Chapter 4.

Cognitive Development
OBJECTIVES

By the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Analyze Piagetian tasks in the classroom and identify at what stages in the cognitive development
theory they occur;

2. Examine the purpose of scaffolding in the teaching-learning process;

3. Apply Kolb’s theory in teaching Mathematics and Social Studies;

4. Discuss how intelligence and learning styles affect students’ learning experiences and performance;
and

5. Present the positive and negative characteristics of gifted children and their implications to the
teaching-learning process.

LESSON PROPER

4.1 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

According to Piaget, people are born with a tendency to organize their thinking processes into
psychological structures. These structures are called schemata or building blocks of thinking. As person’s
thinking processes become more organized and new schemata develop, behavior also becomes more
sophisticated and better suited to the environment. Adaptation is the adjustment to the environment.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema

Paiget used the term to refer to the cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and
organize their environment. It is an individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a thing or
experience. It is like the mind has a filing cabinet and each drawer has folders that contain files of
things he has had an experience with. For instance, if a child sees a dog for the first time, he creates his
own schema of what a dog is. It has four legs and a tail. It’s fury. The child then puts this description of
a dog on file in his mind. When he sees another similar dog, he pulls out the file (his schema of a dog)
in his mind, looks at the animal, and says, “four legs, tail, barks, furry… That’s a dog!”

Assimilation (pre-existing schema)

This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive structure
or schema. If the child sees another dog, this time a little smaller one, he would make sense of what he
is seeing by adding this new information (a different-looking dog) into his schema of a dog.
Accommodation (changing schema)

This is the process of creating a new schema. If the same child now sees another animal that looks a
little bit like a dog but somehow different, he might try to fit into his schema of a dog, and say, “Look
mommy, what a funny looking dog. Its bark is funny too!” Then the mommy explains, “That’s not a
funny looking dog. That’s a goat!” With mommy’s further descriptions, the child will now create a new
schema, that of a goat. He now needs a new file in his filing cabinet.

Equilibration (mental balance)

Piaget believed that people have natural need to understand how the world works and to find order,
structure, and predictability in their life. Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation
and accommodation. When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive
structures, we experience cognitive disequilibration. This means there is a discrepancy between what
is perceived and what is understood. We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to
establish equilibrium once more.

Stages Age Explanation

Stage 1. Birth to 2 years This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in
Sensorimotor Stage old grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more organized in
his movement and activity. The term sensorimotor focuses
on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement
through which the infant comes to learn about himself and
the world. In working with children in the sensorimotor
stage, teachers should aim to provide a rich and stimulating
environment with appropriate objects to play with.

Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to

know that an object still exists even when out of sight. This
ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.

Lack of object permanence. The child assumes that

objects no longer exist if they are not visible.
Stage 2. Pre- 2 to 7 years old This roughly corresponds to the preschool years.
Operational Stage Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage,
the child can now make mental representations and is able
to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of
symbols.

Symbolic function. This is the ability to represent objects

and events. A symbol is a thing that represents something
else. A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word comes to
be understood as representing a real object like a real MRT
train.

Egocentrism. This is the tendency of a child to only see his

point of view and to assume that everyone also has his same
point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of
others.
 Centration. This refers to the tendency of the child to only
focus on the aspect of a thing or event and exclude other
aspects.

Irreversibility. Pre-operation children still have the

inability to reverse their thinking. They can understand that
2 + 3 is 5, but cannot understand that 5 - 3 is 2.

Animism. This is the tendency of children attribute human

like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects.

Transductive reasoning. This refers to the child’s type of

reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive. Reasoning
appears to be from particular to particular, that is, if A
causes B, then B causes A.
Stage 3. Concrete- 7 to 11 years old This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to
Operational Stage think logically but only in terms of concrete objects.

Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to

perceive the different features of objects and situations. No
longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or
dimension. This allows the child to be more logical when
dealing with concrete objects and situations.

Reversibility. During this stage, the child can now follow

that certain operation can be done in reverse.

