Advanced Mechanics of Solids

Dr. Zahid Ullah

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

 STRAIN

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Deformation
• Whenever a force is applied to a body, it will tend to change the body’s shape and
size. These changes are referred to as deformation, and they may be highly visible or
practically unnoticeable.

• For example, a rubber band will undergo a very large deformation when stretched,
whereas only slight deformations of structural members occur when a building is
occupied.

• Deformation of a body can also occur when the temperature of the body is changed.

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Deformation
• In a general sense, the deformation will not be uniform throughout the body, and so
the change in geometry of any line segment within the body may vary substantially
along its length.
• The deformation will also depend on the orientation of the line segment at the point.
• For example, as shown in the adjacent photos, a line segment may elongate if it is
oriented in one direction, whereas it may contract if it is oriented in another
direction

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Deformation
• There are two types of deformation: Rigid body motion and non-rigid body
deformation.

• Rigid body motion occurs when the exerted force is enough to change the motion
state of a body but insufficient stress is developed to overcome its attraction force.

• Rigid body motion includes translation and rotation.

• In translation, all points on the body have displacement of same magnitude and in
the same direction.

• In rotation, all points on the body have angular displacement of same angle and in
the same direction, except the points that lie along the axis of rotation.

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Deformation
• Non-rigid body deformation occurs when stress developed is enough to overcome
the attraction force, regardless the ability of force to change a body’s motion state.

• This type of deformation includes distortion and dilation, which is in fact the result
of differential translation and rotation.

• Distortion is a process where a body change its shape,

• Dilation is a process where a body change its volume.

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Deformation

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Strain

In order to describe the deformation of a body by changes in the lengths of line

segments and changes in the angles between them, the concept of strain is developed.
Strain is actually measured by experiment. Strain can be normal strain and shear
strain.

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Normal Strain
• If an axial load P is applied to the bar in Figure, it will change the bar’s length L0 to
a length L.

• We will define the average normal strain ε (epsilon) of the bar as the change in its
length δ(delta) = L - L0 divided by its original length L, that is:

ε is engineering strain or
Cauchy strain

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Normal Strain
• The normal strain at a point in a body of arbitrary shape is defined in a similar
manner. For example, consider the very small line segment ∆s located at the point,
Figure.

• After deformation it becomes ∆s′, and the change in its length is therefore ∆s′ - ∆s.

• As ∆s → 0, in the limit the normal strain at the point is therefore

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Shear Strain
• Deformations not only cause line segments to elongate or contract, but they also
cause them to change direction.

• If we select two line segments that are originally perpendicular to one another, then
the change in angle that occurs between them is referred to as shear strain.

• This angle is denoted by γ (gamma) and is always measured in radians (rad). For
example, consider the two perpendicular line segments at a point in the block shown
in Figure 2–3a.

• If an applied loading causes the block to deform as shown in Fig. 2–3b, so that the
angle between the line segments becomes θ, then the shear strain at the point
becomes

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Shear Strain

• Notice that if θ is smaller than π/2, Fig. 2–3c, then the shear strain is positive,
whereas if θ is larger than π/2, then the shear strain is negative

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

 STRAIN-DISPLACEMENT RELATION

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

One Dimensional Member - Normal Strain
• Assuming there is a 1-D element subjected to normal force and exhibited both rigid
and non-rigid body deformation: translation and elongation (distortion).

• Let the distance between two nodes of the element, namely a and b be dx. Also, let
the deformation along x and y-axes be u and v, respectively. The correlations
between the defined parameters are as shown in Figure.

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

One Dimensional Member - Normal Strain
• Translation caused the element to move u unit along positive x-direction, and
elongation added on extra deformation along x-direction.
• This additional deformation is proportional to the length of element, which can be
expressed as:
u
Rate of change u w.r.t x-axis
x
• For element with length of dx, the total deformation caused by elongation is:

u
 dx
x

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

One Dimensional Member - Normal Strain
• The equation of normal strain is given as follows:

• For the 1D element, normal strain is in x-direction, thus the above equation can be
written as:

• This equation proves that rigid body deformation, i.e., translation, does not influence
the strain of body. Similarly, the strain expression for another two axes can be
written in terms of v and w (y and z-direction)

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Two Dimensional Member - Shear strain
• Assuming a 2-D element subjected to shear force and exhibited both rigid and non-
rigid body deformation: translation and distortion.

