition of Vγ.

Diode Current and Diode Saturation Current:

If the diode is operated in the forward-bias region at room temperature (27oC = 300
K), the exponential first term in the brackets in Equation (1) dominates and the diode
current equation is given approximately by
𝑽𝑫
⁄
𝑰𝑫 = 𝑰𝒔 𝒆 𝒏𝑽𝑻 2
The current for forward bias is an exponential function of the applied voltage, VD. If
the diode is reverse-biased, only the small reverse current (the reverse saturation
current or the reverse leakage current), -Is, flows. This current flows as long as the
applied reverse voltage does not exceed the diode breakdown voltage, VBR. If the
reverse voltage exceeds VBR, a large amount of current flows and the diode may be
destroyed if there is not enough series resistance to limit the diode current. In silicon
diodes, Is may be very small and VBR may be very large.

Diode Resistance
Three diode resistances are commonly calculated:
 DC or Static forward resistance, RF or RD.
 AC or Dynamic forward resistance, rf or rd.
 Reverse resistance, rr.

DC or Static forward resistance, RF or RD, is the total voltage drop across the diode
divided by the current flowing through the diode, just as one would calculate using
Ohm's Law. It includes contact resistance, lead resistance, material resistance, and the
resistance of the p and n regions of the diode.
𝑽𝑫
𝑹𝑭 = 3
𝑰𝑫

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AC or Dynamic forward resistance, rf or rd: In practice we don't often use the static
forward resistance; more important is the dynamic or AC resistance, which is the
opposition offered by the diode to changing current. It is calculated by the ratio
[change in voltage across the diode] / [the resulting change in current through diode]
at the operating voltage, VD. That is, rd is the reciprocal of the slope of diode current
versus voltage at the operating point.

𝟏 ∆𝑽𝑫 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

𝒓𝒇 ≡ 𝒓𝒅 = = = 4
∆𝑰𝑫 ⁄∆𝑽𝑫 ∆𝑰𝑫 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

Applying the diode equation and differentiating, we find the dynamic forward
resistance is given by
𝒅𝑽𝑫 𝟏 𝑽𝑻
𝒓𝒇 ≡ 𝒓𝒅 = = =𝒏 5
𝒅𝑰𝑫 𝒅𝑰𝑫 ⁄𝒅𝑽𝑫 𝑰𝑫

Owing to the nonlinear shape of the forward characteristic, the value of AC resistance
of a diode is in the range of 1 to 25 ohms. Usually it is smaller than DC resistance of
the diode.

Reverse Resistance, rr: When a diode is reverse biased, besides forward resistance, it
also possesses another resistance known as reverse resistance. It can be either DC or
AC depending upon whether the reverse bias is direct or alternating voltage. Ideally,
the reverse resistance of the diode is infinite. However, in actual practice, the reverse
resistance is never infinite, due to the existence of leakage current in a reverse-biased
diode.
The reverse resistance, rr, is given by the reciprocal of the slope of the reverse
characteristic, prior to breakdown (see Figure 3).

PROCEDURE:

PART-A Diode (I-V) characteristics

A-1 Forward Bias Mode

Figure 4

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1- Construct the circuit shown in Figure 4. By using 1N4007 Si diode. (Make sure your
diode has the correct polarity).
2- Ask the instructor to check your circuit.
3- Set the DC power supply output adjustment potentiometer fully counter clock wise.
Then switch it ON.
4- Adjust the voltage source (VS) corresponding to Table 1. Use the DMM to measure
the remaining values and record it in Table 1.
5- When finish, set the (VS) to 0.0V. Then switch OFF the DC power supply.

Table 1:

VS (V) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.6

ID (mA)
VD (V)

A-2 Reverse Bias Mode

Figure 5

1- Reverse the polarity of the DC power source (VS) as shown in Figure 4.

2- Adjust the voltage source (VS) corresponding to Table 2. Use the DMM to measure
the remaining values and record it in Table 2.
3- When you finished, set the (VS) to 0.0V. Then switch OFF the DC power
supply.

4- Using the data obtained in part A-1 and part A-2 above, plot the diode (I-V)
characteristic curve, and answers the followings:
 Determine the resistances of the diode.
 Suggest a piece-wise linear model for the used diode and draw it on the I-V
graph.
 Sketch the corresponding equivalent circuit of the diode.

Table 2:

VS (V) 2.0 5.0 10.0 15.0

ID (mA)
VD (V)

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 To understand the difference between linear and non-linear I-V Characteristic

curve, plot the I-V characteristics curve of the resistor.

PART-B Diode (I-V) characteristics using MULTISIM

Construct the circuits given in experiment 1, as shown in Figure 6. Redoing experiment

2 using MULTISIM.

(a) (b)

Figure 6: a) Forward Bias Mode. b) Reverse Bias Mode.

PART-C Comparison between experimental and simulated results.

 Repeat the above procedure using MultiSIM simulator.
 Using the curve tracer or plotter built-in Multisim, find the I-V characteristics
curve of the diode.
 Compare between the results collected in part A and B.

Problems and Discussion:

Q1 : Define semiconductor diode.

Q2: Define depletion layer.

Q3: What do you mean by forward biased?

Q4: What do you mean by reverse biased?

Q5. Define Knee voltage.

Q6. Define breakdown voltage.

Q7. Define max. Forward current.

Q8. Define max. Power rating.

Q9. What is hole current?

Q10: What is cut-in voltage?

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Week 4:
Experiment 3: Study of Zener diode in Break down Region

OBJECTIVES:

 To be familiar with the basics properties of the Zener Diodes.

 Study of Zener diode in Breakdown region.