Conservation. This is the ability to know that certain

properties of objects like number, mass, volume, or area do
not change even if there is a change in appearance.

Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or arrange

things in a series base on one dimension such as weight,
volume or size.
Stage 4. Formal 11+ years At this stage, thinking becomes more logical. Children can
Operational Stage (Adolescence to now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize. In other
adulthood) words, this stage is for higher-order thinking skills.

Hypothetical reasoning. This is the ability to come up with

different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and
weight data in order to make a final decision or judgment.
This can be done in the absence of concrete objects. The
individuals can now deal with “What if” questions.

Analogical reasoning. This is the ability to perceive the

relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to
narrow down possible answers in another similar situation
or problem.

Deductive reasoning. This is the ability to think logically

by applying a general rule to a particular instance or
 situation.
From Piaget’s findings and comprehensive theory, we can
derive the following principles:

1. Children will provide different explanations of

reality at different stages of cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing
activities or situations that engage learners and
require adaptation.
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the
appropriate level of motor or mental operations for a
child of a given age; avoid asking students to
perform tasks that are beyond their current cognitive
capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students
and present challenges.

NOTE TO SELF

How to teach the pre-operational child

 Use concrete props and visual aids whenever possible.

 Help students develop their ability to see the world from someone else’s point of view.
 Make instructions relatively short—not too many steps at once. Use actions as well as words.
 Give children a great deal of hands-on practice with the skills that serve as building blocks for
more complex skills.
 Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for concept learning and
language.

How to teach the concrete-operational child

 Continue to use concrete props and visual aids, especially when dealing with sophisticated
material.
 Use familiar examples to explain more complex ideas.
 Give opportunities to classify and group objects and ideas on increasingly complex levels.
 Give students a chance to manipulate and test objects.
 Make sure presentations and readings are brief and well organized.
 Present problems that require logical, analytical thinking.

How to teach the formal operational child

 Continue to use concrete-operational teaching strategies.

 Give students the opportunity to explore many hypothetical questions.
 Give students opportunities to solve problems and reason scientifically.
 Teach broad concepts using materials and ideas relevant to student lives.
4.2 Vygotsky’s Social Interaction Theory

The key term of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive
development. He believed that individual development could not be understood without looking into the
social and cultural context within which development happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for the
appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task.

Vygotsky believed that believed that social interaction does more than transmit ideas. In his view, people
provide guidance and support for children as they attempt new and more complicated tasks.

Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in between the 1920’s and 30’s but they
had clear differences in their views about cognitive development.

Piaget Vygotsky
 More individual in focus  More social in focus
 Believed that there are universal stages of  Did not propose stages but emphasized on
cognitive development cultural factors in cognitive development
 Did not give much emphasis on language  Stressed the role of language in cognitive
development

Concepts Explanation
Social Interaction Compared to Piaget, Vygotsky gave more weight on the social interactions
that contributed to the cognitive development of individuals. For him, the
social environment or the community takes on a major role in one’s
development.

Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in

social activities, making the social context of learning crucial. Parents,
teachers and other adults in the learners’ environment all contribute to the
process. They explain, model, assist, give directions and provide feedback to
the learner. Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich the
learning experience.
Cultural Factors Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the cognitive
development of children. He looked into the wide range of experiences that a
culture would give to a child. For instance, one culture’s view about
education, how children are trained early in life all can contribute to the
cognitive development of the child.
Language Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others
already have. Learners can use language to know and understand the world
and solve problems. Language serves as a social function but it also has an
important individual function. It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his
own thinking. Children talk to themselves. For Vygotsky, this “talking-to-
oneself” is an indication of the thinking that goes on in the mind of the child.
This will eventually lead to private speech. Private speech is a form of self-
talk that guides the child’s thinking and action.
Zone of Proximal When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be immediately
Development (ZPD) proficient at it. So, alone she may perform at a certain level of competency.
We refer to this as the zone of proximal development. However, with the
 guidance of a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO), a competent adult or a
more advanced peers, the child can perform at a higher level of competency.
The difference between what the child can accomplish alone and what she
can accomplish with the guidance of another is what Vygotsky referred to as
ZPD. The zone represents a learning opportunity where a knowledgeable
adult such as a teacher or parent or a more advanced peer can assist the
child’s development.

