Galvanic cathodic protectio

Prepared by: DSc PhD Dževad Hadžihafizović (DEng)

Sarajevo 2023
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Basics of Corrosion

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Definition Of Corrosion:
Destruction of materials due to interaction with environment:
Not necessarily to produce oxides
Corrosion and oxidation
Hot corrosion
Corrosion Cost (See Fig.)

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 1. Utilities 2. Transportation
 Drinking water & sewer system  Aircraft
 Electrical utilities  Hazardous materials
 Gas distribution transport
 Telecommunication  Motor vehicles
 Rail road car
 Ships
3. Infrastructure 4. Government
 Airports  Defense
 Gas and liquid transportation pipelines  Nuclear waste storage
 Hazardous materials storage
 Highway bridges
 Railroads
 Waterways and ports
5. Production and production
 Agriculture
 Chemical and petrochemical pharmaceutical
 Electronics
 Food processing
 Home appliance
 Mining
 Oil and gas exploration production
 Petroleum refining
 Pulp and paper

Annual corrosion cost in the USA (The year 1998)

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Historical Cases of Corrosion
The first recorded study of corrosion was in 1763. Copper sheathing
on the timber hull of the HMS Alarm, a 32-gun frigate.
Industries that Suffer Corrosion Problems:

• Marine and Desalination • Transport

• Oil Industry • General Engineering
• Chemical and Petrochemical • Food
• Metal Refining • Building and
Construction

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Corrosion Environments:
 Airand Moisture
 Water: Fresh, Distilled, Brackish, Sea…etc.
 Industrial Environments: Steam, NH3, SO2, H2S, flue gases……etc.
 Chemicals: Organic and Inorganic.
 Nuclear, High temperature and pressure conditions.

Corrosion rate Expressions:

* Weight loss or weight gain
mg/ dm2/day……mdd
mg/cm2/day
* Penetration
mils per year (mpy)
mms per year (mmpy)
mms per year (mmpy)

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Conversion Table
from To Multiply by
In./yr mils per year, mpy 1000
In./month mils per year, mpy 12000
Mg/dm2/day, (mdd) mils per year, mpy 1.44/specific gravity

m m W
 87 , 600
yr DAT

mm W
 87 . 6
yr DAT
where W is the weight loss in milligrams, D is the density in g/cm3, A is the
area in cm2, and T is the time of exposure in hours.

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Relative Corrosion Approximate metric equivalent
Resistance
mpy mm/yr µm/yr

Outstanding <1 <0.02 <25

Excellent 1-5 0.02-0.1 25-100
Good 2-20 0.1-0.5 100-500
Fair 20-50 0.5-1 500-1000
Poor 50-200 1-5 1000-5000
unacceptable 200+ 5+ 5000+

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Basic Principles
Electrochemical Aspects
Electrochemical Reactions
The Electrochemical nature of corrosion can be illustrated by the attack
on zinc by hydrochloric acid. Consider that HCl is air-free.

Zn + 2HCl Zn Cl2 + H2 (1)

This Means:
Zn + 2(H++Cl) Zn++ +2Cl+H2 (2)
i.e. The net result of this reaction is:
Zn Zn++ + 2e (3)
And 2H+ + 2 e 2H H2 (4)

- Reaction (3) is the change of Zn into the zinc ions (Zn++)

i.e. The production of electrons = Anodic Reaction = Oxidation Reaction
- During metallic corrosion:
Rate of oxidation = Rate of reduction

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Electrochemical reactions occurring during corrosion of zinc in:
a) Air-free hydrochloric acid
b) Aerated hydrochloric acid

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- Corrosion reactions are divided into two partial types of reactions,
anodic that is the Release of electrons, and cathodic, that is the
Consumption of electrons.

For iron
Fe Fe++ + 2e (anodic) (5)
For dissolved oxygen
O2 + 2H2O + 4 e 4 OH- (cathodic) (6)
- Zn corrosion in air-free & aerated HCl
- When Fe+++ ions are added to dilute aerated HCl.
Fe+++ + e Fe++ (7)
- Typical anodic reactions:
M M++ + 2 e (8)
M M+ + e (9)
- Typical cathodic reactions:
M+ + e M (10)
M++ + 2 e M (11)
2H+ + 2 e H2 (12)
O2 + 2H2O + 4 e 4 OH- (13)
O2 + 4H- + 4 e 2H2O (14)

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Polarization:

 Activation polarization:

 Concentration polarization:

Thermodynamic Aspects

Free Energy Changes:

 The change in free energy “G” concept.

 Sign of G is most important in corrosion reactions.

 In electrochemical reactions:

G = - nEF

Where: DG = Free energy change

n = Number of electrons involved in the reaction

E = Cell potential

F = Faraday’s constant
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 Hydrogen-reduction reaction under activation control

Concentration polarization during hydrogen reduction

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Cell Potential and the EMF Series: (Redox Potential Series)
2 .3 RT a
 Nernst equation : E  E o  Log oxid
nF a red

0 . 059
E o  log C
n
Where Eo = Standard Electrode potential

C = Solution concentration of oxidized

ions in gm ion/liter.

n = No. of transferred electrons.

Application of Thermodynamics to Corrosion:

Sign of G is most important

Magnitude of G does not mean too much.

G indicates possibility of corrosion, but not rate.

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Reversible cell containing copper and zinc in equilibrium with their ions

Reversible copper electrode

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Cell containing reversible zinc and hydrogen electrodes

Hydrogen electrode on platinum

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Au = Au3+ + 3e + 1.498
O2 + 4H+ + 4e = 2H2O + 1.229
Pt = Pt2+ + 2e + 1.2
Pd = Pd2+ + 2e + 0.987
Ag = Ag+ + e + 0.799
2Hg = Hg22 + 2e + 0.788
Fe3+ + e = Fe2+ + 0.771
O2 + 2H2O + 4e = 4 OH + 0.401
Cu = Cu2+ + 2e + 0.337
Sn4+ + 2e = Sn2+ + 0.15
2H+ + 2e = H2 0.000
Pb = Pb2+ + 2e - 0.126
Sn = Sn2+ + 2e - 0.136
Ni = Ni2+ + 2e - 0.250
Co = Co2+ + 2e - 0.277
Cd = Cd2+ + 2e - 0.403
Fe = Fe2+ + 2e - 0.440
Cr = Cr3+ + 3e - 0.744
Zn = Zn2+ + 2e - 0.763
Al = Al3+ + 3e - 1.662
Mg = Mg2+ + 2e - 2.363
Na = Na+ + e - 2.714
K = K+ + e - 2.925
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Pourbaix Diagrams
These illustrate thermodynamically stable corrosion
products as a function of pH, and potential.
Consider the main iron dissolution reaction
Fe Fe++ + 2e
Applying Nernst equation,(Fe++)should be:
10o g-ion/1 at an applied potential = -0.44V
10-2 g-ion/1 at an applied potential = -0.50V
10-6 g-ion/1 at an applied potential = -0.62V
i.e. at cathodic applied potential of –0.62 V, Fe concentration = 10-6 g-ion/l.
Below this cathodic potential, iron would thus practically be
thermodynamically stable.

Regions of corrosion, passivity and immunity

In corrosion region : corrosion can occur.
In passivity region : corrosion does not occur.
In immunity region: corrosion can not occur.

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Simplified potential-pH diagram for the Fe-H2O system

Pourbaix diagram for Fe in water (simplified)

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 Short circuited cell containing zinc and hydrogen electrodes

Corroding zinc, shown schematically

Hydrogen-hydrogen-ion exchange current densities

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Electrode Kinetics

Introduction:
 From an engineering point of view, the major interest is the
kinetics, or rate of corrosion.

 Thermodynamics describe the system at equilibrium, which is not

the case for corrosion.

 Overvoltage is a measure of polarization with respect to the

equilibrium potential of the electrode.

 Exchange current density

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The Mixed – Potential Theory
 Any electrochemical reaction can be divided into two or
more partial oxidation and reduction reactions.

 No net accumulation of electric charge during an

electrochemical reaction.

 The total rate oxidation must equal the total rate of

reduction.

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Mixed Electrodes
 A mixed electrode is an electrode or a metal sample that is in
contact with two more oxidation-reduction systems.

 To illustrate, consider the case of zinc immersed in

hydrochloric acid. This is represented graphically in Fig.

Note: Cathodic & Anodic reactions Zn/Zn++

 Cathodic & Anodic reactions H2 / H+

 Single electrode potential EZn/Zn++ EH+/H2

 Tafel slopes.

 Exchange current densities:

 Mixed corrosion potential : Ecorr

 Corrosion current icorr

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Electrode kinetic behaviour of pure zinc in acid solution, shown schematically

Behaviour of metal M in acid solution containing ferric salts showing effect of oxidizer
exchange current density

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The Evans Diagrams (Figures)
 Passivity:

 Loss of chemical reactivity experienced by some metals and alloys

mostly due to the formation of a protective film.
 Metals including iron, nickel, chromium, titanium and their alloys.
 To some extent also in some environments: zinc, cadmium, tin,
uranium, zirconium.
- Note:
* Ic : critical current for passivation
* Epp : Passivation potential
*Active range.
* Passive range, value of Ipassive
* Transpassive range

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 The relation of these parameters on the passivation behavior of
materials.
 Passivity concept as a base for the principle of corrosion control
by anodic protection.
 The concept of Flade potential, EF:
* The lower the potential at which a passivity metal become
active (i.e. the lower EF) the greater the stability of passivity.
* Some typical value or EF:
Titanium………………………….. - 0.24V
Chromium…………………………- 0.22V
Steel………………………………. + 0.15V
Nickel……………………………... + 0.36V
Iron……………………………….. + 0.58V

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Mixed-Electrodes Involving an Active-Passive Metal

(Fig . ) illustrates 3 possible cases that may occur when an active-passive

metal is exposed to a corrosive environment by an acid solution.

* The system represented d by case 1.

* The system represented by case 2.

* The system represented by case 3.

* Case 1, though not practically desirable, however, is better than case 2.

* Case 3, is the most desirable from the engineering point of view. This
system will spontaneously passivate and crossed very slowly.

* Case 2, is the least desirable of the three cases.

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 A schematic polarization curve for a stainless steel in a sulfuric acid solution

Schematic determination of critical pitting potential Epit, from anodic polarization

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Potentiostatic anodic polarization curves for mild steel in 10% Sulfuric acid. (Note the
magnitude or the critical current density which is 102 - 103 A/M2, this creates a problem
in practical anodic protection since very high currents are required to exceed Icorr and
therefore to passivate the mild steel).

Behaviour of an active - passive metal under corrosive conditions

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 Spontaneous passivation of titanium by galvanically coupling of platinum

Galvanic couple between an active-passive metal and platinum in air-free acid solution

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Active–Passive Alloy Evaluation and Noble Metal Alloying

Electrochemical Techniques for Corrosion Rate Measurement

Tafel Extrapolation

- This method was to verify the mixed potential theory

Data obtained from cathodic or anodic polarization

measurements can be used. Cathodic polarization data is
preferred.

Fig. () present a Tafel plot.

Practically, an applied cathodic polarization curve becomes

linear (on a semi-log plot) at about 50mV more active than
Ecorr.

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This Region of Linearity is called the Tafel Region
- To determine corrosion rate:
Extrapolate Tafel region to Ecorr. At Ecorr, the rate of hydrogen
evolution equals the rate of metal dissolution. This point corrosion
rate of the system expressed in terms of current density.
- This method has some limitations
Linear Polarization
 The disadvantages of Tafel extrapolation method can be over
come by the linear polarization analysis.
 Within 10 mV more noble or more active than the corrosion
potential, Ecorr
 Note that the slope of the linear polarization graph is voltage
over current, or resistance in ohms. It can be shown by
electrochemical calculations that the slope is related to the
corrosion rate by the following equation:
mpy= k / RA=…………

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Where:

R is the resistance in ohms read from the linear polarization graph.

K is the electrochemical constant depending on the metal and the

corrosive

A is the total area of the corroding specimen in square inches

For iron, cobalt, nickel and alloys containing these elements

K is almost equal in most environments and

mpy= 2000 / RA=…………

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Applied current cathodic polarization curve of a corroding metal showing Tafel
extrapolation

Applied Current Linear Polarization Curve

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 Sir Humphrey Davy (1824): Zinc and iron anodes could be
used to prevent the corrosion of copper sheathing on the
wooden hulls of British naval vessels.

 The first 'full-hull' installation on a vessel in service was

applied to the frigate HMS Samarang in 1824.

 Four groups of cast iron anodes were fitted and virtually

perfect protection of the copper was achieved.

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 The aqueous corrosion of iron under conditions of
air access can be written:
2Fe  O 2  2H 2 O  2FeOH 
 It is convenient to consider separately the
metallic and non-metallic reactions in equations:
2Fe  2Fe 2  4e 

O 2  2H 2 O  4e   4OH 
 The electrode potential, often called the corrosion or
mixed potential (Ecorr).

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 Figure 1 is a schematic representation of aqueous corrosion
occurring at a metal surface.

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• Figure 2 shows the effect on the corrosion reaction shown in
Fig.1 of providing a limited supply of electrons to the surface.
The rate of dissolution slows down because the external source
rather than an iron atom provides two of the electrons.

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 Figure 3 shows the effect of a greater electron supply;
corrosion ceases since the external source provides all
the required electrons. No reason for further electrons
to be supplied.

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 When corrosion occurs, if the cathodic reactant is in plentiful supply, the
cathodic kinetics are semi-logarithmic, as shown in Fig.4. The rate of the
cathodic reaction is governed by the rate at which electrical charge can be
transferred at the metal surface. Such a process responds to changes in
electrode potential giving rise to the semi-logarithmic behavior.