Test Standard : IEEE 503-1978

Introduction:
A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward
direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the
voltage is above a certain value – the breakdown voltage known as the Zener
voltage.

Figure 1: Zener Diode

The Zener voltage of a standard diode is high, but if a reverse current above that
value is allowed to pass through it, the diode is permanently damaged. Zener
diodes are designed so that their zener voltage is much lower – for example just 2.4
Volts. When a reverse current above the Zener voltage passes through a Zener
diode, there is a controlled breakdown which does not damage the diode. The
voltage drop across the Zener diode is equal to the Zener voltage of that diode no
matter how high the reverse bias voltage is above the Zener voltage.

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Figure 2: Zener Diode forward I-V characteristic showing the definition of Vz

The illustration above shows this phenomenon in a Current vs. Voltage graph. With a
zener diode connected in the forward direction, it behaves exactly the same as a
standard diode – i.e. a small voltage drop of 0.3 to 0.7V with current flowing through
pretty much unrestricted. In the reverse direction however there is a very
small leakage current between 0V and the Zener voltage – i.e. just a tiny amount of
current is able to flow. Then, when the voltage reaches the breakdown
voltage (Vz), suddenly current can flow freely through it. For example if you pass a
reverse 5V through a 3V zener diode and measure the voltage across the zener
diode, that voltage will be 3V.

Uses of Zener Diodes

Since the voltage dropped across a Zener Diode is a known and fixed value, Zener
diodes are typically used to regulate the voltage in electric circuits. Using
a resistor to ensure that the current passing through the Zener diode is at least 5mA
(0.005 Amps), the circuit designer knows that the voltage drop across the diode is
exactly equal to the Zener voltage of the diode.
NEW Click here to visit Zener-Diode.co.uk for a site dedicated to zener diodes, their
characteristics, usage, and other information.

Zener Diode Voltage Regulator Circuit

Figure 3: Zener Diode Voltage Regulator Circuit

A zener diode can be used to make a simple voltage regulation circuit as pictured
above. The output voltage is fixed as the zener voltage of the zener diode used and
so can be used to power devices requiring a fixed voltage of a certain value (equal to
the rating of the zener diode). Click here to find out more about the Zener Diode
Voltage Regulator and how you go about selecting the resistor which burns off the
excess voltage as heat, and zener diode.
NEW The above mentioned article on zener diode voltage regulators has now been
updated and a handy calculator has been added to help you select the

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correct resistor (resistance value and power rating) and zener diode value and power
rating.

THEORY:
An ideal P-N Junction diode does not conduct in reverse biased condition. A zener
diode conducts excellently even in reverse biased condition. These diodes operate at
a precise value of voltage called break down voltage. A zener diode when forward
biased behaves like an ordinary P-N junction diode. A zener diode when reverse biased
can either undergo avalanche break down or zener break down. Avalanche break
down:-If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly doped, depletion region at the
junction widens. Application of a very large electric field at the junction may rupture
covalent bonding between electrons. Such rupture leads to the generation of a large
number of charge carriers resulting in avalanche multiplication. Zener break down:-If
both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion region at the junction
reduces. Application of even a small voltage at the junction ruptures covalent bonding
and generates large number of charge carriers. Such sudden increase in the number
of charge carriers results in zener mechanism.
Specifications:
Breakdown Voltage = 5.1V
Power dissipation = 0.75W
Max. Forward Current = 1A

Calculations from Graph:

Static forward Resistance 𝑅𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑓 /𝐼𝑓
Dynamic forward Resistance 𝑟𝑎𝑐 = 𝛥𝑉𝑓 /𝛥𝐼𝑓
Static Reverse Resistance 𝑅𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑟 /𝐼𝑟
Dynamic Reverse Resistance 𝑟𝑎𝑐 = 𝛥𝑉𝑟 /𝛥𝐼𝑟

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Forward Bias Condition & Reverse Bias Condition:

R1

1kΩ

D1
Vin
5V
15V

Figure 4: Forward Bias Condition

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R1

1kΩ

D1
Vin
5V
15V

Figure 5: Reverse Bias Condition

PROCEDURE:

Forward biased condition:

• Connect the circuit as shown in fig (4).

• Vary Vzf gradually and note down the corresponding readings of Izf.
• Step Size is not fixed because of non linear curve and vary the X-axis
variable (i.e. if output variation is more, decrease input step size and vice
versa).
• Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.

Reverse biased condition:

• Connect the circuit as shown in fig (5).
• Vary Vzr gradually and note down the corresponding readings of Izr.
• Step Size is not fixed because of non linear curve and vary the X-axis
variable (i.e. if output variation is more, decrease input step size and vice
versa).
• Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages.

Observations:
Zener diode in Forward Zener diode & reverse biased condition should be observed

PRECAUTIONS:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to

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damage the diode.

2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit
diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit
connections as per the circuit diagram.

RESULT:
1. The zener resistance at the breakdown voltage was found to be = ………

Problems and Discussion

Q1: Give applications of Zener diode.
Q2: What is voltage regulation of Zener diode?
Q3: What is Zener current?
Q4:Give the equation from which series resistance of Zener diode regulator determined?
Q5: Give advantages of Zener diode regulator over other regulators.
Q6 : What is Zener diode?
Q7: Give several methods used to manufacture of Zener diodes?
Q8: In passivated structure of a Zener diode by which layer edges of the junction are
covered?
Q9: Give the voltage range availability of Zener diodes?
Q10: What is Zener voltage?