The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot
accomplish independently is called scaffolding. Scaffolding is not about
doing the task for the child while he watches. It is not about doing shortcuts
for the child. Scaffolding should involve the judicious assistance given by the
adult or peer so that the child can move from the zone of actual to the zone of
proximal development.

The instructor should scaffold in such a way that the gap is bridged between
the learner’s current skill levels and the desired skill level. As learners
become more proficient, able to complete tasks on their own that they could
initially do without assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn. This is called
scaffold and fade-away technique.

When the MKO scaffolds, the process moves in four levels:

1. I do, you watch.

2. I do, you help.
3. You do, I help.
4. You do, I watch.

Learner will depend in the skill of the MKO, and the learners’ readiness and
ability to learn and the difficulty of the skill being learned.

NOTE TO SELF

Implications of Piaget’s Theory for Teachers

Piaget was more interested in understanding children’s thinking than in guiding teachers. He did
express some general ideas about educational philosophy, however. He believed that the main goal of
education should be to help children learn how to learn, and that education should “form not furnish”
the minds of students. Piaget has taught us that we can learn a great deal about how children think by
listening carefully and by paying close attention to their ways of solving problems. If we understand
children’s thinking, we will be better able to match teaching methods to children’s current knowledge
and abilities; in other words, we will be better able to differentiate instruction

Even though Piaget did not design programs of education based on his ideas, his influence on current
educational practice is huge (Hindi & Perry, 2007). For example, the National Association for the
Education of Young Children has guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) that
incorporate Piaget’s findings (Bredekamp, 2011; Bredekamp & Copple, 1997).

1. Understanding and Building on Students’ Thinking

The students in any class will vary greatly in both their level of cognitive development and their
academic knowledge. As a teacher, how can you determine whether students are having trouble
because they lack the necessary thinking abilities or because they simply have not learned the basic
facts? To do this, Case (1985) suggests you observe your students carefully as they try to solve the
problems you have presented.
What kind of logic do they use? Do they focus on only one aspect of the situation? Are they fooled by
appearances? Do they suggest solutions systematically or by guessing and forgetting what they have
already tried? Ask your students how they tried to solve the problem. Listen to their strategies. What
kind of thinking is behind repeated mistakes or problems? Students are the best sources of information
about their own thinking (Confrey, 1990).

2. Activity and Constructing Knowledge

Piaget’s fundamental insight was that individuals construct their own understanding; learning is a
constructive process. At every level of cognitive development, you will also want to see that students
are actively engaged in the learning process.

All students need to interact with teachers and peers in order to test their thinking, to be challenged, to
receive feedback, and to watch how others work out problems. Disequilibrium is often set in motion
quite naturally when the teacher or another student suggests a new way of thinking about something.
As a general rule, students should act on, manipulate, observe, and then talk and/or write about (to the
teacher and each other) what they have experienced. Concrete experiences provide the raw materials
for thinking. Communicating with others makes students use, test, and sometimes change their thinking
strategies.

Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory for Teachers

Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that the main goal of education was the development of higher mental
functions, not simply filling students’ memories with facts. So Vygotsky probably would oppose
educational curricula that are an inch deep and a mile wide or seem like “trivial pursuit.”

There are at least three ways that higher mental functions can be developed through cultural tools and
passed from one individual to another: imitative learning (one person tries to imitate the other),
instructed learning (learners internalize the instructions of the teacher and use these instructions to self-
regulate), and collaborative learning (a group of peers strives to understand each other and learning
occurs in the process) (Tomasello, Kruger, & Ratner, 1993). Vygotsky was most concerned with the
second type, instructed learning through direct teaching or by structuring experiences that encourage
another’s learning, but his theory supports learning through imitation or collaboration as well. Thus,
Vygotsky’s ideas are relevant for educators who teach directly, intentionally use modeling to teach, or
create collaborative learning environments (Das, 1995; Wink & Putney, 2002). That pretty much
includes all of us.