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 Figure 5 shows that the corrosion rate approximates to the limiting current
for oxygen reduction (Ilim) and the current required for protection is
substantially lower than when semi-logarithm cathodic behaviour prevails.

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Methods of Applying Cathodic Protection
• Two principal methods: The impressed current technique and the use of
sacrificial anodes.
• Figure 6 illustrates the concept of the impressed current method
• The electrode and the structure must be in both electrolytic and
electronic contact.
• The power supply is usually a transformer / rectifier that converts A. C.
power to D. C.

Fig. 6:Schematic diagram of cathodic protection using the

impressed-current technique

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 Three generic types of anodes:
 consumable,
 non-consumable and
 semi-consumable.
 The consumable electrodes undergo an anodic reaction
that involves their consumption.

• In practice the loss for an iron anode is approximately

9kg/Ay.
• Non-consumable anodes sustain an anodic reaction that
decomposes the aqueous environment rather than
dissolves the anode metal. In aqueous solutions the
reaction may be:
2 H 2 O  O2  4 H   4 e 

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• Or in the presence of chloride ions:
2Cl   Cl 2  2e 
• Examples: platinised titanium or niobium.
• The platinised electrodes can operate at a high current
density (>100A/m2), but will then produce high levels
of acidity (pH<2) and large volumes of gas.
• The consumption rate of platinized electrodes about 8
mgs/Ay
• Semi-consumable electrodes:
• silicon-iron,
• chromium-silicon-iron and
• graphite fall into this category.

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 Table 1: Impressed current anode material

Material Consumption rate or Notes

operating current density
Consumable: Cheap: suitable for buried or
Scrap iron 9 kg/Ay immersed use
Cast iron > 9 kg/Ay Cheap: buried or immersed use
carbon Skelton reduces
consummation (<1kg/Ay) Mo
reduces consumption in
seawater
Simi- consumable: 5-50 A/m2 buried or immersed use
Silicon Cast iron In fresh water or soil consumption
(Fe- 14Si-(3Mo)
Graphite 2-5 A/m2

Non- consumable: Consumption rate very much

Lead alloys: <50-200 A/m2 less than steel or cast
1. Pb-6sb-1Ag (in seawater) iron(>1kg/Ay), chloride ions
2. Pt-activated <50-500 A/m2 reduce consumption
Platinised Ti, Ta or Nb (in seawater)
<1000 Am/ m2
(consumption)

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 Sacrificial Anodes
• The sacrificial anode technique uses the natural potential
difference that exists between the structure and a second metal in
the same environment to provide the driving voltage.
• In principle, zinc, aluminum or magnesium could be used to
protect steel, and iron used to protect copper. Figure 7 illustrates
the use of a sacrificial anode for cathodic protection.
• In practice pure metals are never used as sacrificial anodes.

Fig. 7: Schematic diagram of cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes. In practice the
anode, which will be mounted on a steel core, can be attached directly to the structure

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Table 2: Typical sacrificial anode compositions and operating parameters

Alloy Environment Operating Driving Capacity

voltage vs. voltage a (Ah/kg)
Ag/AgCl/ (V)
Seawater
(V)
Al-Zn-Hg Seawater -1.0 to -1.05 0.20 to 0.25 2600-2850
Al-Zn-In Seawater -1.0 to -1.10 0.20 to 0.30 2300-2650
Al-Zn-In Marine -0.95 to -1.05 0.15 to 0.25 1300-2300
sediments

Al-Zn-Sn Seawater -1.0 to -1.05 0.20 to 0.25 925-2600

Znb Seawater -0.95 to -1.03 0.15- to 0.23 760-780

Znb Marine -0.95 to -1.03 0.15- to 0.23 750-780

sediments

Mg-Al-Zn Seawater -1.5 0.7 1230

Mg-Mn Seawater -1.7 0.9 1230

a The driving voltage to bare steel. i. e. protection potential of steel- anode operating potential
b US Military Specification
Note: It is often important to control impurities and specially Fe, Cu, Ni and Si although a controlled
Si to some aluminum alloy

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Proof of Protection
Steel
Table 3 Cathodic protection criteria a
1. ≤-0.85 v w.r.t Cu/CuSO4 with current applying but minimizing IR
error
2. Negative shift ≥ 300 mV when current applied
3. Positive shift ≥100 mV when current interrupted
4. More negative than beginning of Tafel segment of cathodic
polarization (E-log I) curve
5. A net protective current in the structure at former anodic points
6. Polarize all cathodic areas to open circuit potential at most active
anode areas
N. B. Only the first three are useful in real practice
a After British Standard code and NACE recommended practice

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• The most widely accepted criteria for protection of steel at room
temperature (the protection potential) in aerobic conditions is -0.85V with
respect to a Cu/CuSO4 reference electrode. In anaerobic conditions -
0.95V (vs. Cu/CuSO4) is the preferred protection potential because of the
possible presence of active sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB).
• The standard equilibrium potential (E o) for iron/ferrous-ion is -0.440V
(vs. the standard hydrogen electrode). If the interfacial ferrous ion
concentration when corrosion ceases is approximately 10-6g ions/1 then,
according to the Nernst equation, the equilibrium potential (Ea) is given
by: 0.059
Ea  E o  log a Fe2 
2
Where, aFe2+ is the activity or thermodynamic concentration of the ferrous cation.
Thus Ea= -0.62 V vs. the standard hydrogen electrode or 0.93V vs. Cu/CuSO4.
This is a value substantially more negative than the accepted protection potential (-
0.85 V).

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 Other Metals
• Copper-base alloys will corrode in aerated conditions. It is;
therefore, sometimes appropriate to consider cathodic protection.
• It is possible to forestall pitting, or to stop it once started, using
cathodic protection. A negative shift of 100mV from the natural
corrosion potential in the environment will often be sufficient. This
technique has been applied to various stainless steels and to
aluminum.
• Cathodic protection can often be used to prevent initiation of crevice
corrosion. A 100mV cathodic polarization will usually prove
sufficient.
• Table 4.
Table 4: Recommended protection potentials for other metals a
Protection
Metal potentials
(V vs. Cu/CuSo4)
Lead -0.6
Copper-base alloys -0.5 to -0.65
Aluminum -0.95
+ve limit -1.2
-ve limit
aAfter British Standard code of practice CP 1021:1973)12
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 Concrete is a very benign environment for steel so long as its
natural pH remains high and no aggressive species enters.
 When chloride ions reach the reinforcing bar (rebar) they may
cause localized corrosion damage to it, with consequent
cracking, even spalling, of the concrete. Impressed current
cathodic protection has been used to overcome the problem.

 The protection potential for a given metal is numerically different

according to the reference electrode used. Thus the protection potential
for iron in aerobic environments is:
 -0.85V vs. Cu/CuSO4.
 -0.80V vs. Ag/AgCl/seawater.
 -0.77V vs. Ag/AgCl/1M KCl.
 -0.84V vs. Ag/AgCl/0.1M KCl.
 -0.55V vs. standard hydrogen electrode.

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 It is fundamental that a reference electrode should have a stable and
reproducible potential.
 Ag/AgCl/seawater electrode should only be used in seawater.
 Calomel electrodes (and more especially hydrogen electrodes)
are not suitable for field measurements.
 When the reference electrode is placed remote from the metal
surface, the measured potential comprises the true electrode
potential of the metal and the potential difference in the
environment between the metal and the reference electrode due
to the electric field.
 Deviation from the correct potential value by inclusion of the
field gradient in the measurement is often called the IR error and
it must be minimized in assessing the state of polarization of a
cathodically protected structure

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 It is desirable to measure the potential of a structure without an
IR error. It is not always possible to place the reference
electrode close to the structure to minimize the IR error but it
can be achieved using the so-called instant-off technique.
 This technique relies on the fact that when the current is
interrupted, the IR effect, being ohmic, dissipates immediately
but the polarization decays much more slowly.
 Thus, if the current is switched off and the potential is
measured immediately, the IR-free polarized potential of the
structure can be measured.
 By contrast a cathodic protection system based on sacrificial anodes
is designed from the outset to achieve the required protection
potential.

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Table 5: Estimates of the current density required to protect bare steel in various
corrosive environments

Current density
Environment (A/m2)

Sulphuric acid (hot, concentrated, stationary 350-500

Soils 0.01-0.5
Fast-flowing seawater 0.3a
Air-saturated hot water 0.1- 0.15
Flowing fresh water 0.05-0.1

a This value will decay to less than 0.05 A/m2 if the calcareous deposit forms.

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 Large structures, even in near-neutral pH environments,
require a considerable current for cathodic protection. As
a result structure coatings are an almost mandatory
requirement when cathodic protection is contemplated.
 The cathodic protection system must only deliver a
fraction (often less than 1%) of the current that would be
required to protect a bare structure. Figure 8 shows
schematically that there is an optimum combination of
coating quality and cathodic protection which minimizes
the cost of protecting structure.

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Fig. 8: Schematic diagram illustrating the economic benefit of the
conjoint use of coating and cathodic protection.

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 Coating deteriorates chemically and mechanically during its lifetime.
This means that the cathodic protection system as installed must have
sufficient reserve to provide this necessary extra current.
 Ships, many piers and jetties and virtually all buried pipelines are
coated when cathodic protection is applied. Liquid storage tanks
standing on sand or bitumen sand often have the underside of their
base plate under cathodic protection.
 Only offshore oil production platforms, particularly in the North Sea,
are cathodically protected but often deliberately uncoated.
 There are two reasons for this.
• First, these structures are almost all protected using sacrificial
anodes and it is easier to design for a more or less constant current
demand than for an increasing current demand in these systems.
• Second, the construction of the platforms is made against a tight
schedule; any weather conditions that prevented completion of
coating would involve launching a platform with an incomplete
coating and insufficient anodes to protect the now partially coated
structure.

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• During cathodic protection the dissolved oxygen is reduced to
produce hydroxyl ion:
O2  2 H 2 O  4e   4OH 
• Seawater contains carbonate and bicarbonate ions that are in a pH-
dependent equilibrium with one another:
HCO3 
 CO32  H 

• The higher the pH of the seawater the greater will the proportion
of carbonate ions present (since as the pH increases, so the H+
concentration decreases, thereby moving the equilibrium to the
right). It follows that at a surface under cathodic protection, the
hydroxyl ion produced has effect of increasing the local
carbonate ion concentration.
• Seawater also contains calcium ions which form an insoluble
carbonate with carbonate ions:
Ca 2  CO32 
 CaCO3

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 Similarly, the seawater contains magnesium ions which can react
with the hydroxyl ion directly to form magnesium hydroxide:
Mg 2
 2 OH 
 Mg OH 2
• Once the calcareous film has formed, a cathodic current density at
least an order of magnitude lower than that required to protect
bare steel is needed to maintain protection.

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Attenuation
In a pipe line of infinite length:

DEx = DEex (Fig. 9)

Where
DEo is the change in potential at the drainage point
DEx is the change of potential at a distance from the point
... x = half protected distance:

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The attenuation constant is defined by:
 = Rs
Rs = Rk
Longitudinal resistance of the pipe ( - unit length)
Rk = Characteristic resistance of the line, and is given by
RK = (RSRL)½

RL = Leakage resistance to remote earth of the line (-unit length) at

the drainage point = DEo
DIo
• Assuming the protection potential at the drainage
Point = 1.25V
and at a distance x = 0.85V,
and the structure soil potential = 0.55V
Then:
DEO = 1.25 – 0.55V = 0.7V
DEx = 0.85 – 0.55V = 0.3V
X = Log DEO
2.3 DE X 0.7
= Log
 0.3
2 .3
~
 Log 2.3
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Fig. 9: Theoretical distribution of pipe/soil potential on infinite line

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Sacrificial Anodes

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 The sacrificial anode is a material that

has an open circuit potential that is more

negative than the structure to be

protected.

 Well known materials used in practice:

Zinc, Aluminum, and Magnesium (or

alloys)

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 Sacrificial Anode basics

• Anode operating potential:

It’s potential when coupled with a structure.
• Protection potential: The potential at which
experience shows corrosion of a metal will cease
(Table 1)
• The driving potential: The difference between
the anode operating potential and the potential
of the polarized structure to which it is
connected.
• Anode capacity: Total columbic charge
produced by unit mass as a result of
electrochemical dissolution (normally expressed
Ah/Kg). The inverse of the capacity i.e. the
consumption rate (Kg/Ay) is sometime used.
• Anode efficiency =
Anode Capacity
x 100
Theoretica l Capacity

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Table 1: Protection potentials of metals in seawater (V
vs. Ag/AgCl/ seawater)

Iron and steel

Aerobic environment -0.8

Anaerobic environment -0.9
Lead -0.55
Copper alloys -0.45 to 0-0.60

Anode Requirements

• A sufficiently large driving voltage.

• Anode to have a more or less constant
operating potential.
• Must have a high, reproducible and available
capacity.
• Production of anode materials in large
quantities, with the desired mechanical
properties.