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Week 5 and Week 6:

Experiment 4:Half-Wave And Full-Wave Rectifier
OBJECTIVES:

 This laboratory session acquaints you with the operation of a diode power
supply.
 You will study the operation of half-wave and full-wave rectifiers, and the
effect of smoothing filters.
 You will also learn about DC voltage (Vdc), the ripple factor (RF), ripple voltage
(Vr), and root mean square voltages (Vrms and Vr(rms)) of a power supply.
Test Standard : IEEE 503-1978
PRE-LAB:
You should simulate the circuits shown in this experiment with the different resistor
and capacitor values that you will use in the experiment. You should be prepared to
compare your simulations with your measurements after you have built your circuits.

THEORY:

The diode can be used to change the wave shape of an incoming signal. When used as
a rectifier, the asymmetrical properties of the diode's current-voltage characteristics
can be used to convert an ac signal into a dc signal. The rectification can either be a
half-wave or full-wave.

Half-Wave Rectifier:

(a) (b)
Figure 1: A half-wave rectifier.

Figure 1 (a) shows a basic half-wave diode rectifier circuit. During the positive half-
cycle of the input voltage, the diode is forward-biased for all instantaneous voltages
greater than the diode cut-in voltage, Vγ. Current flowing through the diode during
the positive half-cycle produces approximately a half sine wave of voltages across the
load resistor, as shown in the lower part of Figure 1 (b). To simplify our discussions,
we will assume that the diode is ideal and that the peak input voltage is always much
larger than the Vγ of the diode. Hence, we assume that the zero of the rectified

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voltage coincides with the zero of the input voltage. On the negative half-cycle of the
input voltage, the diode is reverse-biased. Ignoring the reverse leakage current of the
diode, the load current drops to zero, resulting in zero load voltage (output voltage),
as shown in Figure 1 (b). Thus, the diode circuit has rectified the input ac voltage,
converting the ac voltage to a dc voltage.

The average or dc value of this simple half-wave rectified signal, Vdc, is given by

1 𝑇 ⁄2 (2𝜋𝑡) 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = ∫0 𝑉𝑚 sin ( ) 𝑑𝑡 = = 0.318 𝑉𝑚 1
𝑇 𝑇 𝜋

Here Vm is the peak value of the rectified signal.

The average voltage is called the dc voltage because this voltage is what a dc voltmeter
connected across the load resistor would read. Hence, if Vm = 10 V and the diode is
ideal, a dc voltmeter across the load resistor would read 3.18 V.

Full-Wave Rectifier:

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 2: Full-wave rectifier.

Figure 2(a) shows a full-wave bridge rectifier with a load resistor RL and an input sine
wave derived from a transformer. During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage,
diodes D2 and D3 are forward biased and diodes D1 and D4 are reverse biased.
Therefore, terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative, as shown in Figure 13(b).
During the negative half-cycle, illustrated in Figure 2(c), diodes D1 and D4 conduct,
and again terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative. Thus, on either half-cycle,

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the load voltage has the same polarity and the load current is in the same direction,
no matter which pair of diodes is conducting. The full-wave rectified signal is shown in
Figure 2(d), with the Vo being the output voltage.

Since the area under the curve of the full-wave rectified signal is twice that of the half-
wave rectified signal, the average or dc value of the full-wave rectified signal, Vdc, is
twice that of the half-wave rectifier.

2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = = 0.636𝑉𝑚 2
𝜋

Filtering:

The rectifier circuits discussed above provide a pulsating dc voltage at the output.
These pulsations are known as "ripple". The uses for this kind of output are limited to
charging batteries, running dc motors, and a few other applications where a constant
dc voltage is not necessary. For most electronic circuits, however, a constant dc
voltage similar to that from a battery is required. To convert a half-wave or full-wave
rectified voltage with ripple into a more constant dc voltage, a smoothing filter must
be used at the rectifier's output. A popular smoothing filter is the capacitor-resistor
filter, which consists of a single capacitor in parallel with the load resistor. Figure 3
shows such a filter connected to the output of a half-wave rectifier. The output wave
shape of the filtered half-wave rectifier is similar to that shown in Figure 4, assuming
that the time constant of the RLC filter is comparable to the period of the input voltage.

Figure 3: Rectifier circuit with an RC smoothing filter.

Notice that the output wave shape still has ripple, but the ripple is now saw-tooth or
triangular shaped, and its variation is much less than that of the unfiltered pulses. The
difference between the maximum and minimum of the filtered voltage is known as
the Ripple Voltage (Vr). In Figure 4, this voltage is labeled ΔV.

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Figure 4: Output wave shape from a full-wave filtered rectifier.

Thus, we have
𝑉𝑟 ≡ 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = ∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛

where
Vm = peak value of the rectified signal (smaller than the Vin, due to Vγ and Rs),
Vmin = the minimum of the filtered voltage. Vmin increases as the ripple voltage
decreases.

The design equation for selecting this capacitor is

Vr T 1
= = 3
Vm RL C fp RL C
where
RL = load resistance
IL = load current
C = filter capacitance
T = 1/fp = the period of the rectified wave.
For a half-wave rectifier, fp is the frequency of the input voltage. For a full-wave
rectifier, fp is twice the frequency of the input voltage. The output of the filtered
voltage for a full-wave rectifier is shown in Figure 4.

From Figure 4, we see that ΔV (=Vr) determines the amount of ripple in the output
signal. From Equation (3), we see that for the ripple voltage Vr to be small, the RLC
time constant must be large. In other words, the ripple can be reduced by increasing
the discharging time constant RLC. Hence, increasing either C or RL will reduce the
ripple voltage. It should be noted that the resistor RL is usually inside a commercial
power supply and any external load connected to the power supply is in parallel with
RL and acts both to lower the total load resistance and to increase the ripple. This is
why an audible hum is often heard from power supplies when the external load
resistance drops to a very low value.