1. The Role of Adults and Peers

Vygotsky believed the child is not alone in the world “discovering” the cognitive operations of
conservation or classification. This discovery is assisted or mediated by family members, teachers,
peers, and even software tools (Puntambekar & Hubscher, 2005). Most of this guidance is
communicated through language, at least in Western cultures. In some cultures, observing a skilled
performance, not talking about it, guides the child’s learning (Rogoff, 1990).

2. Assisted Learning
 Vygotsky’s theory suggests that teachers need to do more than just arrange the environment so that
students can discover on their own. Children cannot and should not be expected to reinvent or
rediscover knowledge already available in their cultures. Rather, they should be guided and assisted in
their learning (Karpov & Haywood, 1998).

Assisted learning, or guided participation, requires first learning from the student what is needed; then
giving information, prompts, reminders, and encouragement at the right time and in the right amounts;
and gradually allowing the students to do more and more on their own.

3. Strategies to Provide Scaffolding

 Model the thought process for the students: Think out loud as you solve the problem or outline
an essay, for example.
 Provide organizers or starters such as who, what, why, how, what next?
 Do part of the problem.
 Give hints and cues.
 Encourage students to set short-term goals and take small steps.
 Connect new learning to students’ interests or prior learning.
 Use graphic organizers: timelines, charts, tables, categories, checklists, and graphs.
 Simplify the task, clarify the purpose, and give clear directions.
 Teach key vocabulary and provide examples.

4. Ideas in Teaching

 Children perform more challenging tasks when assisted by more advanced individuals.
 Tailor scaffolding to the needs of the students.
 Make sure students have access to powerful tools that support thinking.
 Build on students’ cultural funds of knowledge.
 Capitalize on dialogue and group.
 Learning mostly takes place in ZPD not in working independently.
 Complex mental processes begin as social processes that children gradually internalize and use
independently.

4.3 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory

Kolb’s experiential learning theory is concerned with the learner’s internal cognitive processes. Learning
involves the acquisition of abstract concepts that can be applied flexibly in a range of situations. In Kolb’s
theory, the impetus for the development of new concepts is provided by new experiences.

The Experiential Learning Cycle

1. Concrete Experience. This refers to a new experience of situation or a reinterepretation of existing

experience encountered by learners.

2. Reflective Observation of the new experience. This refers to any inconsistencies between experience
and understanding.
3. Abstract Conceptualization. Reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing
abstract concept.

4. Active Experimentation. The learner applies them to the world around them to see what results.

4.4 Theories of Intelligence and Learning Styles

The idea that people vary in what we call intelligence has been with us for a long time. Plato discussed
similar variations more than 2,000 years ago. Most early theories about the nature of intelligence involved
one or more of the following three themes: (1) the capacity to learn; (2) the total knowledge a person has
acquired; and (3) the ability to adapt successfully to new situations and to the environment in general. A
recent definition captures these elements and stresses higher-order thinking: intelligence is “the ability to
reason deductively or inductively, think abstractly, use analogies, synthesize information, and apply it to
new domains” (Kanazawa, 2010, p. 281).

Intelligence: One ability or many?

There are moderate-to-high correlations among scores on all mental tests. In fact, this consistent finding
“is arguably both the best established and the most striking phenomenon in the psychological study of
intelligence” (van der Mass et al., 2006, p. 855). Because of these persistent intercorrelations, some
psychologists believe intelligence is a basic ability that affects performance on all cognitively oriented
tasks, from solving mathematical problems to analyzing poetry to taking history essay examinations.
What could explain these results? Charles Spearman (1927) suggested that individuals use mental energy,
which he called g, to perform any mental test. Spearman added that each test also requires some specific
abilities as well—so ability to do any mental task is based on g + task-specific abilities. Today,
psychologists generally agree that we can mathematically compute a common factor (g) across cognitive
tests, but this computed factor is simply an indication or measure of general intelligence; it is not general
intelligence itself (Kanazawa, 2010). Just having an overall mathematical indicator of intelligence isn’t
much help in understanding specific human abilities, so the notion of g does not have much explanatory
power; it doesn’t tell us what intelligence is or where it comes from (Blair, 2006).