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 Table 2: Anode potentials of various alloys used for
cathodic protection
Alloy Anode potential (V Capacity
vs. Ag/AgCl/ Seawater (Ah/kg)
(V)
Al-Zn-Hg -1.0 to -1.05 2830
Al-Zn-Sn -1.0 to -1.10 2600
Al-Zn-In -1.0 to -1.15 2700
Zn-Al-Cd -1.05 780
Mg-Mn -1.5 1230
Mg-Al-Zn -1.7 1230

Factors Affecting Anode Performance

• Alloy composition: Generally anode alloys formulations

are proprietary and covered by patents.
• Impurities:
 Anode alloy should dissolve with a capacity
approaching the theoretical value.
 The presence of iron is deleterious. When the solid
solubility of iron in zinc is exceeded the anode
operating potential becomes more positive. Both
silicon and aluminum are added to zinc to control the
adverse effects of iron.
 Other heavy metal impurities (especially copper and
nickel) have similar adverse effects.
 Table 3

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Table 3: Suitable primary material quality
requirements

99.90% Magnesium 99.99% Zinc

Cu 0,02 max Pb 0.003 max
Mn 0,01 max Cu 0.003 max
Sn 0.01 max Cd 0.003 max
Ni 0.001 max Fe 0.002 max
Pb 0.01 max Sn 0.001 max
Others 0.05 max Zn 99.99 min
Mg 99.90 min

99.80 % Aluminum 99.99%

Aluminum
Fe 0.12 max Pb 0.003 max
Si 0.08 max Cu 0.002 max
Cu 0.03 max Cd 0.003 max
Zn 0.03 max Fe 0.003 max
Mn 0.02 max Sn 0.002 max
Mg 0.02 max Al 99.99 min
Al 99.80 min

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 Additions are made to improve the performance
of the anode. This includes:
o Lowering the anode operating potential to
increase the driving voltage
o Avoiding passivation
o Increasing the anode capacity.
o Improve the dissolution morphology.
o Modifying the mechanical properties of the
dissolution product to promote detachment.
o Improving the mechanical properties of the
anode.

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•Common zinc anode alloys (Table 4)
 Aluminum is added in some cases to improve the
uniformity of dissolution.
 Cadmium: to encourage the formation of soft corrosion
product that readily falls away.

Table 4: Standard zinc alloys

Alloy ASTM ASTM US Mit12 Dn V
Component B418-88 B418-88 Spec. A recomm13
(wt. %) Type I Type II 18001 J for elevated
temp.

Al 0.10-0.5 0.005 max 0.10-0.5 0.10-0.20

Cd 0.025-0.07 0.003 max 0.025-0.07 0.03-0.06

Fe 0.005 max 0.0014 max 0.005 max 0.002 max

Cu 0.005 max 0.002 max 0.005 max 0.005 max

Pb 0.006 max 0.003 max 0.006 max 0.006 max

Si - - - 0.125 max

Others (total) 0.1 - 0.1 -

Zn Reminder Reminder Reminder Reminder

Operating potential (V -1.05 -1.05 -1.05 -1.05

vs. Ag/AgCl/Seawater)

Capacity (Ah/kg) 780 780 780 780

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•Most common commercial aluminum alloys (Table 5)
Table 5: Proprietary aluminum anode materials

Alloy Al-Zn-In Al-Zn-In* Al-Zn-Sn Al-Zn-Hg

Component
(wt. %)
Fe 0.12 max 0.18 max 0.13 max 0.08 max
Si 0.05-0.20 0.01-0.02 - 0.11-0.21
Zn 2.8-6.5 2.0-6.0 4.0-5.0 0.35-0.50
Hg - - - 0.35-0.50
In 0.01-0.02 0.01-0.03 - -
Sn - - 0.1 -
Mg - 0.1-2.0 - -
Cu 0.006 0.01 max - 0.006 max
max
Mn - 0.1-2.0 0.1 -
Ti - 0.02 max - -
Others (each) 0.006 - 0.01 max -
max
Al Reminde Reminder Reminde Reminder
r r
Operating -1.10 -1.10 -1.10 -1.05
potential (V
vs.
Ag/AgCl/Seaw
ater)
Capacity 2700 max 2700 max variable 2830 max
(Ah/kg)

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 Table 6: Proprietary magnesium alloys

Alloy Mg-Mn Mg-Mn Mg-Al-

Component No.1 No.2 Zn
(wt. %)
Cu 0.02 0.02 max 0.08 max
Al 0,01 max 0.05 max 5.3-6.7
Si - 0.05 max 0.3 max
Fe 0.03 0.03 max 0.005
max
Mn 0.5-1.3 0.5-1.5 0.25 min
Nj 0.001 - 0.003
max
Zn - 0.03 max 2.5-3.5
Others (each) 0.01 max 0.03 max 0.03
max
Mg Reminder Reminde Reminde
r r
Operating potential -1.7 -1.7 -1.5
(V vs.
Ag/AgCl/Seawater)
Capacity (Ah/kg) 1230 1230 1230

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Metallurgical Factors:
•Porosity within the anode is detrimental.
•Cracking of the anodes during casting is in many
cases unavoidable: longitudinal cracks can not be
accepted.
•Anode material must stay firmly attached to the steel
insert.
•The method of casting: undesirable to permit
segregation, as this may lead to preferential attack at
grain boundaries.
Environmental Factors
• The presence of H2S (from bacterial activity) in
anaerobic saline mud can result in significant
decrease in capacity and loss of operating potential
for Al-Zn-In anodes.

• Aluminum alloy anodes require the presence of

chloride ions to prevent passivation; consequently
aluminum alloy anodes only find application in
saline environments.
• The capacity and operating potential of aluminum
alloy anodes are dependent on the degree of salinity .

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Selecting the Appropriate Anode Material
Choice basis: Desirable to be the lowest cost per
Amp. hour of current supplied, however it is
governed by other constraints.
Zinc
• Most reliable electrochemical performance.
• Lowest driving voltage of generic alloy types, thus,
unsuitable for high resistivity soils and low salinity
waters.
• An operating potential of -1.05 V vs. Ag/AgCl/sea
water can not lead to overprotection, which is an
advantage where concern for coating disbandment
or hydrogen damage of high strength steel (>700
MPa) exist.
• Zinc has a poor capacity (780 Ah/Kg) compared
with aluminum (>2500 Ah/Kg).

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Aluminum
• Attraction: very high capacity.
• Three generic types: Al-Zn-In, Al-Zn-Hg and Al-
Zn-Sn (last one has been superseded).
• Indium and Mercury are added to overcome the
natural passivation of aluminum. However
aluminum anodes are not suitable for low chloride
environments, which would lead to passivation,
hence they are not used for land-based applications.
• Al-Zn-In may be preferred in sea bed mud (where
an additional driving voltage is required) to ensure
adequate structure polarization.
• Al anodes are less constant in their electrochemical
characteristics than zinc.
• Al alloys are susceptible to thermite sparking when
dropped to rusty surfaces.
• Aluminum anodes based on Al-Zn-In and Al-Zn-Hg
are now the work – horse materials for sea water
service.

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Magnesium
• Two generic types: Mg-Mn and Mg-Al-Zn, both
have a high driving voltage, hence find
applications in high resistivety environments.
• Mg-Mn alloy is useful in environments up to
60m. (200 mV driving voltage greater then Mg-
Al-Zn). However the high driving voltage may
result in over-protection.
• Magnesium rarely finds application in subsea
environments; mainly due to:
 Possibility of over-protection.
 High unit cost.
 Poor capacity.
• However Mg-Al-Zn anodes (in ribbon form) have
been used in seabed for rapid polarization of
structures.
• Susceptibility to theremite sparking precludes
consideration for applications involving a spark
hazard (e.g. tankers carrying inflammable
petroleum products).
• Magnesium is the predominant sacrificial anode
material for onshore use.

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Anode Testing
• Anode testing involves: screening ranking,
performance information and quality control.
• Screening tests: for rapid selection of materials as
potential candidates for the given application, and
are normally carried for a short duration (hours).
• Performance testing: (months or years) to
produce detailed data an anode performance and
behaviour under the anticipated exposure
conditions. Tests should mirror as closely as
possible the expected operating conditions.
• Quality control tests: to detect deviation from
manufacture specifications. This involves
spectrographic analysis as a primary quality
control check. Corrosion test conditions may
involve using artificial sea water to simulate
marine environment…etc. Corrosion test methods
include free corrosion, galvan-static,
potentiostatic tests…etc.

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 Cathodic Protection Design
• Important design parameters
The area of the steelwork to be protected;
The type of coating, if any that is to be used;
The cathodic current density;
Cathodic protection system life.
• Steel structures are normally coated. The %
breakdown area needs to be protected; this area
varies with time (Table 7).

Table 7: Guide to coating breakdown for offshore structures

Coating breakdown (%)
Lifetime
(years) Initial Mean Final

10 2 7 10

20 2 15 30

30 2 25 60

40 2 40 90

• Current density requirements to achieve

protection of steel in offshore structures (to
achieve -0.8V vs. Ag/AgCl/sea water) are given
(Tables 8 )

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Table 8: Guidance on minimum design current densities for cathodic
protection of bare steel

Current density (mA/m2)

Area Initial Mea Final
n
North Sea (northern sector, 180 90 120
57-62N)
North Sea (southern sector, 150 90 100
up to 57N)
Arabian Gulf 130 70 90
India 130 70 90
Australia 130 70 90
Brazil 130 70 90
West Africa 130 70 90
Gulf of Mexico 110 60 80
Indonesia 110 60 80
Pipelines burial specified) 50 40 40
Saline mud (ambient 25 20 15
temperature)

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System Life
•The system may be designed for a life of up to 40
years.
•Intermittent exposure to be taken into account
(e.g. ballast or storage taken, effect of tidal and
seasonal variation on wetted area in offshore
structure)…etc.

Calculating the Weight and Number of Individual

i Al 8760
Anodes W  av
C
•The total weight of anode required to protect the
structure for its project life is calculated. This is
given by:

Where W= total mass of anode material (Kg)

A= structure area to be protected (m2)

iav= mean structure current density demand (A/m2)
l= design life in years (l year = 8760 h)
C= anode capacity (Ah/Kg)

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• The total weight of the anode material must be
equal to or greater than the total weight, W,
calculated above. Similarly each anode must be
of sufficient size to supply current for the design
life of the cathodic protection system.
 Anode Size and Shape
• Choice of shape and size of the anode is often
limited. Economics may dictate an 'off-the-shelf'
choice from a manufacturer.

• Current output from an anode depends on its

surface area.

• Anodes of the same weight but different shape

can have different outputs.

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 Anode Output (I)
•That is the current of available from the anode under the
design conditions.
•It depends on the:
 Anode shape
 Resistivity of the environment.
 Protection potential of the structure.
 Anode operating potential.

[ E 2  E1 ]
I
R
Where I= anode output (A)
E1= operating potential of the anode (V)
E2= protection potential (V)
R= anode resistance (ohm)
The protection potential of steel in aerobic environments is taken as -0.80V (vs.
Ag/AgCl/seawater).

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Anode Life
•Having calculated the resistance, and hence current output
the anode life L, is checked by calculation:

MU
L 
IE

Where L= effective life of anode (years)

M= mass of single anode (Kg)
U = utilization factor, e.g. 0.75-0.80 for bracelet anode
E= consumption rate of the anode (Kg/Ay)
(inverse of capacity in suitable units)
I= anode output (A)
U is purely a function of anodic geometry and is the fraction of
anode material consumed when the remaining anode material cannot
deliver the current required.

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 The total number of anodes, N, is calculated
from:
A i av
N 
I
 N x M must be equal to or greater than the total
weight of the anode material.
 Difficult to achieve both the exact current output
and the precise weight of the anode material
simultaneously. Hence, a compromise is
reached, but both must at least match design
requirements.
 A check to ensure that the anodes will deliver
sufficient current to protect the structure at the
end of the design life should be conducted.
 Generally the output is calculated using a
modified resistance based on an anode that is
90% consumed.

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Anodes (and Current) Distribution

•A greater number of anodes distributed over the

structure improve current distribution (But: cost).
•The anode must continue to function throughout
the life of the structure. However very large number
of heavy anodes is impracticable and uneconomic.
•Adequate protection is essential and overprotection
should be avoided.
•Some flexibility in the output to weight ratio of the
anode can be achieved by varying anode shape.
•Proximity of the anode to the structure is important
(e.g. in a steel pipe-work).

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Typical anode shapes and fixing methods, (a) Offshore stand-
off anode; (b) Stand-off anode - types of bowed core; (c) Stand-
off anode, damp finings; (d) Typical tank fixing for shipping:
(e) Bracelet anode assembly

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 Zinc and magnesium anodes used in
onshore cathodic protection are usually
surrounded by a backfill which
decreases the resistance of the anode.
 Bag backfills are used for small anodes
and loose backfills are used for large
anodes.
 Backfill lowers the circuit resistance and
reduce potential loss.
 For high resistivity soils the most
common mixture for backfills is 75%
gypsum, 20% bentonite 5% sodium
sulphate.
 Carbonaceous backfills are relevant to
impressed current systems and must not
be used with sacrificial anodes. This is
an electronic conductor which is noble
to both sacrificial anode and material.

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Other Considerations
Calcareous Scale
• Increased local pH at the steel surface caused by
hydroxyl production favors the deposition of a
mixed scale of CaCO3 and Mg (OH)2.
• This scale is beneficial as it reduces the cathodic
current density.
• Increased current densities in the early stages of
operation encourage scale deposition.

Combined Alloy Anodes for Rapid Structure

Polarization
• New binary alloy sacrificial anodes have been
developed.
• A short life supplementary magnesium anode or
anodes may be attached to an aluminum anode for
quick polarization of the structure.

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Impressed Current
Anodes

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 Many electronic conducting materials may be
utilized as impressed current anodes.

 Important: their cost per unit of energy emitted,

their electrochemical inertness and mechanical
durability and the cathodic protection system.

 Choice of a material which does not pollute potable

water for example may add cost (chromium
containing or lead – based alloys are typical
pollutants).