• Let the nodes of the element be A, B, C and D, and the dimension of such element
along x and y-axes be dx and dy, respectively.

• Similarly, deformation along x and y-axes will be u and v, respectively.

• Translation caused the element to move u unit along positive x-direction and v unit
along positive y-direction.

• Distortion is caused by the rotation of edge AB and AD, which now becomes A’B’
and A’D’, as illustrated in Figure on the next slide.

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Two Dimensional Member - Shear strain

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Two Dimensional Member - Shear strain
• The engineering shear strain is defined as (γxy) is the change in angle between lines
AB and AD, that is:
 xy = 1 +  2

• From the geometry of the figure, we have:

u u
dy dy
y y
tan 1 = =
 v   v 
 dy + dy dy 1 + y 
 y   
u u For very small angle:
dy
y y tan 1  1
tan 1 = =
 v   v  v
dy 1 +  1 +  Also is very small compared to 1:
 y   y  y
u v v
1 = 1+ 1 ( 1)
y y y

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Two Dimensional Member - Shear strain
• Similarly: v v
dx dx
tan  2 = x = x
 u   u 
 dx + dx  dx 1 +  For very angle:
 x   x 
v v tan  2   2
dx
x x u
tan  2 = = Also is very small compared to 1:
 u   u  x
dx 1 +  1 + 
 x   x  u u
1+ 1 ( 1)
v x x
2 =
x

• Shear strain:  xy = 1 +  2
u v
 xy = +
y x
• Similarly, we can write the following shear strain expressions for another two axes:
u w
 xz = +
z x
v w
 yz = +
z y
Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering
Two Dimensional Member - Normal strain
• From the geometry of the figure we have
Length (AB) = dx
2 2
 u   v 
Length (AB) =  dx + dx  +  dx 
 x   x 
2 2
 u   v 
Length (AB) = dx 1 +  +  
 x   x 
• For very small displacement gradients the squares of the derivatives are negligible:
2
2  v 
 u   u    0
Length (AB) = dx 1 +  + 0 = dx 1 +   x 
 x   x 
• Now strain:
 u 
dx 1 +  − dx
Length (AB) − Length (AB) x 
x= = 
Length (AB) dx
u
x=
x
• Similarly:
v w
y= and  z =
x x
Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering
Two Dimensional Member-Strain displacement relation
• By combining all the aforementioned cases of deformation, total deformation along
each axis is defined as below:
u u u
du = dx + dy + dz
x y z
v v v
dv = dx + dy + dz
x y z
w w w
dw = dx + dy + dz
• In matrix form: x y z

 u u u 
 x y z   u u u 
 du    dx   x
 dv  =  v v v     y z 
dy
   x y z     v v v 
 dw   dz   =
 w w w   x y z 
 x y z   w w w 

 x y z 
L =  L 

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Two Dimensional Member-Strain displacement relation
• In the Figure, For 1 =  2
 xy = 1 +  2 = 21
u
 xy = 2
y
1 u
 xy =
2 y
or
1 v
 xy =
2 x

• Thus, we can write:

 1 1   u u u 
 x 2
 yx
2
 zx  
x y z 
  
1 1   v v v 
 =   xy y  zy =
2 2   x y z 
1 1 
  xz  yz  z   w w w 
 2 2   x y z 

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION – Strain Theory
• Deformation is a result of change in velocity of points on a body, it can be expressed
as a function of time.

• Lagrangian description is used to express the function of deformation based on

initial condition and time.

• In solid mechanics, initial conditions, e.g. geometry and boundary condition, are
usually specified or easy to define even if they are not given and thus, Lagrangian
description is a kind of expression that eases the process to determine deformation
of any point.

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION – Strain Theory
• Take an infinitesimal element on a solid as shown in Figure.