Raymond Cattell and John Horn’s theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence is more helpful in
providing explanations (Cattell, 1963; Horn, 1998; Kanazawa, 2010). Fluid intelligence is mental
efficiency and the reasoning ability included in Kanazawa’s definition of intelligence just quoted
(Kanazawa, 2010). The neurophysiological underpinnings of fluid intelligence may be related to changes
in brain volume, myelinization (coating of neural fibers that makes processing faster), the density of
dopamine receptors, or processing abilities in the prefrontal lobe of the brain such as selective attention
and especially working memory (Waterhouse, 2006), an aspect of brain functioning. This aspect of
intelligence increases until late adolescence (about age 22) because it is grounded in brain development,
and then declines gradually with age. Fluid intelligence is sensitive to injuries and diseases.

In contrast, crystallized intelligence is the ability to apply the problem-solving methods appropriate in
your cultural context—the “application to new domains” part of Kanazawa’s definition of intelligence.
Crystallized intelligence can increase throughout the life span because it includes learned skills and
knowledge such as reading, facts, and how to hail a cab, make a quilt, or design a unit on symbolism in
poetry. By investing fluid intelligence in solving problems, we develop our crystallized intelligence, but
many tasks in life such as mathematical reasoning draw on both fluid and crystallized intelligence
working together (Ferrer & McArdle, 2004; Finkel, Reynolds, McArdle, Gatz, & Pedersen, 2003; Hunt,
2000).

The most widely accepted psychometric view today is that intelligence, like self- concept, has many
facets and is a hierarchy of abilities, with general ability at the top and more specific abilities at lower
levels of the hierarchy (Schalke et al., 2013; Tucker-Drob, 2009). John Carroll (1997) identifies one
general ability, a few broad abilities (e.g., fluid and crystallized abilities, learning and memory, visual and
auditory perception, and processing speed), and at least 70 specific abilities such as language
development, memory span, and simple reaction time. General ability may be related to the maturation
and functioning of the frontal lobe of the brain, while specific abilities may be connected to other parts of
the brain (Byrnes & Fox, 1998).

Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner

While Howard Gardner was a developmental psychologist doing research with two very different groups
—students who are artistically gifted at Harvard’s Project Zero and patients with brain injuries at
Boston’s Veterans Administration (VA) Medical Center—he started thinking about a new theory of
intelligence. Time and time again at the VA Medical Center, Gardner observed braininjured patients who
were lost spatially but could do all kinds of verbal tasks, and other patients who had the opposite set of
abilities and problems. He also worked with young children at Project Zero who could draw expertly but
not craft a good sentence and vice versa. Gardner concluded that there are several separate mental
abilities and developed his now-famous theory of multiple intelligences (MI) that describes at least eight
separate intelligences (1983, 2003, 2009, 2011).
Critics of MI Theory

Gardner’s MI theory has not received wide acceptance in the scientific community, even though many
educators embrace it. Lynn Waterhouse (2006) concluded that no published studies validate MI theory.
The eight intelligences are not independent; there are correlations among the abilities. In fact, logical-
mathematical and spatial intelligences are highly correlated (Sattler, 2008). So, these “separate abilities”
may not be so separate after all. Evidence linking musical and spatial abilities has prompted Gardner to
consider that there may be connections among the intelligences (Gardner, 1998). In addition, some critics
suggest that several intelligences are really talents (bodily-kinesthetic skill, musical ability) or personality
traits (interpersonal ability). Other “intelligences” are not new at all. Many researchers have identified
verbal and spatial abilities as elements of intelligence. Daniel Willingham (2004) has been even more
blunt. “In the end, Gardner’s theory is not that helpful. For scientists the theory is almost certainly
incorrect. For educators, the daring applications forwarded by others in Gardner’s name (and of which he
disapproves) are unlikely to help students” (p. 24). So there is not yet strong research evidence that
adopting an MI approach will enhance learning. In one of the few carefully designed evaluations,
Callahan, Tomlinson, and Plucker (1997) found no significant gains in either achievement or self-concept
for students who participated in START, an MI approach to identifying and promoting talent in students
who were at risk of failing.