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Two figures of merit for power supplies are the ripple voltage, Vr, and the ripple factor,
RF. Vr has already been defined. RF is defined as

𝑅𝐹 = 𝑉𝑟 (𝑟𝑚𝑠)/𝑉𝑑𝑐 4

Vr(rms) is the RMS value of the ripple voltage. The value of Vr(rms) can be calculated
for various input wave shapes. For a complicated wave shape, such as that shown in
Figure 4, the value of Vr(rms) is calculated as if the filtered, rectified wave were a
triangular wave, for which

𝑉𝑚 −𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑟
𝑉𝑟 (𝑟𝑚𝑠) = = 5
2 √3 2√3

It is import to note that Vr and Vr(rms) are not the same.

Earlier we talked about the average or dc voltage, Vdc, for unfiltered, rectified
supplies. Recall that for a sinusoidal input,

𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = = 0.318𝑉𝑚 for an unfiltered half-wave rectifier.
𝜋
2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = = 0.636𝑉𝑚 for an unfiltered full-wave rectifier.
𝜋

The average (dc) voltage will lie between Vm and Vmin. Therefore, for the filtered,
triangular wave shape shown in Figure 4, a better value of Vdc would be given by

𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑚 +𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑚 − = 6
2 2
or equivalently,
𝑉𝑚 1 1
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑚 − = 𝑉𝑚 (1 − ) = 𝑉𝑟 (𝑓𝑝 𝑅𝐿 𝐶 − 2) 7
2𝑓𝑝 𝑅𝐿 𝐶 2𝑓𝑝 𝑅𝐿 𝐶

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PROCEDURE:

PART-A: Unfiltered Half-wave Rectifier

1N4001
H D H-2
H-1 VS
RL Ch2
Ch1 FG 1K
L-1 L 10 VPP L-2
60 Hz

Figure 16: Unfiltered Half-wave Rectifier

1- Construct the circuit shown in Figure 16 by using 1N4007 Si diode.

2- Switch ON the Oscilloscope.
3- Switch ON the Function Generator and set the source voltage (VS) to 10Vp-p, 60Hz,
sinusoidal.
4- Use the Oscilloscope to measure and record VL from Ch2. Sketch the Oscilloscope
screen on the respective grid.
5- Reverse the diode according to Figure 6 and repeat step 4.
6- What is the output Frequency of the rectifier signal.

PART-B: Filtered Half-wave Rectifier

Figure 17: Filtered Half-wave Rectifier.

1- Construct the circuit shown in Figure 17.

2- Use the value of Capacitor C and Load resistor RL according to Table 4. (Be sure
to observe the capacitor polarity).
3- Use the Oscilloscope to measure the Ripple Voltage Vr from Ch2, use DMM to
measure the Average Voltage ( Vavg ). Calculate Ripple Factor ( RF) and sketch
the Oscilloscope screen on the respective grids in Table 1.
4- Repeat the steps 2 to 3.
5- Switch OFF the Function Generator

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Table 1:
VS & VL waveforms Vr-PP (V) Vavg (V) RF% VS & VL waveforms

 RL = 1 kΩ. C = 1 µF.

RL = 10 kΩ. C = 1 µF. 

R L = 10 kΩ. C = 2.2 µF.

RL = 100 kΩ. C = 2.2 µF. 

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PART-C: Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

S3 S1
Vs C RL
S2 S4

Figure 7: Full-wave Bridge Rectifier.

1- Construct the circuit shown in Figure 7 by using the Bridge rectifier. (Be sure to observe
the capacitor polarity).
2- Switch ON the Function Generator and set the source voltage (VS) to 10Vp-p, 100Hz,
sinusoidal.
3- Use the Oscilloscope to measure and record the Vr from CH2 only while CH1 is
disconnected ( Why? ). Sketch the Oscilloscope screen on the respective grids in Table 2.
4- Replace the components of RL and C according to Table 2.
5- Repeat the steps 3 to 4.
6- What is the output Frequency of the rectifier signal.

Table 2:

VL waveform Vr-PP (V) Vavg (V) RF% VL waveform

 RL = 1 kΩ. without capacitor

RL = 1 kΩ. C = 2.2 µF. 

 RL = 10 kΩ. C = 2.2 µF.

RL = 100 kΩ. C = 2.2 µF. 

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Week 7:
Experiment 5 : Clipper And Clamper Circuits

OBJECTIVES:

 The purpose of this experiment is to study the use of diodes in wave-shaping

(clipper) circuits and in level-shifting (clamper) circuits.
Test Standard : IEEE 503-1978

PRE-LAB:

The circuits to be tested and simulated are several clipper circuits and a clamper
circuit. The clippers use a diode, resistor, and voltage source in different orientations
in a circuit. You should be familiar with the basic operation of clipper and clamper
circuits as discussed in the lecture. You should be able to produce the output wave
shapes for the circuits below. You have to simulate the circuits shown below in the
Figures.

You will need to compare your measured circuits with the simulated circuits.

THEORY:

It is frequently necessary to modify the shape of various waveforms for use in

instrumentation, controls, computation, and communications. Wave shaping is often
achieved by relatively simple combinations of diodes, resistors, and voltage sources.
Such circuits are called clippers, limiters, amplitude selectors, or slicers. Clipper circuits
are primarily used to prevent a waveform from exceeding a particular limit, either
positive or negative. For example, one may need to limit a power supply’s output
voltage so it does not exceed +5 V. The most widely used wave shaping circuit is the
rectifier, which you have previously studied.