• When external force is exerted, the point A and B of this element moves with
different velocity. At the time t1, point A reaches point A´. Therefore, if the position
vector of point A´ (after deformation) is of interest, it can be written as:

a =position vector of A
a’ =position vector of A’

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LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION – Strain Theory
• As the position vector a consist of position component in x, y and z-axes, the
function can also be written as:

• Let U be the vector of displacement attained by a point upon exertion of force at

time t1, and consists of displacement components along x, y and z-axes, namely u, v
and w. This vector is equals to the change in position vector from initial condition to
time t1

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION – Strain Theory
• The following is obtained after rewriting the displacement vector in terms of
displacement components in x, y and z-axes:

• By expressing the coordinates of points A, B, A′ and B′ in terms of position

components (x, y, z) and displacement components (u, v, w) results as follows:

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION – Strain Theory
• The original length of element, which is also the distance between A and B, say dS
can be expressed through Pythagoras theorem:

• Similarly, the length of element after deformation is defined as:

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LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION – Strain Theory
• The difference between the length before and after deformation is the amount of
deformation itself. If such difference is zero, then the solid experienced rigid body
deformation. By finding such difference we can get the following:

• Let dL be the amount of deformation, then expand the terms yields the follows:

• After simplification:

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LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION – Strain Theory
• Now using the deformation rate we can write:
u u u
du = dx + dy + dz
x y z
v v v
dv = dx + dy + dz
x y z
w w w
dw = dx + dy + dz
x y z

• By substituting the expression of du, dv and dw from Equation into dL equation

leads to the following expression:

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LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION – Strain Theory
• Expansion of above equation gives:

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LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION – Strain Theory
• The following is obtained with rearrangement and simplification of above Equation
using the relationships above:

• Or

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LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION – Strain Theory
Lxx =  xx , Lyy =  yy , Lzz =  zz , Lxy =  xy , Lyz =  yz , Lxz =  xz

dL2 = 2  xx d x 2 +  yy d y 2 +  zz d z 2 +  xy d x d y +  yz d y d z +  xz d x d z 

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LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION – Strain Theory
• In Matrix form strain tensor is written as:

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Small-Displacement Theory
• The derivation of the strains in the previous sections is purely based on the
geometrical consideration and the obtained equations are exact.

• However, they are highly nonlinear partial differential equations that are difficult to
solve.

• In practice, the displacements are usually small compared with the dimensions of the
body, thus, the squares and the products of the strains and their first derivatives are
infinitesimal small quantities.

• By using this fact, we can simplify the analysis of the deformable body significantly.

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Small-Displacement Theory
• If the displacements and their derivatives are small,
1. The strains of fibers in one plane are not influenced by the out-of-plane
displacements.

2. The undeformed geometry of the body can be used when writing the equilibrium
equations

3. The stress-strain relations are reduced to linear relations

• By neglecting the second order terms in nonlinear-strain equations we obtain:

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Strain compatibility Relations
• Just as stresses must satisfy the equations of equilibrium, the strains must satisfy the
strain compatibility equations in order to describe a physically possible displacement
field.

• The concept of compatibility has both mathematical and physical significance.

• From mathematical point of view it asserts that the displacement u, v and w match
the geometrical boundary conditions and are single value and continuous function of
position (has continuous derivatives) with which the strain components are
associated.

• Physically it means that the body must be pieced together i.e., no voids must be
created in the deform body.

• A single-valued function is function that, for each point in the domain, has a unique value
in the range.
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Strain compatibility Relations
• By eliminating the displacement components from the strains equations, we have the
following compatibility relations:

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Strain Transformation
• The strain tensor:

• The strain tensor obeys the tensor law of transformation when the coordinates are
changed as the stress tensor.

• The transformation of the strain components from the (x , y) coordinates to the (x′,
y′, z′) coordinates,

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Strain Transformation
• Similar to the stress transformation, the transformation of the strain components
from the (x, y) coordinates to the (x′, y′) coordinates in two dimension can be
performed as:

• In case of plane strain (2-D) εz = εxz = εyz = 0, and γx′y′ = 2εx′y′ and γxy = 2εxy , then,
the stress components in the ( x′ , y′ ) coordinates is:

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Strain Transformation
• The previous matrix form can be written as:

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Principal strains-Normal
• Through any point in an undeformed member, there are three mutually
perpendicular line elements that remain perpendicular under the deformation.