Gardner Responds

In response to these criticisms, defenders of MI theory say that the critics have a very narrow view of
intelligence and research about intelligence. Gardner based his theory on a set of criteria that integrated a
wide range of research in psychology. Gardner’s criteria for defining a specific intelligence are:

 Potential [of the intelligence] isolation by brain damage

 The existence of prodigies and other exceptional individuals who are experts in some areas and
 average or below in others
 An identifiable core operation or set of operations
 A distinctive developmental trajectory, culminating in expert performances
 An evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility
 Support from experimental psychological tasks
 Evidence from psychometric findings
 Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system (Gardner, 2009, p. 5)

Gardner’s supporters believe newer research methods that look at dynamic models and study intelligence
in cultural contexts will support MI theory (J.-Q. Chen, 2004; Gardner & Moran, 2006). In addition,
Gardner (2003, 2009) also has responded to critics by identifying a number of myths, misconceptions,
and misuses related to MI theory and schooling. For example, he stresses that an intelligence is not the
same as a sensory system; there is no “auditory intelligence” or “visual intelligence.” Intelligences are not
the same as learning styles. (Gardner doesn’t believe that people actually have consistent learning styles.)
Another misconception is that MI theory disproves the idea of general intelligence. Gardner does not
deny the existence of a general ability, but he does question how useful general intelligence is as an
explanation for human achievements. Stay tuned for more developments.

NOTE TO SELF

Important lessons for teachers

After years of work on his MI theory, Gardner believes two lessons are most important for teachers
(2009). First, teachers should take the individual differences among students seriously and differentiate
their instruction to connect with each student. Much of this book will help you do just that. Second, any
discipline, skill, or concept should be taught in several appropriate ways (but not eight ways every
time). Anything worth knowing has different representations and multiple connections to various ways
of thinking. And understandings can be expressed in words, images, movements, tables, charts,
numbers, equations, poetry, and on and on. These two big ideas should guide educational interventions,
but Gardner stresses that his theory itself is not an educational intervention. The MI theory expands our
thinking about abilities and avenues for teaching, but learning is still hard work, even if there are
multiple paths to knowledge.
 IQ score

Most intelligence tests are designed so that they have certain statistical characteristics. For example, the
average score is 100; 50% of the people from the general population who take the tests will score 100
or below, and 50% will score above 100. About 68% of the general population will earn IQ scores
between 85 and 115. Only about 16% will receive scores below 85, and only 16% will score above
115. Note, however, that these figures hold true for White, native-born Americans whose first language
is Standard English. Whether IQ tests should even be used with ethnic minority-group students is hotly
debated.

The Flynn Effect

Ever since IQ tests were introduced in the early 1900s, scores in 20 different industrialized countries
and in some more traditional cultures have been rising. In fact, in a decade, the average score goes up
about 3 points on standardized IQ tests—maybe you really are smarter than your parents! At least you
probably would score about 10 points higher on an IQ test. This is called the Flynn effect after James
Flynn, a political scientist who documented the phenomenon (Daley, Whaley, Sigman, Espinosa, &
Neumann, 2003; Folger, 2012). So are we getting smarter? James Flynn (2012) answers this way:

If you mean “Do our brains have more potential at conception than those of our
ancestors?” then we are not. If you mean “Are we developing mental abilities that allow
us to better deal with the complexity of the modern world, including problems of
economic development?” then we are. (p. 1)

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg’s theory comprises three parts of subtheories (Cown & Roop, 1992). Each subtheory addresses
a different kind of (or perhaps a different aspect of) intelligence.