Diode Clampers add or shift a dc level to an ac signal, and are sometimes known as dc
restorers. For example, if we have a clock signal that swings between 0V and 5V but
our application requires a clock signal from -5V to 0V, we can provide the proper DC
offset by using a passive Clamper circuit. For the clamping circuit to work properly the
pulse width should be less than the RC time constant () of the circuit, by a factor of 5
approximately. Because of the time constant requirement the voltage across the
capacitor can not change significantly during the pulse width, and after a short
transient period the voltage across the capacitor reaches a steady state offset value.

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The output voltage is simply the input voltage shifted by this steady state offset. Also,
observe that the peak-to-peak output voltage is equal to the peak-to-peak input
voltage. Because the voltage across the capacitor can not change instantaneously and
the full change of voltage on the input side of the capacitor will likewise be seen on
the output side of the capacitor.

PROCEDURE:

PART-A Diode Clipper circuits

A-1 Positive Clipper

1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1.a by using 1N4007 Si diode.

2. Switch ON the Oscilloscope.
3. Switch ON the Function Generator and set the voltage (VS) to 8Vp-p, 100Hz, sinusoidal.
4. Use the Oscilloscope to measure and record VS from CH1 and VO from CH2. Sketch the
Oscilloscope screen. (Note: set the input coupling switch of the Oscilloscope to the DC
coupling mode).
5. Switch OFF the Function Generator, and insert the DC power supply as shown in Figure
1.b.
6. Switch ON the DC power supply and the Function Generator, and set the DC voltage to
2V. Then repeat step 4.
7. When finished, switch OFF the DC power supply and the Function Generator.

Figure 1.a Figure 1.b

8. If you want to draw the resistor voltage waveform (Rectified Signal):

a) What are the changes you had to do in the circuit shown in Figure 1.a?
b) Draw the circuit again and show the locations of the Oscilloscope channels terminals.
Explain.
c) Sketch the output waveform in this case.

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A-2 Negative Clipper

1- Construct the circuit shown in Figure 2.a by reversing the diode of the previous circuit.
2- Use the Oscilloscope to measure and record VS from CH1 and VO from CH2. Sketch the
Oscilloscope screen on the respective grids in Table 2. (Note: set the input coupling switch
of the Oscilloscope to the DC coupling mode).
3- Switch OFF the Function Generator, and insert the DC power supply as shown in Figure 2.b.

Figure 2.a Figure 2.b

4- Switch ON the DC power supply and the Function Generator, and set the DC voltage to 2V.
Then repeat step 2.
5- When finished, switch OFF the DC power supply and the Function Generator.
6- Explain the effects of using a diode that is not ideal.

PART-B Diode Clamper circuits

B1- Positive Clamper

1- Construct the circuit shown in Figure 3.

2- Use the Oscilloscope to measure and record VS from CH1 and VO from CH2. Sketch the
Oscilloscope screen. (Note: set the input coupling switch of the Oscilloscope to the DC
coupling mode).
3- When finished, switch OFF the Function Generator.

Figure 3

4- What happen when using clamping circuit to drive low load impedance? Does the circuit
still work as clamper? Explain.

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B-2 Negative Clamper

1- Construct the circuit shown in Figure 4.

2- Use the Oscilloscope to measure and record VS from CH1 and VO from CH2. Sketch the
Oscilloscope screen.
3- When finished, switch OFF the instruments.

Figure 4

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Week 8 and Week 9:

Experiment 6: Bipolar Junction Transistor Characteristics

OBJECTIVES:

 To investigate the DC behavior of BJT.

 To understand the transistor DC biasing circuit.
 To identify the characteristics of a BJT transistors in different regions of
operations.
Test Standard : IEEE C62.42
PRE-LAB:
 By using the data sheet of the BC140 transistor, look up to the following:

o Pin out configuration package (Bottom View)

o Minimum hFE ( ) __________ .
o Maximum hFE ( ) __________ .
o VCE (max) _____________ V .
o IC (max) _____________ V .
o Total maximum power dissipation ______________________ mW .
o Semiconductor material and the type of transistor ___________________
o The complementary transistor of the BC140 is _____________________

 What is the difference between a BC140 BJT and its complementary transistor.
 Build the circuit in the experiment using the MULTISIM simulation package, to
obtain the expected results and graphs.

THEORY:
The Bipolar Transistor essentially consists of a pair of PN-Junction diodes that are
joined back-to-back. They can be found anywhere and used in many electronic circuit
applications such as in sensors, amplifiers, OP-AMPs, oscillators and digital logic gates.
The PC computer contains around a hundred million transistors; or more!

There are all sorts, shapes, and sizes of transistors. In this lab we will only consider one
basic general purpose type, the bipolar junction transistor. This transistor comes in
two constructions called PNP and NPN. For the following experiments you will use the
BD140 Si, NPN transistors.

The DMMs in the lab have a separate function for PN-junction testing. In diode test,
the DMM outputs a constant current of about 1 mA and it measures the voltage
between the two leads without computing the resistance. The measured voltage is
the threshold voltage (V ; i.e. (0.5 - 0.65) V for Si, typically less than the normal drop

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of 0.7 V) of the PN-junction for a 1 mA current, if the PN-junction is forward biased. If

the PN-junction is reverse biased, then the DMM cannot force 1 mA of current to pass
through the PN-junction and the voltage across the PN-junction rises up to the upper
range limit of the DMM, usually about (1.5 to 3.0) Volts. Some meters give an over-
limit (.OL, 1., or 2 to 3V) indication. Using the DMMs diode function is one way to
perform the transistor test, and it gives understandable information about the typical
PN-junction voltages of the BJT.

The operation of the BJT transistors is very strongly affected by heat, which is usually
generated internally due to power dissipation. It is advisable, therefore, to limit
transistor heating in this experiment by starting data runs with maximum current and
voltage, when the transistor is still cool, and then progressively reducing the current.
(Note: Transistor currents change due to heating effects even when supply voltages
are kept constant).