• At every point in a deformed body, there exist three principal planes on which the
shear strains vanish and the normal strains have extreme values, that is, principal
strains.

• If we need to determine the maximum and minimum of the function F = F(x, y, z)

with the condition G(x, y, z) = 0 , we assume a function and the
maximum and minimum values of λ can be determined by solving the simultaneous
equations.

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Principal strains-Normal
• In this case, we have (F is strain equation based on small displacement assumption)

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Principal strains
• The first three equation are linear homogenous equation and it has either trivial or
non-trivial solution.

• Since all three direction cosines can not be zero (l2+ m2 + n2 = 1), the system of the
linear homogeneous equations has a non-trivial solution if and only if the
determinant of the coefficients of l, m, and n is zero. Thus, we have

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Principal strains
• Solving the determinant:

where:

J1, J2, J3 are the first, second

and third invariants of strain.

• Solving for the values of principal strains λ1 , λ2 , and λ3 . Then, substituting λi back
into the simultaneous equations, we obtain the direction cosine of the principal plane
li , mi and ni , respectively
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Principal strains-Shear strain
• The maximum shear strain can be expressed by replacing the stress components (in
the stress module) with corresponding strain components:

• Similarly, shear strain for other planes can be written in the following form:

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Principal strains - Two Dimension
• In two-dimensions, the principal strains and principal planes can be obtained easily
as

• The maximum in-plane shear strain can be determined from:

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Strain Rosettes
• The normal strain at a point of a general testing specimen are usually obtained by
using a cluster of three electrical-resistance strain gauges, arranged in a specified
pattern called strain rosette as shown in Figure.

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Strain Rosettes

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Strain Rosettes
• In general, if we know the angles θa, θb, and θc of the strain rosette with respect to an
axis as shown in Figure above and the measured strains εa, εb, and εc, we can
determine the strain εx , εy , and γxy from the strain-transformation.

• For the 45o strain rosette:

• For the 60o strain rosette:

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OCTAHEDRAL STRAIN
• The octahedral strains are no different from the octahedral stresses in term of the
structure of expression. The following expression is obtained by replacing the stress
components with the corresponding strain components

• Similarly, octahedral shear strain can be derived by replacing the stress components
with the corresponding strain components as per

• or

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 Numerical Examples

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Example 1: Principal strains & Direction cosines

a) Determine the principal normal strains and the direction cosine of the principal
normal strains
b) Determine the principal shear strains

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Example 1 - Solution
Step 1: Strain Invariants

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Example 1 - Solution
Step 2: Principal Normal Strain
• For nontrivial solutions, we have

• The Principal strains are (roots of above equation):

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Example 1 - Solution
Step 4: Direction Cosines

• For direction cosine of 1st Principal strain (ε1), substitute λ1 in any of the two
equation and solve it with the fourth equation:

• Substituting λ1 = 0.0035 and εx , εy , εz , γxy , γyz , and γxz into the first two equations:

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Example 1 - Solution

• By using the same calculation procedures, we have the direction cosines of the
principal normal stress λ2 and λ3 are

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Example 1 - Solution
b. Principal shear strain

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Example 2 – Strain-Displacement Relation
• Consider the displacement field of a body

What are the rectangular strain components at the point P(1, 0, 2)? Use only linear
terms.

Solution:

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Example 2

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Example 3 – Strain Gauges

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Example 3 - Solution
• Measuring the angles counterclockwise from x-axis to the centerlines of each gage,
we have:

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Example 3 - Solution
• Using Equation 1 and solving Equations 2 and 3 simultaneously, we get

In-plane principal strains and their directions using Equation

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Example 3 - Solution
In-Plain Principal Stresses
2 2
 xx +  yy   xx −  yy    xy 
1 =    + 
2 2  2   2 

60 (10−6 ) + 246 (10−6 )  60 (10−6 ) − 246 (10−6 )   −149 (10−6 ) 

2 2

1 =    + 
2 2  2   2 
   
 1 = 153 (10−6 )  119.16 (10−6 )
2

1 = 272 (10−6 ) ,  2 = 33.9 (10−6 )