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Materials used:
1. Precious metals and oxides: platinised titanium,
platinised niobium, platinised tantalum, platinised
silver, solid platinum metals, mixed metal oxide-
coated titanium, titanium oxide-based ceramics,

2. Ferrous materials: steel, cast iron, iron, stainless

steel, high-silicon iron, high-silicon molybdenum
iron, high-silicon chromium iron, magnetite, ferrite.

3. Lead materials: lead-antimony-silver, lead with

platinum alloy micro-electrodes, lead/magnetite,
lead dioxide/titanium, lead dioxide/ graphite.

4. Carbonaceous materials: graphite, carbon, graphite

chips, coke breeze, conductive polymer, conductive
paint.

5. Consumable non-ferrous metals: aluminium, zinc.

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Combination Anodes
 These may be:
 Canister anodes: a spirally wound galvanized steel
outer casing containing a carbonaceous based
extender surrounding the primary anode (graphite,
silicon iron titanium, Platinized titanium …etc).
 Groundbeds: carbonaceous extender, generally
coke breeze and graphite, silicon – iron scrap
steel, platinized titanium or niobium anodes.
 Co-axial anodes: copper – cored anodes of lead –
silver, platinized titanium and platinized niobium.
 For long lengths of anodes it may be sometimes
necessary to extrude one material over another, e.g.
titanium over copper to improve longitudinal
conductivity and current attenuation characteristics
of titanium.
 Tubular, rather than solid rod cantilever anodes may
be used in flowing water environments to resist
fatigue failure.

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Platinum and Platinized – Coated Anodes
 A small mass of platinum can give a very large
surface area, and platinum can operate at very high
current densities.

 Typical consumption rates of precious metals and

their alloys are in the range of 6-7 mgA-1y-1 or
slightly higher, These are the results of test for
several months in sea water at current densities
ranging from 540 – 5400 Am-2.

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Platinized Titanium
The anodes are mainly produced by electro-
deposition of a thin coating of Pt from aqueous
solution on roughened titanium

Mechanically bonded coatings may also be

produced. These have the advantage that thick, low
porosity, ductile platinum coatings can be produced.

Pt coatings can also be thermally sprayed or

sputtered onto the titanium to provide uniform well –
bonded coatings.

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Operational Characteristics of Platinized –
Titanium Anodes
 The protective passive film can breakdown in
certain solutions (Table 1).

 These anodes may be operated at current

densities as high as 5400 Am-2.

 Consumption rates in sea water over the current

density range 300-5000 Am-2 is in the range 8.7
– 17.4 mg A-1y-1 .

 Formation of deposits leading to anode

degradation.

 Organic impurities in the electrolyte can lead

to an increased consumption rate of Pt
dissolution.

 Platinized – titanium anodes are in use for about 30

years for jetties, ships and submarines, and may be
used in soils when surrounded by a carbonaceous

backfill.

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 Table 1: Breakdown potentials of commercially pure
titanium in various environments

Breakdown
potentials of
Electrolyte and conditions commercially pure
titanium
(V)
Tests in pure seawater at ambient temperatures 8.5-15
Tests in NaCl from 5 g / l to saturated below 60C 8.5-15
Sea water 9-14
Sulphuric acid 80-100
Chloride 8
Sulphate 60
Carbonate 60
Phosphate 60
Fluoride 50
Bromide 2-3
Iodide 2-3
Sulphate >80
Phosphate >80
Ratio of sulphate plus carbonate to chloride ions, 4:1 >35

River water 50
Tap water 80

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Platinized Niobium and Platinized Tantalum (Table 2)
 Platinized niobium and tantalum have found use in
applications where high breakdown potentials and
hence higher operational current densities can be
utilized.

 Examples:

- Ships and cooling system anodes.

- Offshore structures where high reliability in service

is required.

- Domestic water tanks

- Deep well groundbeds

 The consumption rate of platinized niobium in sea

water over the range 5000 – 10000 Am-2 is similar to
platinized titanium i.e. ~ 7.8 mg A-1y-1.

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 Table 2: Comparison of breakdown potential
Solutions Ti Nb Ta
Seawater 9 120 120
Sulphate/carbonate 60 255 280

Phosphate/borate 80 250 280

Drinking water 37.5 250 280
Bromides 2-3

Platinized Silver
• Used only in sea water or similar chloride –
containing electrolytes.
• An anode consisting of Pt-10 Pd on Ag was tried
as substitute for rapidly consumed aluminum for
use as a trailing wire anode for the cathodic
protection of ship hulls, and has been operated at
1900 Am-2.
• With the advent of hull mounted anodes this
material has been replaced by the superior
platinized titanium and niobium anodes.

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Mixed Metal Oxide Coated Titanium
• The anode consists of a thin film of valve and
precious metal oxides baked onto a titanium substrate.
• When first developed it was given the proprietary
name of Dimensionally Stable Anode (DSA).
• The precise composition of the alloy coating is
generally considered proprietary information.
• These anodes, like platinized titanium, may be
supplied in different forms e.g. rod, tube, mesh, wire,
etc.

Conductive Titanium Oxide Based Ceramics

• An electrically conductive titanium oxide based
ceramic material has been developed recently, and
is marketed under the trade name "Ebonex". This
material consists principally of Ti4O7 but may also
contain some higher oxides.

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Ferrous Materials
Steel
• One of the earliest materials to be used in power-
impressed cathodic protection was steel. Its
economy lies in situations where steel scrap is
available in suitable quantities and geometry and it
is only in such situations where its use would now
be considered.
• It is necessary to ensure the integrity of anode
cable connections and to give consideration to the
number of such connections related to longitudinal
resistance of the anode and current attenuation, if
early failure is to be avoided.
Cast Iron
• Cast iron may be used under similar
circumstances, but has inferior mechanical
properties. It has been used, although not in current
practice.

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Stainless Steel
• Stainless steel has been tried as an inert anode,
mainly under laboratory conditions and with only
partial success.
• At practical current densities, the presence of
chloride ions, deposits on the anode or crevice
corrosion at the anode support lead to rapid failure.
High Silicon Iron (HSI)
• These are iron alloys that contain 14-18% Si.
• The only practical method of machining is by
grinding, and to obviate machining it is cast into
fairly standard sizes to suit the general requirements
of industry.
• HSI has a long successful history as a corrosion-
resistant material in the chemical industry for such
items as acid storage vessels and has been used in
this application for more than 60 years. A typical
analysis for HSI anodes is 14.5% Si, 0.75% Mn,
0.95%C, remainder Fe.
• The consumption rate of HSI anodes buried directly
in soils will vary depending upon the soil
composition and will be excessive in chloride-
containing soils.
High Silicon / Molybdenum Iron
• The addition of 1-3% Mo to HSI results in an
improvement in maintaining a conducting oxide
film in chloride-containing solutions above 200
p.p.m. or at temperatures of 38oC or above.

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High Silicon / Chromium Iron (HSCI)
• A typical analysis is 14.5% Si, 0.75% Mn, 1.0% C,
4.5% Cr, and remainder Fe.
• Comparative tests between HSI and HSCI in
seawater at 93oC and 10.8 Am-2 showed
consumption rates of 8.4kg A-1y-1 and 0.43kg A-1y-1,
respectively.
• HSCI anodes cannot be used in potable waters because
of the possibility of chromium contamination.
• Improvements in anode construction have also been
carried out to reduce the non-uniform material loss
along the length of the HSCI anode, the so-called 'end
effect' phenomenon. This involves the use of hollow,
centrifugally cast anodes of uniform wall thickness
with a centrally located interior electrical connection.
Magnetite Anodes
• The anodes are constructed from a cast alloyed
magnetite shell, the centre of which is hollow. The
internal surfaces of the magnetite shell are then lined
with an electronic conductor so as to ensure a uniform
distribution of current density over the external surface.
• Magnetite anodes exhibit a relatively low consumption
rate when compared with other anode materials,
namely graphite, silicon iron and lead and can be used
in seawater.
• Magnetite anodes can be operated at elevated
temperatures up to 90oC
• The main disadvantage of magnetite anodes is that they
are brittle, and susceptible to high-impact shocks.

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High Silicon / Chromium Iron (HSCI)
• A typical analysis is 14.5% Si, 0.75% Mn, 1.0% C,
4.5% Cr, and remainder Fe.
• Comparative tests between HSI and HSCI in
seawater at 93oC and 10.8 Am-2 showed
consumption rates of 8.4kg A-1y-1 and 0.43kg A-1y-
1, respectively.
• HSCI anodes cannot be used in potable waters
because of the possibility of chromium
contamination.
• Improvements in anode construction have also been
carried out to reduce the non-uniform material loss
along the length of the HSCI anode, the so-called
'end effect' phenomenon. This involves the use of
hollow, centrifugally cast anodes of uniform wall
thickness with a centrally located interior electrical
connection.

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Ferrite Anodes
 Sintered and sprayed ceramic anodes have
been developed for cathodic protection
applications. The ceramic anodes are
composed of a group of materials classified as
ferrites with iron oxide as the principal
component.

 Ceramic anodes based on a plasma-sprayed

ferrite coating on a titanium or niobium
substrate have also been developed. These
consist of plasma-sprayed lithium, nickel or
cobalt ferrite on a machined Ti or Nb button
shaped substrate fitted into a plastic electrode
holder.

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Lead Materials
 The Pb-6Sb-1Ag alloy is commonly used where
Pb-Ag anodes are specified. The results of tests
on Pb-6Sb-lAg given in Table 3 are of interest in
recognizing the scope of practical lead alloys in
waters of differing resistivities.

 A minimum current density is necessary to

ensure passivation of the anode and anodes
operating below this current density may
experience rapid consumption rates. A minimum
value of 32.3 Am-2 is required.

 Recent experience with Pb-6Sb-1Ag and Pb/Pt

anodes operating in seawater at depths greater
than 25m has revealed a marked increase in
consumption rate compared with that found on
the surface.

 It is therefore recommended that lead anodes are

not used at depths below 25m.

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 Table 3: Behavior of Pb-6Sb-IAg anodes
Resistivity of Average wastage Length of trial
electrolyte at 35C rate at 108 Am-2 (days)
(ohm m) Kg A -1 y-1

0.163 (sea) 0.086 236

0.163 (NaCl) 1.99 1.75
0.5 (sea) 0.0145 234
0.5 (NaCl) 0.654 1.75
10 (sea) 23.80 5.75
10 (NaCl) 23.70 1.75
50 (sea) 0.10 236
50 (NaCl) 11.64 1.75

Lead / Platinum Bi-Electrodes

• A typical anode for practical use would be in the
order of 25 to 48mm in diameter, with hard
platinum alloy pin, of 0.50mm diameter by 10mm
length, spaced every 150 to 300mm and
progressively positioned around the circumference.

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Lead / Magnetite Composites
• It has been demonstrated that particles of
conducting Fe3O4 in a Pb matrix can produce
results similar to that of platinum, in acting as
stable nucleation sites for PbO2 formation.
• These anodes were found to operate successfully
in both artificial seawater, resistivity 0.25  m
and in this water diluted with distilled water to
give a higher resistivity of 10  m.

Lead Dioxide on Other Substrates

• Lead dioxide on a titanium substrate has also been
tested for use in the cathodic protection of heat
exchangers and in seawater may be operated at
current densities up to 1000 Am-2.

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Graphite

• Graphite is a denser crystalline form of carbon

Graphite anodes are prepared by heating calcined
petroleum coke particles with a coal tar pitch
binder.
• Graphite is immune to chlorine and has a long
history in the chemical industry in this and similar
applications.
• The anode is not recommended for use in water at
above 50oC, where the consumption rate increases
rapidly.
• Table 4 gives some results obtained with graphite
under different conditions.
• Graphite anodes when used in soils are invariably
placed in a carbonaceous backfill. This helps to
compensate for the lower electrical resistivity of
graphite when compared with silicon iron.

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 Table 4: Performance of graphite

Environment Wastage rate Current

Kg A -1 y-1 density
(Am-2)
Backfill 0.9 10.8
Hot Water 0.9 -
Sea water 0.045 4.5-115
Sea water Little 10.8
Fresh water 0.45 3.5
Fresh water 0.45 2.7
Mud 0.91-1.36 71

Conductive Polymers
• The anode, marketed under the trade name
Anodeflex, consists of a continuous stranded
copper conductor (6AWG) which is encased in a
thick jacket of carbon loaded polymer, overall
diameter 12.5mm.
• The major applications for this material are tank
protection, internal protection, mitigation of poor
current distribution and hot spot protection, i.e. to
supplement conventional cathodic protection
systems and provide increased levels of cathodic
protection in areas that exhibit low levels of
protection.

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Carbonaceous Backfills
• Coke breeze is used as an anode extender thus
producing an anode with an enormous surface area,
its main component being carbon.
• The grading of the coke is of some importance in
that too large a grade offers large local contact
resistance, leading to uneven consumption, whilst an
excessively fine coke leads to over-tight compaction
and gas blocking (gaseous polarization).
• Some typical properties of coke breeze and similar
materials are shown in Tables 5 to 7.
• The usual main object in using coke breeze is to
lower the resistance of the anode to remote earth
with the coke cross -section, in a typical
groundbed, normally about 300 x 300 mm.
• Calcined petroleum coke breeze with a high fixed
carbon content of 99% is used in deep well
applications. The material has a low particle size
and, with suitable additives, may be converted into
slurry and pumped into a borehole.