1. Experiential Intelligence. This is the ability to formulate new ideas and combine unrelated facts. A
test measures experiential intelligence if it assesses a person’s ability to deal with novel tasks in an
automatic manner. Such a task might involve remembering all words containing the letter T in a
paragraph.

2. Contextual Intelligence. It is the ability to adapt to a changing environment and the ability to shape
one’s world to optimize opportunities. Contextual subtheory deals with an individual’s ability to use
intelligence to prepare for problem solving in specific situations. In order to measure this type of
intelligence it would be necessary to test the quality of one’s existence within his or her environment.

3. Componential Intelligence. This is the ability to think abstractly and process information. A person’s
ability to determine what tasks need to be done. Tasks that can be used to measure the elements of the
componential subtheory are analogies, vocabulary and syllogisms.
Emotional Intelligence

The phrase “emotional intelligence” shortened to EQ was coined by Yale psychologist Peter Salovey and
the University of New Hampshire’s Jon Mayer to describe qualities such as understanding one’s own
feelings of others and “the regulation of emotion in a way that enhances living” (Gibbs, 1999). It was,
however, Daniel Goleman, a Harvard psychology Ph.D. and a New York Times science writer who made
the scientific theory understandable to lay readers in his book Emotional Intelligence.

Emotional intelligence is the outcome of a combination of inborn temperament, childhood experiences,

and later learning. It is not uniform. Even people with high emotional intelligence overall may be strong
in some specific abilities and relatively weaker in others. Most of these skills can be improved through
learning and practice.

Studies have shown that people grow in emotional intelligence to maturity through the years as they grew
more adept at handling their own emotions and impulses, at motivating themselves and housing their
empathy and social adroitness. Emotional intelligence determines our potential for learning the practical
skills that are based on its five elements or hallmarks (Goleman, 1998):

a. Self-awareness. You know what you are feeling as you have the emotion, and you are in touch
even with subtle or fleeting feelings about things. You can use your feelings and insights about
them to help make life decisions with confidence—from which dress to buy, what color of car to
choose, or whom to marry.

b. Self-motivation. You are not carried away by impulse, but can delay gratification in the pursuit
of your goals. You can use anxiety about a challenge like the rest or talk; you have to give in
order to prepare well. You don’t give up in the face of setbacks or disappointments, but maintain
hope and optimism.

c. Self-regulation. When you are in a bad mood, depressed or anxious, you don’t ruminate about it,
but are able to find a way to soothe or contain it, not letting it keep you from doing things you
need to do. You rarely, if ever, make an emotional outburst that you later regret. When you are
angry, you can express your displeasure in an effective way not just venting rage or fuming
passively.

d. Empathy. You are usually able to sense what others are feeling, even without being told. You
often feel a rapport with people and interaction tends to go smoothly.

e. Adeptness in relationship. You are good at handling conflict and emotional upsets in a
relationship. You sense the pulse of a relationship or group and can articulate unstated, shared
feelings. You naturally take the lead in organizing a group and people appreciate your leadership.
You have a talent for settling disputes, negotiating and deal making.

Learning Styles

Learning style usually is defined as the way a person approaches learning and studying. But beware—
some conceptions of learning styles have little research support; others are based on solid studies.
Other learning styles are classified as follows:

1. Diverging. Kolb called this style diverging because these people perform better in situations that
require ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming.

2. Assimilating. People with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having
time to think things through. Thay want concise, logical approach.

3. Converging. People with a converging learning style prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned
with people and interpersonal aspects.

4. Accommodating. This style is a hands-on and relies on intuition rather than logic. These people use
other people’s analysis and prefer to take a practical, experiential approach.

NOTE TO SELF

Even though much of the work on matching learning styles and preferences to teaching is suspect, with
unreliable measures and inflated claims, thinking about learning styles has some value. First, by
helping students think about how they learn, you can develop thoughtful self-monitoring and self-
awareness. In upcoming chapters, we will look at the value of such self-knowledge for learning and
motivation. Second, looking at individual students’ approaches to learning might help teachers
appreciate, accept, and accommodate student differences and differentiate instruction (Coffield et al.,
2004; Rosenfeld & Rosenfeld, 2004).