PROCEDURE:

Part-A Current-Voltage Characteristics of a CE BJT

BC140

Figure 1

1- Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1. By using the BC140 BJT. (Make sure the
transistor is connected with the correct polarity).
2- Set the DC power supplies output to zero volt, then switch the supply ON.
3- Adjust the DC power supply of VCC according to Table 1.
4- Adjust the DC power supply VBB to obtain the approximate values according to
Table 1.
5- Use the voltmeter to measure VBE, VCE and IC and calculate IB and, and record the
readings in Table 1.
6- Repeat steps 4 and 5 for all values of VBB.
7- Repeat steps 3 to 6.

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8- When finished, set the VBB and VCC to 0.0V. Then switch OFF the DC power supplies.
9- From your data in Table 1, plot the experimental output collector characteristics (IC
vs. VCE) at VBB= 4 volt. On the same graph:

a) Draw the load line.

b) Determine the Q-point (Operating Point).
c) Determine the 4 regions of operations.

10- From your data in Table 1, plot the input characteristics (IB vs. VBE) at VCC= 15V.
11- From the experimental results calculate the average DC (hFE). For what significant
reasons is the experimental  different from the manufacturer's specified value?
12- From the above , calculate the corresponding alpha .
13- On the basis of the measurements you made, what material is the transistor made
of? How did you arrive at this conclusion?
14- Explain how the Common Emitter (CE) characteristics would be different if  were
increased?
15- Explain how the CE output characteristics (VCE, IC) would be affected by a decrease
in temperature.
16- Draw (IC vs. IB), and (VCE vs. IB) when VCC = 15 volt.

NOTE:
𝐼𝐵 = (𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 )⁄𝑅𝐵

𝛽𝐷𝐶 = 𝐼𝑐 ⁄𝐼𝐵

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Table 3:

VCC VBB(V) 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0

VCE(V)

VCC = 15V
IC(mA)
VBE(V)
IB*(A)
DC*
VCE(V)
Vcc= 12V

IC(mA)
VBE(V)
IB*(A)
DC*
VCE(V)
VCC = 9 V

IC(mA)
VBE(V)
IB*(A)
DC*
VCE(V)
VCC = 6 V

IC(mA)
VBE(V)
IB*(A)
DC*
VCE(V)
VCC = 4 V

IC(mA)
VBE(V)
IB*(A)
DC*
VCE(V)
VCC = 2 V

IC(mA)
VBE(V)
IB*(A)
DC*
VCE(V)
VCC = 0 V

IC(mA)
VBE(V)
IB*(A)
DC*

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Week 10 and Week 11:

Experiment 7 : Transistor AC Amplifiers

(This experiment would be for two weeks so that the

lab can be synchronized with the lecture)
OBJECTIVES:

 To study AC transistor amplifiers

 Design and Conduct a Common-Emitter Amplifier circuit to illustrate how the
voltage gain of a CE bipolar transistor circuit can be changed by using the
Emitter Bypass capacitor.
 Understand the concept “Q-point determines the relationship between the
input wave shape and the output wave shape”.
 The gain of the CE amplifier is a function of the transistor used in the circuit,
the values of the resistors, and the presence of an emitter bypass capacitor.
The CE amplifier with capacitor-bypassed emitter resistance shows good gain
stability to variations in transistor β.
 Test Standard : IEEE C62.42

PRE-LAB:
 You should be familiar with the dc analysis techniques needed to find the Q-point
of a common-emitter circuit.
 All the preparation parts must be computed before the experiments part. Consider
the circuit of Fig. 1.

Let VCC = 12 V, RC = 6.2 kΩ, RE = 1.8 kΩ, and RL = 2.2 kΩ.

 Calculate values of R1, R2 so that ICQ 1 mA and for good bias stability (or RBB =
0.1(+1)RE).
 Compute the Q-point and the maximum unclipped output voltage with CE included
(CE = 100µF).
 Repeat 2 if capacitor CE is removed.
 With RC, RE and RL the same as what used in 1), re-calculate R1 and R2 so that the
operating point is at the center of the AC load line. Re-calculate the maximum
unclipped output with CE included (CE = 100 µF).
 Repeat 4 with the bypass capacitor CE removed.
 Change the value of RC to 3.2 kΩ and re-calculate the DC operating point ICQ. What
do you notice?

You may find the following equations useful:

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𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸(𝑜𝑛) 𝑉𝐶𝐶 × 𝑅2 𝑅1 × 𝑅2

𝐼𝐶𝑄 ≈ , 𝑉𝐵𝐵 = , 𝑅𝐵𝐵 = , 𝑉𝐵𝐸(𝑜𝑛) ≈ 0.7𝑉
𝑅𝐵𝐵 𝑅 1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅𝐸 +
𝛽
 Simulate all the circuits in the experiment sheet using the MULTISIM simulation
package, to verify your results and graphs.

Background Information:
A typical common emitter amplifier stage is shown in the Figure 1. The placement of
the Q-point on the AC load line determines the maximum symmetrical AC component
in the collector voltage and current.

With an arbitrary location of the Q-point on the AC load line, the maximum unclipped
voltage or current will occur first on either the positive or the negative cycles of the AC
waveform, and as the input is increased, the output will eventually be clipped on both
cycles. The maximum unclipped output can be optimized (maximized) placing the Q-
point at the center of the AC load line.