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 Table 5: Densities of backfill
Back fill in bulk Density range Typical
kg m-3 density
kgm-3
Coal coke breeze 650-800 690
Calcined petroleum 700-1100 720-850
coke granules
Natural graphite 1100-1300 -
granules
Man-made graphite, 1100-1300 -
crushed

Table 6: Typical coal coke specification for cathodic protect

To pass 16 mm screen 100%

To pass between 16 mm and 8 8.9-9.8%
mm screen
To pass between 8 mm and I 78-90%
mm screen
To pass I mm screen 1-14
Fixed Number 82.7min to9l% max
Volatile matter 0.1%
Ash 8.6%
Moisture 5% max, typically 4%
Sulphur 1.2 max , typically
Phosphorus 0.42-0.7%
Resistivity (uncompacted) 0.55 ohm max, (typically
0.35 ohm)
Specific gravity 1.4

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Table 7: Resistivities of carbonaceous backfills (ohm meter)
Material Dry Tempered Wet
Coal coke 0.55 0.45 0.15
Graphite granules 1.5 1.2 0.20

Anodes Used for the Cathodic Protection of

Reinforced Concrete Structures
• Reinforced concrete structures that are fully
immersed or buried in a corrosive
environment may generally be protected using
conventional cathodic protection ground-bed
design.
• However, for the cathodic protection of
above-ground reinforced concrete structures,
e.g. bridge decks, jetties, tunnel parking
garages, and certain concrete buildings, a
number of specific anode systems have been
developed. These are applied directly onto the
concrete surface and often consist of a
primary and secondary anode. Theses include
the following:

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• Conductive Overlay Systems
• Conductive Polymers
• Slotted Anode Systems
• Conductive Paints
• Mixed Metal Oxide Coated Titanium Mesh

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Practical Applications of
Cathodic Protection

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 The practical application of C. P. remains
more of an art than a science. Why?
 Both the structure to be protected and the
anode used for protection must be in both
metallic and electrolytic contact.
 Forms of corrosion which can be controlled
by cathodic protection include all forms of
general corrosion, pitting corrosion,
graphitic corrosion, crevice corrosion,
stress-corrosion cracking, corrosion fatigue,
cavitations corrosion, bacterial corrosion,
etc.

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 Structures that are Cathodically
Protected
 Underground and underwater.
 Above ground (internal surfaces
only).
 Floating structures.

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Type of System
 The use of an impressed-current system or
sacrificial anodes will both provide
satisfactory cathodic protection, but each has
advantages and disadvantages with respect to
the other (Table 1).
 The main anodic reactions may be
summarized as follows:
 Sacrificial anodes M  M 2   2 e
Primary reactions
Secondary reaction M z  zH 2O  M OH z  zH 
 Impressed-current anodes
3 H 2 O  2 H 3 O   2 e  21O 2
and / or 2 Cl 
 Cl 2  2e
C  O2  CO 2
or, in the case of graphite anodes:

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• Sacrificial anodes are normally restricted
to environments having a resistivity of
<6000 cm there is no similar limitation
in the use of power impressed system.
• In the protection of pipelines or other
underground structures the actual anode
is the carbonaceous backfill, and
graphite or silicon-iron anodes are used
primarily to make electrical contact
between the cable and the backfill.

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Advantages:
 No external source of power is required;
 Installation is relatively simple;
 The danger of cathodic protection interaction
is minimized;
 More economic for small schemes;
 The danger of over-protection is alleviated;
 Even current distribution can be easily
achieved;
 Maintenance is not required apart from
routine potential checks;
 Replacement of anodes at the end of their
useful life.
 No running costs.

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Disadvantages:
 Maximum anode output when first installed
decreasing with time when additional current
may be required to overcome coating
deterioration;

 Current output in high resistivity electrolytes

might be too low and render anodes
ineffective;

 Large numbers of anodes may be required to

protect large structures resulting in high anode
installation; and replacement costs;

 Anodes may require replacement at frequent

intervals when current output is high.

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Advantages:
 One installation can protect a large area
of metal;
 Systems can be designed with a reserve
voltage and amperage to cater for
increasing current requirement due to
coating deterioration;
 Current output can be easily varied to suit
requirements;
 Schemes can be designed for a life in
excess of 20 years;
 Current requirements can be readily
monitored on the transformer-rectifier or
other d.c. source;
 Automatic control of current output or of
the structure potential can be achieved.

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 Disadvantages:
 Possible interaction effects on other
buried structures;
 Subject to the availability of a
suitable a.c. supply source or other
source of d.c.;
 Regular electrical maintenance checks
and inspection required; running costs
for electrical supply (usually not very
high except in the case of bare marine
structures and in power stations where
structures are often bare and include
bimetallic couples);
 Subject to power shutdown and
failures.

 Hybrid Systems
 Offshore structures are often
protected by hybrid systems using
both sacrificial anodes and
impressed-current.

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 • Comparison of cathodic protection systems are given in Table 1

Table 1: Methods of application of cathodic protection

Sacrificial Impressed current Stray current
anode (power impressed) (drained current)

Characteristics Metal protected Impressed currentsBuried structures

by sacrificial using transformer bonded into
wastage of rectifiers or any traction system in
more other D.C. source such a way as lo
electronegative receive impressed
metal -current protect
ion
Anode Materials Magnesium, Carbon, silicon iron, Bonded directly
aluminum or lead-platinum, into stray d.c.
zinc (iron for platinum platinised supply
copper and Titanium
copper alloys) Platinised, niobium,
scrap iron. platinum
metal oxides
deposited on
titanium
substrate
Current source Faradic Source of low- Drained from d.c.
equivalent of Voltage d.c. This traction or stray-
sacrificial metal may be generated current supply
in practice the or drawn from
efficiency is transformer-
seldom 100% rectifier fed from
main supply
Installation Extremely More complex Simple
simple
Possibilities of very Very significant Stray current
secondary improbable especially in built- effects are
interaction in providing up areas basically
foreign anodes properly associated with
structures located with primary power
respect to supply
surface being
protected

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 Table 1 (cont.): Methods of application of cathodic protection

Sacrificial Impressed current Stray current

anode (power impressed) (drained current)
Application Small land Especially suited to large Applicable only in
for which based schemes schemes proximity to stray
scheme and for d.c. areas
economical avoidance of
interaction
problems.
Marine
structure e.g.
offshore plat
forms
Major High soil/water Impracticable for small
limitation resistivity’s and schemes on account of
small driving high installation
e,m,f. may costs
require a large Requires an external
number of power source
anodes
Reasonably Varies-maximum at
uniform drainage point falling
towards remote points,
Potential but not below the
distribution optimum potentials for
protection, i.e. in most
cases the potential -0-85
V
Cannot be Can be used in high-
Current applied m high resistivity environment
limitation resistivity
environments

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Stray Current Protection or Forced
Drainage
• A metallic bond between the pipeline and
the negative bus of the railway substation.
(Fig. 1).

Fig.1: Bond between pipeline and d.c.

• A reverse-current prevention device or

electrolyses switch is normally used at the
bond.

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Design of a Cathodic-Protection System
To enable an engineer to design a cathodic-
protection scheme, consideration should be
given to the following points (Table 2).
• Good coating
The current density required for a bare steel
pipeline in average soil conditions could be
up to 30 mA/m2 whereas a well coated-
pipeline would require only 0.01 mA/m2
• Surface Area should include any off-
takes and other metal structures in
electrical contact with the main line.

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• Electrical Continuity
• Estimation of Current Required (Table 3)
• Application of a temporary cathodic-
protection system may be necessary to
determine the amount of current required
for protection, as established by the
potential.
• Establishing Electrolyte Resistivity
• Economics

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 Table 2: Steps in design of cathodic protection installation
Sacrificial and impressed-current anodes
1. Establish soil or water resistivity
2. Estimate total current requirements which will depend on
aggressiveness of like environment nature of protective coating, area of
structure, materials of construction.
3. Establish electrical continuity of structure.
4. Consider requirements for electrical isolation in order to restrict the
spread of protective current. Alternatively assess extra current allowance
for unrestricted spread.
Sacrificial impressed-current
5. Selected suitable anode metal; 5. Consider the number and disposition of
calculate total mass of metal anodes/ground beds bearing in mind:
for required life. (i) Uniformity of current distribution
(ii) Proximity to available power supplies
(iii) Avoidance of interaction
(iv ) Avoidance of mechanical damage
(v)Desirability of low resistivity environment

6. Select individual anode shape to 6. Select suitable anode martial

satisfy total current distribution
requirements.
7. Check that total anode weight as 7. Calculate anode/ground bed size shape,
determined by (6) will satisfy the configuration.
requirements of (5).

8. Consider facilities for monitoring 8. Calculate circuit, resistance and system d.c.
performance volts,
9. Consider facilities required for control/
monitoring

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Table 3: Typical values of current requirements for steel Free from
adverse galvanic influences in various environments
Environment Current density required or
adequate cathodic protection*
based on superficial area
(mA/m2)
Bare steel
Sterile, neutral soil 4.3-16.1
Well-aerated natural soil 21.5-32.3
Dry, well-aerated soil 5.4-16.1
Wet soil, moderate/severe conditions 26.9-64.6
Highly acid soil 53.8-161.4
Soil supporting active sulphate-reducing 451.9
bacteria
Heated in soil (e.g. hoi-water discharge 53.8-269.0
(me)
Dry concrete 5.4-16.1
Moist concrete 53.8-269.0
Stationary fresh water 53.8
Moving fresh water
Fresh water highly turbulent and 53.8-64.6
containing
dissolved oxygen 53.8-I61.4
Hot water 53.8-161.4
Polluted estuarine water 538.0-1614.0
Sea-water 53.8-269.0
Chemicals, acid or alkaline solution in 53.8-269.0
process tanks
Heat-exchanger water boxes with non- 1345.0 overall
ferrous tube plates and tubes

Well coated steels (pipelines)

Soils 0.01

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Impressed-Current Systems (Table 4)
• Cathodic-protection schemes utilizing the
impressed-current method fall into two
basic groups, dictated by the anode
material:

Group 1

 Graphite, silicon-iron and scrap-steel

anodes used for buried structures and
landward faces of jetties, wharves,
etc.

Group 2

 Platinized-titanium, platinized-
niobium, lead and lead-platinum
anodes used for submerged structures,
ships and power stations.

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 Table 4 Impressed-current anodes

Max working Approx. consumption (kg/A

capacity A/m-2 year)
Material
Soil Sea Soil Sea water
water
Scrap steel 5.4 5.4 8.0 10.0
Silicon cast 5.4 5.4 6.0 8.0
iron
Silicon iron 32 32-43 <0.1 0.1
Graphaite 11 21.5 0.25 0.5
Lead - 107-215 - -
Lead-platinum - 1080 - -
Platinum- - <10800 - -
titanium
Platinum <10800 - -
Platinum- - <10800 - -
tantalum
Aluminium - 21.5 - 4.0

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Soil or Water Resistivity Survey
• Soil resistivity measurements are carried
out by the Wenner technique using
commercially available instruments.
• In the case of a pipeline route, variations
in soil resistivity may stimulate localized
corrosion , the area in the soil of lower
resistivity is usually anodic (more
negative) compared to that in the soil of
higher resistivity.
• A typical soil resistivity survey is shown
in Fig. 2. It may, as a result of the
survey, be considered desirable to apply
protection to the whole line or to limit
protection to certain areas of low soil
resistivity or 'hot spots.

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Fig. 2: Typical resistivity survey

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• The cost of protecting uncoated
structures is relatively high and expense
may prohibit complete protection.

• In the case of high-pressure gas and oil

lines, it is common practice to apply
cathodic protection irrespective of the
soil resistivity or coating condition.

• Soil resistivity survey is often

impractical in built-up areas. In such
areas impressed-current cathodic
protection is usually avoided on account
of the danger of interaction.

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Impressed-current Design
Design steps:
• Select the current density to be applied from
the results of cathodic protection tests and
from any available data.
• Compute the total current requirement to
achieve the required current density (total
current = current density x superficial
surface area).
• Design the groundbed system in accordance
with procedures outlined.

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• Design the d.c. wiring system for the
most economical cable size in
accordance with standard electrical
practices and then calculate the total IR
drop in the circuit.
• Select rectifier voltage and current
outputs.
• Design the electrical circuits, fittings
and switchgears in accordance with
standard electrical practice.
• Select the location of cathodic-
protection test stations.
• Prepare project drawings and
specifications.

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 A typical installation (Fig. 5.3)

Fig. 3: Groundbeds for buried pipes using impressed current

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Anode Backfill
• The carbonaceous backfill surrounding
an anode is essential and serves a
number of functions, e.g.:
o Being of low resistivity it has the
effect of increasing the anode size
with resulting reduction in
resistance to earth.
o Most of the current is transmitted
to the backfill from the anode by
direct contact, so that the greater
part of material consumption is on
the outer edges of the backfill
column enabling the anodes
themselves to have an increased
life.
• The backfill composition may be of
several types varying from coke breeze
to man-made graphite particles.

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 Calculated in accordance with the formula
originally developed by Dwight.

Resistance of a single horizontal rod anode

  4L 
RH   n  1
and 2L  d 
  8L 
R   n  1
2 L 
v
d 
Resistance of a single vertical rod anode

Where RH is the resistance of a single

horizontal anode (), Rv is the resistance of
a single vertical anode (),  is the
resistivity (cm) of soil or backfill, L is the
length of rod (cm) and d is the diameter of
the rod (cm).

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 Where anodes are installed in special
backfill, two series resistances are present
– anode to backfill and backfill to soil. In
practice, and with coke breeze backfill, a
single calculation based upon the
dimensions of the backfill column and soil
resistivity is satisfactory.
  8L 2L 
R   n 1   n 0 . 656 N 
2 NL  d S 

Where R= resistance to earth () of the

vertical anodes in parallel,  = soil
resistivity (cm), N= number of anodes in
parallel, L = length of anode (cm), d =
diameter of anode (cm) and S = anode
spacing (cm).