Direction of Principal Plane

 xy
tan 2 p =
 xx −  yy
−149 (10−6 )
tan 2 p =
−186 (10−6 )
149
tan −1 ( )
p = 186 = 38.6974 = 19.35o
2 2
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Example 3 - Solution
In-plane principal strains and their directions using Mohr Circle
• Centre of Circle is:
 xx +  yy 60 (10−6 ) + 246 (10−6 )
 avg = = = 153 (10−6 )
2 2

• Radius of circle:
2 2
  xx −  yy    xy 
R=   + 
 2   2 
 60 (10−6 ) − 246 (10−6 )   −149 (10−6 ) 
2 2

R=   + 
 2   2 
   
R = 119.20 (10−6 )

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Example 3 - Solution
• The reference point A on the circle is at (coordinates of A):
  xy 
  = ( 60  10 , −74.5  10 )
−6 −6
 xx ,
 2 

From the circle, we can determine the principal stresses as:

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Example 4 - State of Strain
• A part of machine in the form of parallelepiped as shown in Figure, is deformed into
the shape indicated by the dashed straight line (small displacements). The
displacements are given by the following relations: u = C1 xyz, v = C2 xyz , w = C3 xyz

a. Determine the state of strain at point E when the coordinate of point E* for the
deformed body are (1.504, 1.002, 1.996)

b. Check if the state of strain as point E is in

accordance with the strain compatibility

relations.

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Example 4 - Solution
Step 1: State of Strain at point E
• The displacement at point can be determined from its coordinates, given as:

• As the displacement field equation are given as:

u = C1 xyz , v = C2 xyz , w = C3 xyz
• Using the displacement of point E, we can obtained C1, C2 and C3:
u 0.004 0.004 0.004
u = C1 xyz  C1 = = =  C1 =
xyz (1.5  1 2 ) 3 3
v 0.002 0.002 0.002
v = C2 xyz  C2 = = =  C2 =
xyz (1.5  1 2 ) 3 3
w −0.004 −0.004 −0.004
w = C3 xyz  C3 = = =  C4 =
xyz (1.5  1 2 ) 3 3
Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering
Example 4 - Solution
• As the C1, C2 and C3 are determined, the displacement field for the parallelepiped
can be written as:
0.004
u = C1 xyz  u = xyz
3
0.002
v = C2 xyz  v = xyz
3
−0.004
w = C3 xyz  w = xyz
3
• Now, the Strain equations (Small Displacement Theory):

u   0.004  0.004 0.004

 xx = =  xyz  = yz   xx = yz
x x  3  3 3
v   0.002  0.002 0.002
 yy = =  xyz  = xz   yy = xz
y y  3  3 3
w   −0.004  −0.004 −0.004
 zz = =  xyz  = xy   zz = xy
z z  3  3 3

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering

Example 4 - Solution
u v   0.004    0.002  0.004 0.002
 xy = + =  xyz  +  xyz    xy = xz + yz
y x y  3  x  3  3 3
u w   0.004    −0.004  0.004 0.004
 xz = + =  xyz  +  xyz    xz = xy − yz
z x z  3  x  3  3 3
v w   0.002    −0.004  0.002 0.004
 yz = + =  xyz  +  xyz    yz = xy − xz
z y z  3  y  3  3 3

• Now the state of strain at point E can be determined by substituting coordinates of

point E in above strain equations: (For point E:, x = 1.5, y = 1, z = 2)

0.004 0.004
 xx = yz = (1 2 ) = 0.00267
3 3
0.002 0.002
 yy = xz = (1.5  2 ) = 0.002
3 3
−0.004 −0.004
 zz = xy = (1.5 1) = −0.002
3 3
Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering
Example 4 - Solution
0.004 0.002 0.004 0.002
 xy = xz + yz = (1.5  2 ) + (1 2 ) = 0.00533
3 3 3 3
0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004
 xz = xy − yz = (1.5  1) − (1 2 ) = −0.00067
3 3 3 3
0.002 0.004 0.002 0.004
 yz = xy − xz = (1.5  1) − (1.5  2 ) = −0.0030
3 3 3 3

b. Strain Compatibility Relation

• Substituting the strain equations into the strain compatibility relations, it can be seen
that the state of strain as point E is in accordance with the strain compatibility
relations.

Dr. Zahid Ullah, Ph.D. Structural Engineering