Figure 1: Common Emitter Amplifier

Common-Emitter Amplifier

The Common-Emitter (CE) amplifier is characterized by high voltage and current gains,
Av and Ai, respectively. The amplifier typically has a relatively high input resistance Zi
(1 to 10 k) and is generally used to drive medium to high resistive loads. The circuit
for the common-emitter used in applications where a small voltage signal needs to be
amplified to a large voltage signal. Since the amplifier cannot drive low resistive loads

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RL, usually it is cascaded with a Common-Collector (CC) (some times called, emitter
follower or buffer) circuit that can act as a driver.

Common-Collector (Emitter follower) Amplifier

The common-collector amplifier (emitter-follower), is a unity voltage gain Av and a

high current gain Ai amplifier. The input resistance Zi for this type of amplifiers is
usually (1 to 10 k) which is relatively high. Because the amplifier has unity voltage
gain (Av  1), it is useful as a buffer amplifier providing isolation between two circuits
while providing driving capability for low resistive loads.

Experimental Procedure:

The purpose of the experiment is to verify the theoretical and simulation results. Use
CB = 1 µF, CL = 1 µF, and CE = 100 µF.

NOTE: Make sure capacitors are connected with the correct polarity.

1) Build the circuit in Fig.1 with the values you calculated in part
(1) of the preparation. If necessary, re-adjust R1, R2 so that ICQ 1 mA.
2) Measure the maximum sinusoidal unclipped output. Set the input frequency to 5
kHz.
3) Repeat (2) with CE removed.
4) Replace R1, R2 with the ones found in the pre-lab preparation part (4) and
measure the new
unclipped output.
5) Repeat (4) with CE removed.
6) Change RC to 3.2 kΩ and measure ICQ after the change.

Report:
In your lab report, present experimental data and compare them with your
expected results. Discuss any discrepancies, make comments, and write
conclusions.

Your report will include the following information:

1. Laboratory partner.
2. Date and time data were taken.
3. The pre-laboratory results.
4. The experimental procedures.
5. All calculations or simulation results for each step.
6. All plots or waveforms for each step.
7. Short summary discussing what was observed for each of the steps given in
experiment.
8. What you learned.

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Notes:
1- You have to connect the circuit.
2- You have to change Vs. and record your results.
3- From your data you have to check VBE and VBC that verify the transistor is biased in the
forward-active mode. Why is VCE = 7.5 V a good choice?
4- You have to show all the steps and results. Also you have to write a report.

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Week 12:
Experiment 8: Introduction to MOSFET

OBJECTIVES:

 To investigate the leads of the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors
(MOSFET) by using the DMM and data sheet.
 To investigate the DC behavior and the characteristics of a MOSFET in several
regions of operations.
 To determine the small signal parameter 𝑔𝑚 .
 Test Standard : IEEE C62.42

PRE-LAB:
 By using the data sheet of the BS170 MOSFET, look up to the following:

o Zero-Gate Voltage Drain Current IDSS (min) ____mA. IDSS (max) ___ mA.
o Maximum rated continuous drain current ID (max) ______ mA .
o Gate-source threshold voltage VGS(th) ____ V .
o Static Drain-Source On-Resistance RDS(ON) ______ .
o Total maximum power dissipation PD _____ mW .
 Simulate all the circuits in the experiment handout using the MultiSIM
simulation packages, to verify your results and graphs.
 What is the primary difference between a MOSFET and a BJT ?

THEORY:

The Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is a device used to
amplify or switch electronic signals. The MOSFET includes a channel of n-type or p-
type semiconductor material, and is accordingly called an NMOSFET or a PMOSFET
(also commonly nMOS, pMOS). It is by far the most common transistor in both digital
and analog circuits, though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more
common.

A variety of symbols are used for the MOSFET as shown in Figure 1. Sometimes three
line segments are used for enhancement mode and a solid line for depletion mode.
Another line is drawn parallel to the channel for the gate.

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P-channel

N-channel

MOSFET enh MOSFET enh MOSFET dep

Figure 1: Symbols used for the MOSFET.

Mode of Operation

The operation of a MOSFET can be separated into three different modes, depending
on the voltages at the terminals. For an enhancement mode, n-channel MOSFET, the
three operational modes are:

1-Cutoff mode when VGS < VTN

Where VTN is the threshold voltage of the device. According to the basic threshold
model, the transistor is turned off, and there is no conduction between drain and
source.

2- Triode mode or non saturation mode when VGS > VTN and VDS < ( VGS – VTN )

The transistor is turned on, and a channel has been created which allows current to
flow between the drain and the source. The MOSFET operates like a resistor,
controlled by the gate voltage relative to both the source and drain voltages.

3- Saturation or active mode when VGS > VTN and VDS > ( VGS – VTN )

The drain current is now weakly dependent upon drain voltage, and controlled
primarily by the gate source voltage

The DC behavior of a MOSFET is specified most completely by the output

characteristics, ID vs. VDS, with VGS as a parameter, and the input-output
characteristic, ID vs. VGS.

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MOSFET drain current vs. drain-to-source voltage for several values of (VGS −VTN); the
boundary between linear (Ohmic) and saturation (active) modes is indicated by the
upward curving parabola.

PROCEDURE:

Part-A MOSFET Lead Identifications by using the DMM

1. Use the data sheet to find the pin out of the MOSFET.
2. Check out that the used MOSFET is working properly using DMM, turn on the DMM
and set it to ( ). Plug a black test lead into the Common (−) 4mm banana socket,
and a red test lead into the V (+) 4mm banana socket of the DMM. Connect
the black test lead into the V (+) 4mm banana socket of the DMM.
3. Connect one lead of the DMM to the Drain (D) pin and the other lead of the DMM
to the Gate (G) pin. Check the reading of the DMM. Explain your result.
4. Connect the one lead of the DMM to the Source (S) pin and the other lead of the
DMM to the Gate (G) pin. Check the reading of the DMM. Explain your result.
5. Connect the one lead of the DMM to the Source (S) pin and the other lead of the
DMM to the Drain (D) pin. Check the reading of the DMM. Explain your result.