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Deep Well Ground-beds
This type of groundbed is illustrated in
Fig. 4 and is normally employed where
the surface soil resistivities are very
high, e.g. in desert areas.

Fig. 4: Deep well installation

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 Determining Rectifier Voltage

In determining the rectifier voltage, the

following must be taken into consideration:

 Voltage drop caused by groundbed

resistance, as previously explained.

 Back voltage polarization between

groundbed and pipeline.

 Resistance to earth of the pipeline at the

groundbed location.

 Resistance of the cable from the pipeline

to the power source and from the power
source to and along the comprising the
groundbed.

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Attenuation

• When cathodic protection is applied to an

underground metal structure the greatest

effect on the pipe to soil potential is at

drainage point. This effect decreases, or

attenuates, as the distance from the

drainage point increase.

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Field Measurements of Attenuation
 In order to obtain the actual field attenuation
characteristics, a pipeline can be placed
under temporary cathodic protection and
measurements made under different
cathodic-protection current conditions.
 A 'natural' pipe to soil potential survey
should be made over the length of the line to
which cathodic protection is to be applied.
 Fig. 5.

Fig. 5: Longitudinal distribution potential on pipeline

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• The polarization potential and the driving
voltage are then plotted on semi-
logarithmic paper using the same
horizontal scale (Fig. 6). Attenuation is
more rapid in low resistivity soils than in
high resistivity soils.

Fig. 6: Attenuation curve on pipeline shown in Fig. 5.4 Upper

curve shows driving voltage lower curve the pipe/soil
potential

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 Measurement between Drainage Points
• Figure 7 shows typical curves for a bare
pipe and poorly coated pipe in similar
soils, and it can be seen that the former
has a much steeper attenuation curve than
the latter.

Fig. 7: Attenuation curves for bare pipe and poorly coated

pipe in similar soils

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 Figure 8 shows how the desired
protection level of potential has been
attained between widely spaced
drainage points.

Fig. 8: Attenuation curve for multiple drainage

points of moderate size

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Coating Resistance
• The leakage resistance of given section
of pipeline can be determined by the
following procedure:
 Applying temporary cathodic
protection to the pipeline and
measuring the pipe-to-soil potential for
a given driving voltage of various test
points spaced along the pipeline from
the drainage point. The drainage
current should also be measured.
 Calculating the attenuation constant.
 Measuring or calculating the
longitudinal resistance of the pipeline.
The resistance can be calculated from:
2  1
R 
dt

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Where  is the specific resistivity, l is the
length of the pipeline, d is the diameter
and t is the thickness in appropriate and
consistent units.

 If it has been evaluated for 1000 ft of

pipeline leakage resistance of the
coating Rc is given by:
Rc = 262dRL

 Where Rc is in  ft and d is the external

diameter of the pipe (in), and RL is the
leaking resistance.

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Types of Cables for Anode Installations
 Cables used for anode groundbeds must
be well insulated and suited to
operational conditions. Mechanical
damage from sharp coke particles and
chemical attack from generated gases
(e.g. chlorine) may be prevented by the
use of PTFE additional sleeving or a
similar material.
Power sources for cathodic protection
 Where a.c. supplies exist, transformer-
rectifiers are the most economical source
of d.c. for cathodic protection system.
They range in size from 5A, 5V for small
systems to 100A, 48V for major pipeline
schemes.
 Where a.c. supplies do not exist, other
sources of power can be used such as d.c.
generators, and either diesel or gas
driven.
 Thermoelectric generators may be
considered if the power requirement is
relatively low.

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 • Table 5
Table 5: Thermo electric generators
Electrical characteristics Fuel consumption
Powe Load Load Power Propane Natural
r voltag current range
e Kg/h liter/h
(W) (A) (W)
(V)

9 1 9.0 8.5-10.0 0.033 0.077 0.035

15 2 7.5 14-18 0.059 0.105 0.054
28 3.8 7.3 26-32 0.082 0.191 0.1
50 6 8.3 46-60 0.136 0.322 0.2
100 12 8.3 92-120 0.272 0.636 0.4
200 6 33 188-420 0.544 1.273 0.8

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Protection of Power Station or Refinery
Seawater-Cooled Circulating Water Systems

a) Sacrificial Anodes

• The use of sacrificial anodes in circulating

water systems is limited to the application
of cathodic protection to stop gates, coarse
screens and other parts that are readily
accessible so that the anodes can be
replaced when they are consumed.

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• Such anodes are not normally used in
condensers, pumps and auxiliary coolers
for the following reasons:
 Frequent replacement required with
consequent shut-down of the plant
concerned.
 Anodes required to be very large to
provide the current density
necessary.
 Anodes can interfere with the water
flow.
 Corrosion products from anodes can
cause tube blockage and subsequent
failure.

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Anodes for the internal protection of plant are
normally of platinised titanium.

1- Continuous Anodes: considerable lengths of

relatively flexible copper-cored material
contoured to suit restricted spaces or to distribute
current in a localized fashion.

2- Rod Anodes These consist of solid or copper-

cored titanium rod, portions of which can be
platinised.

3- Tubular Anodes Tubular anodes are used where

water conditions on the plant under protection are
known to be turbulent.

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Impressed – Current - Systems
• Impressed–current systems for power
stations are somewhat more sophisticated
than those required for pipelines or marine
structures
• Each section of every water box in order
to provide even current distribution
requires one or more anodes.
• In the case of a large circulating water
pump as many as 30 anodes may be
required to provide the current distribution
necessary. These types of system should
be considered as follows:
•Manually controlled.
•Automatically thyristor controlled.
•Automatically controlled modular.

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 Manually Controlled System
A manually controlled system comprises
one or more transformer – rectifiers each
with its associated control panels which
supply the d.c. to the various anodes
installed in the water box spaces.
 When coolers or condensers are shut-
down but remain full of water, the amount
of current required to maintain
satisfactory cathodic protection is
considerably reduced.
 If the current is not reduced over-
protection occurs and excessive amount of
chlorine can be generated causing
considerable corrosion to the water boxes
and possibly to the tubes.
 To ensure against this a standby condition
should be included on the control panel
which effectively reduces the current
required under shut-down conditions.

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 Automatically – Thyristor-Controlled System
This method is basically the same as the
manual system. However, the current output
of the transformer – rectifier is automatically
maintained at a level to ensure satisfactory
cathodic protection under all operating
conditions. It is also usual to fit reference
(monitoring) electrodes as an independent
check on the performance of sensing
electrodes.
 Automatically Controlled Modular System
This method employs one large manually
controlled transformer – rectifier used in
conjunction with a number of modular
cabinets located adjacent to each item of
plant requiring protection.

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 Marine Structures

The method of applying cathodic protection to

immersed structures will depend on several
factors including:

 Size of the project.

 Availability of power supply.

 Possibility of problems from interaction.

 Necessity for safety from spark hazard.

 Expected economic life of the system.

 Fig. 9

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Fig. 9: Protection of offshore marine oil-drilling rig, (a) with
external zinc (or aluminum) anodes and (b) with
impressed current using platinised titanium or
platinised niobium.

• Current density requirements depend

on the environment, galvanic effects,
velocities and other factors
influencing polarization.
• Groundbeds remote from the structure
can be considered but usually with
this type of installation problems arise
due to damage to the connecting cable
by ships' anchors.

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Sheet Steel Piles
• For protection of sheet-steel piling, the anodes are
normally mounted within the re-entrants of the
piles to prevent mechanical damage by berthing
ships, dredging, etc….. (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10: Sheet steel piling installation

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•Water Storage Tanks
Sacrificial anodes are of limited application
due to accumulation of anode corrosion
product and also in many cases, to high
water resistivity.
Impressed current systems are normally
based upon anodes of silicon iron, platinised
titanium or platinised niobium.
Coatings are normally employed for water
storage tanks which result in relatively low
total current requirements in association with
the current densities given in Table 3.

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 Cathodic protection is effectively
supplied to ships' hulls and also to the
tanks of oil tankers and other vessels
where seawater is used for ballast or
other purposes.
 For internal protection sacrificial
anodes are normally employed of the
zinc or aluminum type.
 Impressed current is not normally
used because of the potential fire
hazard and also because of the anodic
generation of chlorine inside closed
water spaces.

Fig. 11: Impressed current system for ships

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  External hulls can be protected either by
sacrificial or impressed-current methods,
although impressed current is now preferred
(Fig. 11).
 Anodes of platinised titanium, lead-platinum or
lead, are mounted on the hull below the water
line and can be designed to have current outputs
of up to 200A.

 The current spread from an internally immersed

anode is directly related to pipe size and the
resistivity and temperature of the water; (Fig.
12). Small bore or high resistivities and velocities
further reduce the anode spacing.
 Cathodic protection is normally practicable only
in large bore pipes currying salt water.

Fig. 12: Internal Protection of pipe lines

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• Economics
• Typical cost curves plotted on a cost
versus the number of anodes in a
groundbed for an assumed set of
conditions are shown in Fig. 13 and 14.
Figure 13 is based on installation costs
only, whereas Fig. 14 indicates the
minimum annual cost.

Fig. 13: Total cost in relation to number of anodes

installed

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Fig. 14: Variation of minimum annual cost with
number of anodes installed

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STRAY- CURRENT CORRSION

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If a continuous metallic structure is immersed in an electrolyte
(e.g. placed in the sea or sea – bed or buried in the soil) stray
direct current from nearby electronic installations, of which parts
are not insulated from the soil, may flow to and from the
structure

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At points where stray current enters such
structure, the potential will be electrically
(catholically) protected partially or completely.
At points where stray current leaves the
structure, the potential will be more positive
and corrosion will occur with serious
consequences.

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In practice, buried metallic pipeline or cable
sheaths are liable to corrosion when direct
current flows from equipment associated with
electric railway traction systems; trolley vehicles
or tramway systems, electricity supply systems
or electric welding machines
This type of attack is known as stray current
corrosion.

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Fig. 1: Stray current from d.c. traction system

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 Mechanism of d.c. stray
current corrosion

When one vehicle of an electric train or tram

is in service, there will be rapid changes in
potentials and currents as the tram or train
moves along the running rails.

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Corrosion of the burned structure will occur at points
near the substation or near the negative feeder where the
stray current leaves the structure to return to the negative
busbar at the substation.

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In some cases buried cables or pipes have
been severely pitted by stray current
corrosion in less than one year after
installation.
The potential of the soil immediately
beneath the wheel may rise 10 or more
volts above the normal rail potential.

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There will be fluctuating potential changes in the
surrounding soil. Tests in such circumstances have
shown that, the potential difference between 2
reference electrodes placed in the soil about 100
meters apart near the railway will vary rapidly in
amplitude and polarity and may reach peak values of 3
or 4 volts .

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 The most common method of estimating the order
of magnitude of the current density flowing from the
buried structure to the adjacent soil is to measure the
potential of the pipe to nearby earth by means of a
high-resistance recording voltmeter connected
between the buried structure and the reference
(Cu/Cu-SO4) electrode buried in the soil close to the
structure.

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 The natural structure / soil potential ( the shutdown
potential ) is obtained by recording the steady – state
potential attained after the system has been de-
energized for at least one hour.

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Fig. 2: variation of cable sheath potential
due to stay d.c. traction currents
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 A.C. Stray Current Corrosion
In nearly all known cases of stray current
corrosion the damage is caused by direct current,
but; leakages of alternating currents at industrial
frequencies have been suspected of causing
corrosion of buried metallic structures.

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The mechanism of corrosion caused by a.c is not
yet clearly understood. The corrosion caused by
a.c is much less severe compared to d.c. stray-
current corrosion. At 50 Hz the corrosion caused
by a.c stray current is less than 1% of that caused
by equivalent d.c. stray current.

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 Methods of Control

The amount of stray current from running

rails should be controlled by limiting the
average difference in potential between any
point on the running rails and the nearest
substation negative feeder bus – bar.

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Attention should be given to reducing the
amount of stray current by improving the
conductivity of the running rails.
Provision for additional negative feeders
and increasing the resistance to earth of
running rails whenever possible (e.g. by
embedding rails in bituminous materials,
etc.)
The most satisfactory way of preventing
corrosion of nearby buried metallic structure
is by means of drainage bonds.
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 Drainage bonds

The structure is made cathodic to the

surrounding soil by being connected to the
negative feeders or to suitable point on the
running rails.
The connection may be direct through a
resistance or similar current collecting
device or through a suitable rectifying
device.

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 The rectifier must be capable of passing a
current of 1A when the potential of the
structure rises about ¼ V relative to the
adjacent rail e.g. lead – sheathed telephone
cable.

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Improvement effected by the provision of
polarized electric drainage

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Interrupting the longitudinal conductivity of
the buried pipe or cable by means of
insulating gaps or joints substantially
reduces the amount of stray current picked
up by the buried structure. Gaps should be
located at positions where current tends to
enter the structure and at points on each side
of the track where the pipe or cable crosses
under the rails.

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Protection against stray current
corrosion may be achieved through
applying protective coating.
Pipes are dipped in bituminous
compounds and wrapped with glass-
fiber or similar materials.

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At pinholes or discontinuities of the
coating, stray-current corrosion may
take place.
Additional protection must be applied.
This includes drainage bonds or direct
cathodic protection.

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 Cathodic protection interaction

Stray currents are produced in the

electrolyte during operation of cathodic
protection systems. Part of the protection
current may traverse nearby immersed
structures, which are not being
cathodically protected.

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The resultant corrosion produced on the
unprotected structure is referred to as
cathodic protection interaction.