Schools can make available learning options, such as having quiet, private corners as well as large
tables for working; comfortable cushions as well as straight chairs; brightly lighted desks along with
 darker areas; headphones for listening to music as well as earplugs; structured as well as open-ended
assignments; and information available from visuals, podcasts, and DVDs as well as books. Will
making these alterations lead to greater learning? Here the answer is not clear. Very bright students
appear to need less structure and to prefer quiet, solitary learning (Torrance, 1986), and the visual–
verbal distinction seems to be valid. If nothing else, some accommodation of student preferences may
make your classroom more inviting and student friendly and communicate to your students that you
care about them as individuals.

4.5 The Gifted

The term gifted, as preferred by some, is a more general concept to include children who have special
ability in art or music, mechanical ingenuity, or leadership qualities. Witty (1952) has reported the
definition of a gifted child proposed by one group of educators as a pupil “… whose performance in a
potentially valuable line of human activity is consistently remarkable.” To this concept might be added
such qualities as initiative, aspiration, and self-motivation.

A child may be both intellectually gifted and talented, gifted but not talented, or talented but not gifted.
The talented need experiences direct towards their special abilities; the gifted require a board and varied
program directed towards their general development particularly in their early years. The term superior
refers to children who are markedly above average in intelligence and have the potential ability to
complete college and as adults to assume substantial positions in their communities… The term
extremely gifted is used in reference to a small fraction of the gifted group who have an exceedingly
high level of ability and whose potential powers should enable them to make original and significant
contributions to the welfare of their own and succeeding generations.

Superior 120 to 125 IQ and above, that is, the top 5 to 10 percent of unselected
school children

Gifted 135 to 150 IQ and above, that is, approximately one-fifth to one-tenth of
the superior group and the top 1 to top 3 percent of school children in
general.

Extremely gifted 170 or 180 IQ and above, that is, from one-tenth to one-hundredth of the
gifted group or the top one in 10,000 to 100,000 school children in a
random population.

Positive Characteristics

As a group, gifted children tend to be strong and healthy, well-adjusted, friendly, understanding, and alert.
In a congenial setting, they are likely to:

1. Be curious as indicated by the kind, depth, scope, and frequency of their questions.
2. Show interest in words and ideas as demonstrated by their use of dictionaries, encyclopedia, and
other source books.
3. Have rich vocabularies marked by originality of thought and expressions.
4. Enjoy reading, usually at a mature level.
5. Read rapidly and retain information.
 6. Seek older companions among children and enjoy adults.
7. Have a good sense of humor and be cheerful.
8. Have a strong desire to excel.
9. Be quick to comprehend.
10. Follow directions easily.
11. Have the ability to generalize, to see relationships, and to make logical associations.
12. Be interested in science, astronomy, and nature of man and his universe.
13. Like to do research, to tabulate, to classify, to collect, and to keep records.
14. Show initiative and imagination.
15. Have good memories.

Negative Characteristics

Sometimes the presence of negative or undesirable characteristics makes it difficult to recognize children
of high ability. They may be:

1. Restless, inattentive, disturbing, or annoying to those around them, like many children who have
unmet needs.
2. Poor n spelling, careless in handwriting, or inaccurate in arithmetic because they are impatient
with details.
3. Lackadaisical in completing or handling in assignments, and indifferent towards when
disinterested.
4. Outspokenly critical both of themselves and of others, an attitude which often alienates adults as
well as children.

REFERENCES

Anonat, R.D. (2009). Child and Adolescent Development. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.

Anonat, R.D (2014). Child and Adolescent Development Updated and Revised Edition. Books
Atbp. Publishing Corp.

Corpuz, B., Lucas, M. R., Borabo, H. G. & Lucido, P. (2018). The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles. Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

Philippine Normal University (2013). Professional Education, A Reviewer for the Licensure
Examination for Professional Teachers. PNU Press

Woolfolk, A. (2016). Educational Psychology, 13th Ed. Pearson.