Current-Voltage Characteristics of a CS MOSFET

PART B: ID versus VGS Characteristic

1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 2 by using the BS170 MOSFET. (Make sure
the transistor is connected with the correct leads as shown in Figure 1).
2. Set the DC power supplies output adjustment potentiometers fully counter clock
wise, then switch ON the supplies.
3. Adjust the DC power supply of VDD = +12 volt.
4. Adjust the VGG power supply to obtain the values according to Table 1.
5. Use the DMM to measure the values of ID, and then record the readings in Table
1.

Table 1:
VGG (V) 0.0 1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2 3
ID (mA)

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Figure 2

6. When finished, set the VGG and VDD to 0.0V. Then switch OFF the DC power
supplies.
7. From the results in Table 1, what is the value of threshold voltage V TN ?
8. From your data in Table 1, plot the experimental output drain characteristics (ID
vs. VGS), and determine VTN on the plot.
9. From the experimental results calculate the average transconductance gm. For
what significant reasons is the experimental gm different from the manufacturer's
specified value?

PART C: ID versus VDS Characteristic

1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 3.

2. Set the DC power supplies output adjustment potentiometers fully counter clock
wise, then switch ON the supplies.
3. Adjust the DC power supply of VDD according to Table 2.
4. Adjust the VGG power supply to obtain the values according to Table 2.
5. Use the DMM to measure the values of VDS and ID, and then record the readings
in Table 2.
6. Repeat steps 3 and 5 for all values of VGG and VDD.
7. When finished, set the VGG and VDD to 0.0V. Then switch OFF the DC power
supplies.

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Figure 3

Table 2:

VDD VGG(V) 4 3
ID (mA)
12V
VDS (V)
ID (mA)
9V
VDS (V)
ID (mA)
6V
VDS (V)
ID (mA)
3V
VDS (V)
ID (mA)
0V
VDS (V)

8. From your data in Table 2, plot the experimental output drain characteristics (ID
vs. VDS) when VGG = 4 volt, draw the load line, determine the regions of operations,
and determine the Q-point (operating point).
9. Explain qualitatively how the CS input characteristics would be affected by a
decrease and increase in temperature.

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Week 13 and Week 14:

Experiment 9: MOSFET Common-Source Amplifier

OBJECTIVES:

 To investigate the MOSFET applications as a simple common-source and

common-drain AC amplifiers.
 Test Standard : IEEE C62.42

PRE-LAB:
 You should be familiar with the dc analysis techniques needed to find the Q-
point of a common-source circuit.
 Simulate all the circuits in the experiment sheet using the MULTISIM
simulation package, to verify your results and graphs.

THEORY:

MOSFET AC Amplifier Device:

Two of the most popular configurations of small-signal MOSFET amplifiers are the
Common Source (CS) and Common Drain (CD) configurations.

The Common Source (CS) and Common Drain (CD) amplifiers, like all MOSFET
amplifiers, have the characteristic of high input impedance. The value of the input
impedance for both amplifiers is basically limited only by the biasing resistors RG1 and
RG2. Values of RG1 and RG2 are usually chosen as high as possible to keep the input
impedance high. High input impedance is desirable to keep the amplifier from loading
the signal source. One popular biasing scheme for the CS and CD configurations
consists of the voltage divider RG1 and RG2. This voltage divider supplies the MOSFET
gate with a constant DC voltage. This is very similar to the BJT biasing arrangement.
The main difference with the BJT biasing scheme is that ideally no current flows from
the voltage divider into the MOSFET.

The CS and CD MOSFET amplifiers can be compared to the CE and CC BJT amplifiers
respectively. Like the CE amplifier, the CS amplifier has negative voltage gain and
output impedance approximately equal to the drain resistor (collector resistor for the
CE amplifier). The CD amplifier is comparable to the CC amplifier with the
characteristics of high input impedance, low output impedance, and less than unity
voltage gain.

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PROCEDURE:

PART-A Common-Source Amplifier with Source Resistor (RS)

1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1, Use VDD = +12V. Do not connect the
Oscilloscope and the Function Generator at this stage.
2. Set the correct setting of the DMM to measure amplifier’s Q-point. Do not apply
any Vs from Function Generator, just apply VDD then measure VDSQ, IDQ and VGSQ
quiescent DC values. Record the measured values in Table 1.
3. Connect the Function Generator and the Oscilloscope to the circuit as shown in
Figure 1.

Table 1:
VDD (V) VDSQ (V) VGSQ (V) IDQ (mA)
12

Figure 1

4. Switch ON the Oscilloscope and the Function Generator and set the source voltage
Vs to sinusoidal signal, 100mVPP, 5kHz. (Note: set the input coupling switch of the
Oscilloscope to the AC coupling mode).
5. Using the Oscilloscope, measure the small-signal voltage gain, Av = Vo / Vs. Sketch
the Oscilloscope screens on the respective grid.
6. When finished, set the source voltage Vs to 100mVPP.
7. Note the phase shift between output and input voltages. Is the amplifier inverting
or non-inverting?

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PART-B Common-Source Amplifier without Source Resistor (RS)

1. Starting again with the same circuit shown in Figure 1, add 10μF in parallel with
the Source resistance (RS).
2. Connect channel 2 of the Oscilloscope to the Drain (D).
3. Using the Oscilloscope, measure the small-signal voltage gain, Av = Vo / Vs. Sketch
the Oscilloscope screens on the respective grid.
4. What happen to the Voltage Gain when adding the capacitor parallel to RS? Explain
the effect of RS.

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