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The cathodically protected primary
structures may be hulls of ships, jetties,
pipes, etc. immersed in water or pipes,
cables or tanks buried in the soil.

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The nearby unprotected secondary structures
subjected to interaction may be the hulls of
adjacent ships, unbonded parts of ship’s hull such
as the propeller blades or pipes and cables laid
close to the primary structure or to the cathodic
protection anode system or groundbed.

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 Methods of Estimating Interaction.
Two sources of interaction are considered;
a) Interaction caused by current flowing
from the groundbed (the anode effect).
- A structure buried near the groundbed of
a C.P system will pick up current. The
current will flow in the structure in each
direction away from a point close to the
groundbed.

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b)Interaction caused by the protection
current flowing to and from the
unprotected structure buried in the
vicinity (structure effect).

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Fig. 3: Cathodic protection and interaction
current with parallel pipelines.

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Due to leakage of protection current through the soil
between the protected structure and a nearby
unprotected structure, part of the protection current
may flow in a direction towards the point of
connection to the C.P. equipment

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Fig. 5: Change of current and potential of an
unconnected structure near a groundbed due to
cathodic-protection interaction
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The net effect at any point on the unprotected
structure is obtained by adding together the 2
currents due to (a) and (b).

The rate at which the net current is picked up or

discharged by the secondary structure will be
proportional to the changes in structure / soil
potential along the this structure.

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 At points where current is picked up the potential
change is negative and the natural rate of corrosion is
decreased.
 The structure to soil potential is made more positive
when the interaction current is discharged and the rate
of corrosion at such points is increased.

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 The maximum positive structure / soil potential occurs
where the gradient of the net current curve is steepest
(points – c,c’ on fig).
 If the groundbed is installed near the unprotected
structure, large negative potential changes may occur on
the structure at points close to the anode.

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The amount of interaction caused by a
protection system using galvanic anodes will be
much less than that involved in case of
impressed current protection system, because of
the low current output from each anode.
However, significant positive potential changes
have been measured when the galvanic anodes
are closely spaced and the distance between
structures is small.

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 The severity of corrosion interaction will
depend on the density of stray current discharged
at any point on the secondary structure. This
may be assessed by measuring the changes in
structure/soil potential due to the application of
protection current.

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Potential tests should be concentrated on the portions
of pipe or cable which are close to the structure to be
cathodically protected where the potential change is
likely to be more positive.
Experiments showed that in conditions simulating
corrosion of mild steel burried in soil, a positive
potential change of 20 mv produces a 2 to 3 – fold
increase in corrosion rate.

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 Therefore, when cathodic protection is applied to a buried
structure, the maximum permissible change in potential in the
positive direction on a nearby structure is 20 mv. But, if there is
a history of corrosion on the unprotected structure, no
detectable positive change in potential is allowed. (British
Standard Code of Practice for C.P).
In practice, potential change of +20 mv does not appear to
cause noticeable corrosion damage even after the passage of
many years, and in some countries a potential change of + 100
mv is acceptable.

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 In practice, potential change of +20 mv does not
appear to cause noticeable corrosion damage even after
the passage of many years, and in some countries a
potential change of + 100 mv is acceptable.

The rate of corrosion depends on the density of the

current exchanged between the structure and
electrolyte. Pipe coating, cable wrapping and resistivity
of the soil should be considered.

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 Methods of Preventing or Reducing
Interaction
Interaction tests should be made on all unprotected
structures in the vicinity of a proposed C.P. installation,
and should be repeated annually or at any other suitable
intervals.
It is most convenient if tests are made on all unprotected
pipes or cables at the same time. The potential
measurements should be synchronized with the regular
switching on or off the protection current.

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A number of methods may be used to reduce the
interaction on neighboring structures;
1)In some circumstances, it may be practicable to
reduce the protection current or to resite the
groundbed so that the anode effect on an unprotected
structure is altered as required.
2)Increasing the physical separation between the
groundbed and the buried structure (the groundbed
can be installed at the bottom of deep- driven shafts).

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3)The electrical resistance between structures can be increased by
applying insulating wrappings.
- If the wrapping is to be applied only to sections of the
unprotected pipes or cables where positive change in potential is
measured, the wrapping must ensure uniformly high insulation in
order to avoid localizing the corrosion attack at pinholes or similar
discontinuities.
4)If the positive potential changes are very small and are confined to
a few points on a small unprotected structure, it may be
practicable to reduce the potential at these points by installing
reactive anodes. The anodes will be most effective if they can be
buried between the structures. In some circumstances, screes of
Zn, Al or steel may be installed between the structures; the screen
must be electrically connected to the unprotected structure.

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5)If both structures have been subjected to corrosion damage,
the best solution may be to install a joint cathodic protection
scheme with sufficient current output to provide adequate
protection for both structures.
The application of separate cathodic protection schemes for
structures buried close to each other is liable to cause
interaction damage because of variations in the current output
on the two systems. This may be avoided by connecting the
two structures together at several points.

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6)In the U.K. the most convenient method of reducing
interaction is to connect the unprotected and the protected
structures together by means of metallic bonds. Care should
be taken to ensure electrical continuity of the unprotected
structure. Bonds should be connected to points on the
unprotected structure where positive potential changes are
maximum.
If one of the structures to be bonded is the sheath or metallic
armoring of an electric cable supply, precautions should be
made to ensure that the potential rise on the bond in case of
instantaneous earth fault will not endanger personnel or
equipment associated with other buried structures. The
bond should be suitably insulated.

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7)Interaction due to the use of reactive anodes can best be avoided
by careful sitting of each anode during installation e.g.:
 Anodes should not be buried close to a point where the
protected structure crosses an unprotected structure.
 Anodes should not be placed where unprotected structure passes
between the anode and the protected structure.

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Worked Examples

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1. Cathodic Protection of a Pipeline
The cathodic protection parameters of a pipeline could be studied
by using simulated model, an electrical analogue, which possesses
the same electrical characteristics as an actual pipeline.
These series represent lumped parameters which are determined by
pipeline diameter, wall thickness, coating resistance and soil
resistivity. If these parameters could be simulated, a pipeline
several hundred kilometers long could be represented by a model
less than a meter long.
Calculations:
RS is the longitudinal resistance of the pipe ( unit length).
RL is the leakage resistance to remote earth of the line ( unit
length) at the drain point

E
RL 
I

RS

RL

 = Cathodic protection coefficient


RS  S
/m
 (D  t) t

rs = Resistivity of steel.
t = Thickness of the pipeline, m.
D = Diameter of the pipeline, m.
RK (equivalent) = RS . RL

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 L Spread of protection = 4.6 log E
 Em

E
g
Iprot. (Protection current) = RK 
2 . y

g = resistivity of soil.
y = distance between anode and pipe.
Vprot = Iprot. (RX + RA + RP)

RP = Electrical connection resistance

Example 1
Cathodic Protection of Underground Pipeline
Pipe line length = 24.6 Km
Diameter D = 0.72 m
Thickness t = 0.011 m
 Steel = 1.35 x 10-7 .m
 g (soil) = 12  m
RL (leaking resistance) = 442 .m
RP: cable resistance = 0.4 
Anode Resistance (RA) is calculated utilizing this formula
=
0.16  g  4l 2l 
 2.3 lg  1  2.3 lg 0.656n 
nl 
Where: r m 
n = number of anodes =2
l = anode length = 1.2 m
r = anode radius = 0.15 m
m = anode spacing = 10 m

Distance between anode and pipeline y = 250m

Calculations
S 1.35 x 107
RS    0.55 x 105  / m.
(D  t) t 3.14 (0.72  0.011) 0.011
RS 0.55 x 105
   1.12 x 104
RL 442

R K  RS.R L  1 0.55 x 105 x 442  0.025

2

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RA is calculated through applying equation 7
 2 4.6 E  4.6  0.55  (1.2)
L log  log  13800 m. (1st station).
 Em 1.2 x 10 4
 .55  ( 0.85)
E   0.55  (1.2)
I prot .    20 
g 12
RK  0.025 
2y 2 x 3.14 x 250

Potential (V) = 20 (0.055 + 2 + 0.4) = 49 Volt.

Power (W) = IV = 20 x 48 = 960 W ~ 1 KW.
Anode: Pb – 2% Ag.
Required System:
2 Stations, each one: 60 V, 25 A, 1500 W
Other Case Histories
1. Resistance Calculations
• The resistance of impressed current anodes buried in soil can be lowered
by surrounding them with carbonaceous backfill material such as coke
breeze or flake graphite. This is particularly beneficial in high resistance
soils
• If the soil resistance is 10 or more times the backfill (resistivity - 500 to
1000 cm), the voltage drop of anode current passing through the backfill
may become negligible with respect to the voltage drop through the soil.
• Increasing the diameter and/or the length of a cylindrical anode will
decrease the anode - to -"electrolyte resistance. Changes in length have
greater effects than changes in diameter. Thus, the resistance of a
backfilled anode is lower than that of a non-backfilled anode.
• Many engineers first measure structure - to - anode resistance by actually
impressing current into installed anodes. In this way, a rectifier can be
sized to fit the circuit resistance without relying on questionable test and
empirical data.

1.2. Single Anodes;

0.0052   8L 
Rv   2.3 log  1
L  d 
 
 2.3 log 4 L  4 L S /  L  S  S  L  1
2 2 2
0.0052 
2 2
Rh 
Where: L  dS / L L 
 
Rv = electrolyte - to - anode resistance (vertical)
Rh = electrolyte - to - anode resistance (horizontal)
r = electrolyte resistivity, ohm cm

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L = anode length, ft
d = anode 'diameter, ft
S = twice the depth of anode, ft
For a single vertical anode, the following simplified
expression can be used:

K is the shape function representing the anode length to

diameter ratio. (Table 1).

1.3. One-row vertical anode group

For group of vertical parallel anodes equally spaced:
Where:
Rn is the total anode - to - electrolyte resistance, ohms
n is the number of anodes.

rr is the soil resistivity,  cm.

P is the paralleling factor, (Table 2).
For more than "one row

1.4. Vertical and Horizontal Anode Groups - Simplified

These formulae are used:
F F
Rv  , Rh
537 483
Rv, is the electrolyte - to - anode resistance, any
number of anodes to a remote reference, .

Rh, is the electrolyte - to - anode resistance, any

number of horizontal anodes to a remote reference, .

r: electrolyte resistivity  cm.

F: adjusting factor for groups of anodes (Table 3).

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Example 2: Cathodic Protection System for Steel Storage Tanks.
An impressed current c.p. system is being designed to stop
corrosion on the bottoms of several large diameter steel tanks
in contact with the soil:
Given the following information:
* 17 high silicon C. I. anodes (1.5 inch diameter, 60 inch long) shall be
installed vertically in coke breeze backfill.
* Anode spacing: 20 ft apart.
* Backfill: 8 ft length, 10 inch diameter.
* Average soil resistivity () = 4500  Cm at anode depth.
Calculate the soil to anode resistance after installation.
Solution:
As the anodes are to be installed around the periphery of tanks, a single
row configuration is assumed, consult Table 1 for the shape function K.
L 8
  9.604
D 10 / 12
 L 
Then from (Table 1), K for  D  9.604   0.0175
 

 4500
Rv  K x 0.0175  9.844 
L 8
Then for the total of one – row of 17 anodes
1 P 1 0.00150
Rn  Rv    x 9.844  4500 x
n S 17 20
= 0.579 + 0.338 = 0.917 
= Total resistance between all anodes and soil

Example 3 Cathodic Protection of a Pipeline

• Impressed current C.P. system.
• Anodes are 1.5 in diam. , 60 in. Long, (Space permits 3 anodes
only)
• Horizontally arranged, backfield with coke breeze, 10 Ft length X 1
ft2 C.S., 6 ft below ground, 10 ft apart
• C.P. unit must supply a current of 5 A to protect the
pipeline.
• Soil resistivity = 12000  cm. at a depth of 6 ft.
Calculate rectifier voltage.

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 F
Rh 
483
As F (From Table 9.3) = 0.460
1200 x 0 . 460
Rh   11 . 4252
483
 From Ohm's Law
E = IR = 5 x 11.42 = 57.10 v
The rectifier must produce 58 V
Example 4: Use of Zinc Sacrificial Anodes to Protect a Pipe
Pile Structure
 A pier structure 20 ft. wide extending 150 ft. from shore
consists of 16 in diam. steel pipe piles that support the pier
deck. The piles will be driven so that 14 ft. Will be in the soil
zone, 18 ft. In the submerged zone, 3 ft in the tidal zone and
5 ft in the atmospheric/splash zone (Fig-9.1).
 The salt water resistivity = 25  cm. and the steel piles are
coated with 16 mil dry-film of coal tar epoxy. Cathodic
protection is applied in the form of sacrificial anodes.
Solution
 Calculation of steel areas exposed to specific zones:
area = p DLh
D = diameter of pile (ft)
L = length of pile in specified zone
h = number of piles
* In atmospheric/splash zone:
16
=  x x 5 x 16 = 335 ft2
12
* In tidal zone:
= p x16 x 3 x 16 = 201 ft2
12
* In submerged zone:
= p x16 x 18 x 16 = 1206 ft2
12
• In soil zone: = p x16 x 14 x 16 = 938 ft2
12
• Current requirements for calculation (Table 4).

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 Tidal Zone :
Assuming 10% coating damage during installation:
Area of bare steel = 0.1 x 201 = 20 ft2.
Current required polarizing bare and coated steel
= 20 x 35 + 181 x 5= 1.6 A
Submerged Zone
Assume 15% damage during installation.
Current requirements:
To polarize: = 1206x0.15x 35+120 x 0.85 x 5= 11.4 A
To Maintain = 1206 x 0.15 x 10 + 120 x 0.85 x 1.5 =3.3 A
 Soil Zone
Assume 50%. Coat damage pile driving operations
Current requirements:
To polarize = 938 (0.5 x 5 + 0.5 x l = 2.8 A
To Maintain =938(0.5 x l.5 + 0.5 x 0.5) = 0.9 A
Total Current Requirements for the Entire Structure
To Polarize = 1.6 + 11.4 + 2.8 = 15.8 A
To Maintain =1.6+3.3+0. = 5. 8 A
The Total Current Required Maintaining Protection as Coating Deteriorates:
Calculate the expected current requirements after 20 years service, assuming
coating deterioration at a rate of 2% per year.
 Tidal Zone

Intact coating after '20 years

= 90% initial - 40% deterioration = 50%
Maintenance current requirements
= 201 (0.5 x 35 + 0.5 x 5) = 4.0 A
 Submerged Zone

Intact coating after 20 years = 85% - 40% = 45%

Maintenance current requirements
= 1206 (0.55 x 10 + 0.45 x 1.5) = 7.4 A
 Soil Zone

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 Soil Zone
Assume no coating deterioration, current requirements remain the same

= 0.9A
Total current requirements to maintain protection of entire structure in
the tidal, submerged and soil zones after 20 years
=4+7.4+0.9 = 12.3A
Anode Design Calculations:
Average total current to maintain protection of the entire structure for 20
- year life:
initial current (after polarization)  final current 2.8  12.3
  = 9.1A
2 2
Total weight of high purity zinc anode material required for 20 year life
expectancy:
Where CR x L x ATC
W
E xU
W = Total weight in pounds
CR = Consumption rate, lb/Ay
L = Life, years
ATC = Average Total Current, A
E is the efficiency factor, U is the utilization factor
23.585 x 20 x 9.1
W  5611 Ib
0.9 x 0.85
 Based on the structure description and the amount of zinc
required, it can be determined that for this structure: 8
Strings of 2 (390 lb each) Anodes (10 x 10 x 15 in) zinc
anodes (6240 lb).
 Suspended at locations shown in (Fig. 11) should afford
adequate protection for 20 - year life expectancy
 The other factor to consider: is the amount of current that
can be discharged from anodes:
 Resistance of the Anode System:

The diameter of cylindrical objects whose circumference = 40 In. is

12.73 In. or 1.06 ft.
anode spacing = 25 ft
The resistance of one 390-Ib anode is:

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The resistance of one 390-Ib anode is:
0.0052   8 L  0.0052 x 25  8 x (15 / 12) 
Rv   2.3 log  1   2.3 log  1  0.129
L  d  (15 / 12)  1.06 

The resistance of the anode system, RS

0.0052  8L 2L  0.0052 x 25
RS   2.3 log 1  x 2.3 log 0.656n   x 25
L  d S  8 x 2 x(15 / 12)
 8 x 2 x (15 / 12) 2 x 2 x (15 / 12) 
 2.3 log 1  x 2.3 log 0.656 x 8   0.0147 
 1.06 25 
E
Anode output =
R
Where
E is the driving potential and R is the resistance of the anode system to
the electrolyte.
Driving voltage of galvanic zinc anode to Polarized Coated steel is of the
order of 0.0 V.
Driving potential = 1.1 - 1.0 = 0.1 V
Current available after polarization: I = 0.10 / 0.0147 = 6.8 A
The 6.8 A output after polarization is greater than the 5.8 A required for
the total current requirements given above. Therefore the current
requirement is satisfied
To verify, that life expectancy is met:
Average total current output for 20 year life= 6.8  12.3
2
= 9.6A
Total weight of anode material required:
23.585 x 20 x 9.6
W   5919 1b
0.90 x 0.85
The total weight of the anode material used is
8 x 2 x 390 = 6420 1b
Therefore, the life expectancy is satisfied.

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Fig. 1: Protection of a steel pipe pile pier with a protective coating and
zinc sacrificial anodes

Table 4: Current Densities Required for Coated and Uncoated Steel in

Moving and Stagnant Sea Water and Soil Areas
Current Density, mA/ft2
Environment Bare Steel Coated Steel
To Polarize After To Polarize After
Polarization Polarization
Moving Sea 30 - 35 7 - 10.0 3 – 5.0 1.0 – 1.5
Water
Stagnant Sea 15 - 25 4 - 07.0 1 – 3.0 0.5 – 1.0
Water
Soil Zone 4-5 1 - 1.5 0.5 – 1.0 0.1 – 0.5

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Example 5: Use of Impressed - Current Anodes to Protect an H-Pile
Structure
 A 30 - ft. wide pier structure that extends 200 ft. from shore is
supported by 20 H - piles 'that are 92 ft. long. The H - piles are
connected in four - pile clusters by W shapes. The piles are to be
driven so that 50 ft. will be below the dredged mud line, 30 ft. in the
submerged zone, 4 ft. in the tidal zone and 8 ft. in the
atmospheric/splash zone (Fig…..).
 The pier is located in a saltwater bay in a highly commercial and
industrial area. There are commercial, industrial, chemical, and
sewage pollutants'. The average resistivity is 30  cm. The H-piles
(coated 'with I0-mil dry film) is to be cathodically protected, for a life
expectancy of 20 years.
Solution
- Calculation of Steel Areas
The 10 cross braces and the 20 vertical H- piles have a surface area of 8
ft2, per linear foot.
* Area in atmospheric splash zone:
=LnA
= 8 x 20 x 8 = 1280 ft2
* In tidal zone:
= 4 x 20 x 8 = 640 ft2
* In submerged zone:
Piles = 30 x 20 x 8 = 4800 ft2
Cross braces= 30 x 10 x 8 = 2400 ft2
Total = 4800 + 2400 = 7200 ft2
* In soil zone: = 50 x 20 x 8 = 8000 ft2
 Current Requirement Calculations :
 Table 4 shows that a greater amount of current is initial required to
polarize the structure and bring it to protect levels than is required to
maintain these levels.

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- Tidal Zone
• Assume 5% coating damage during installation, the current
required:
To polarize=640 (0.05 x 35 + 0.95 x 5) =4.1A

Which is the current required for maintaining protection.

•Submerged Zone
Assume 5% coating damage, then the current required:

To polarize 7200 (0.05 x 35 + 0.95 x 5) = 46.8A

To maintain = 7200 (0.05 x 10 + 0.95 x 1.5) = 13.9A

• Soil Zone
• Assume coat is 40% intact
• Current required:

To polarize = 8000 (0.6 x 5 + 0.4 x 1.0) = 27. 2 A

To maintain = 8000 (0.6x1.5+0.4 x 0.5) = 8.8 A
Total current requirements
I pol. =4.1+ 46.8+27.2 = 78.1A
I prot. =4.1+13.9+8.8 = 26.8 A

The final current requirements are calculated for the 20 - year life expectancy
assuming: 2% per year coating deterioration in the tidal zone, 1% in the
submerged zone, and 0.5% in the soil zone.
Then, the final current requirement after 20 years would be:
Tidal Zone :
= 640 (0.45 x 35 + 0.55 x 5) = 11.9 A
Submerged Zone ;
= 7200 (0.25 x 10 + 0.75 x 1.5) = 26.1 A
Soil Zone :
= 8000 (0.7x1.5 + 0.3x0.5) = 9.6 A
Then, total current required to maintain protection of the entire structure at the
end of the 20 - year period:

= 11.9 + 26.1 + 9.6 =47 .6 A

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 Anode Design Calculations
The anode material is high silicon cast iron, consumption rate = 0.75 Ib/AY.
Average total current required for 20 - year life:

initial current  Final Current 26.8  47.6 = 37.2A

 
2 2
Total weight of anode material W  CR x L ATC
E xU

In impressed current systems, the efficiency factor E = 100% compared to

90% for sacrificial anodes.
0.75 x 20 x 37.2
W   1116 Ib
0.50
The total number of anodes will be determined by taking into consideration the
water depth, number and spacing of piles, amount of current available from
each anode for a uniform consumption and current distribution to the structure.
For this structure, twenty 2-in. diam. x 60 in. long anodes with enlarged heads
have seen chosen, the anodes are to be hung in ten strings of two anodes each.
The top of the upper anode is to be 5 ft. below the mean low/water level
(MLW) and the top of the lower anode will be 15 ft. below MLW (Fig.2).

Resistance of anodes (ground bed resistance):

The resistance of one vertical anode (anode-to-electrolyte) is:
The resistance of the anode system:
(Vertical anodes in parallel) is:-
0.0052  8L  0.0052x 30  8 x (60/12) 
Rv   2.3log 1   2.3log 1  0.140
L  d  60/12  2 /12 
0.0052  8L 2L  0.0052x 30  8 x (120/12) 2x(120/12) 
RS   2.3log 1 x 2.3log0.656n    2.3log 1  x2.3log  0.011
nL  d S  10x120/12  2 /12 20 

DC Circuit Cable Resistance:

The circuit of a rectifier system consists of one or more anode header cables that
run from the rectifier positive terminal to the anodes. Current from the anodes
flows from the electrolyte and is collected on the structure. A negative return
cable then returns this current to the rectifier negative terminal. The cable size
must be large enough to carry the current to avoid excessive voltage drop.
•For this installation a no. 4 A.W.G. (American Wire Guage) copper wire is
adequate.

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Cable resistance =
• The voltage drop in this wire, with the rectifier at the shore end of the
pier will be as follows:
• Voltage drop = wire resistance x current
Where:-

 header cable length 

Cable resistance =   neaative return length Cable resist 
 2 

The header cable length is divided by 2 because the total current is not
flowing through the entire length of cable. The current is being dropped
off in equal amounts at equal distances. The wire unit resistance is
0.000254W / ft

Circuit cable resistance =  200 

  20  x 0.000245  0.0305 
 2 
Voltage drop = 0.0305 x 78.1 A
= 2.38V

Total DC Circuit Resistance;

This is the total of the following:
 anode-to-electrolyte resistance
 circuit cable resistance
 structure-to-electrolyte resistance (negligible)
Total resistance = 0.011 + 0.0305 = 0.0415 W
Voltage required = 78.1 x 0.0415 = 3.24 V
Add V for anode back voltage = 5.24 V
Allow 20% for stack aging = 1.05V
Rectifier voltage required = 6.29 V
Rectifier output required = 6.29 V, 78.1A
Closest available rectifier = 8 V dc 80 A dc

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Fig. 2: Protection of H-pile steel pier structure using a protective coating and
high-silicon cast iron impressed-current anodes

Example 6: System Design for an Offshore Platform

• The following is a sample of an offshore cathodic protection design
procedure. The platform is in the Gulf of Mexico, and the design
parameters, which are similar to other Gulf platforms, include the
following:
• Maintenance current density: 5 mA/ft2
• Design life: 20 years.
• Calculated surface area: 33.484 ft2 (water zone) and 47.984 ft2 (mud zone).
• Anode capacity: 1280 A h/lb
• Safety factor: 25%
• Water resistivity: 20  cm
• Assumed anode parameters: 725-lb net aluminum weight; 8ft long; 90.25
in2 cross-sectional area.
Given these numbers, the total current in the water zone and the mud zone
can then be calculated:
(5 mA / ft 2 ) (33 484 ft 2 )
Current water   167.4 A
1000
(5 mA / ft 2 ) ( 47 984 ft 2 )
Current mud   239.9 A
1000

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The next step is to evaluate the total weight, TW, of the anode
material required:
(167.4 A) (8760 h / yr ) (20 yr ) (1.25)
TWwater   28 461 lb
(1280 A h / bl )
(239.9 A) (8760 h / yr ) (20 yr ) (1.25)
TWmud   41 045 lb
(1280 A h / lb)

At this stage, the number of anodes needed in each section, N can

be evaluated:
28 641 lb
N water   39.5
725 lb / anode
41 045 lb
N mud   56.6
725 lb / anode
N tota l  40  57  97 anodes

A total number of 97 anodes are needed to pre-polarize the steel or to provide

the initial current density. The initial current density must be at least 160
mA/ft2) to ensure the buildup of an adequate calcareous deposit on the steel
members. The total initial current output per anode is calculated by using a
potential of 0.45V between bare, un-polarized steel (-0.60 V) and aluminum (-
1.05 V) and anode resistance calculated from Dwight's equation (Eq. 1) for a
single cylindrical anode, because experience show no significant interference
between the various numbers of multiple anode design:

Where L is the anode length in inches, p is 3.14159, p is water resistivity in 

cm, and R is equivalent radius in inches.

For anode shapes other than cylindrical:

cross  sec tional area
R


In this case, the anode has a trapezoidal cross section, and the equivalent
radius is calculated by using Eq 2, as follows:

90.25
R  5.36 in.


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 Equation 1 can now be used to calculate the anode resistance:

20  cm   4 (96 in.)    1 in. 

 ln    1    0.0427 
2  (96 in.)   5.36 in.    2.54 cm 

Next, the initial current output, I, of the anode is determined:

E
I 
Resistance
Where, DE is the potential difference (0.45 V), and the resistance=0.0427 

0.45 V
I  10.54 A
0.0427 
The initial structure current density is determined as follows:

(10.54 A / anode) (97 anodes )

Current density   0.0305 A / ft 2  30.5 mA / ft 2
33 484 ft 2
A current of 328 mA/m2 (30.5 mA/ft2) is considered to be an adequate
current density for the buildup of a calcareous deposit, which leads to a
satisfactory polarization of steel.
Fully polarized steel develops a potential more negative than -0.80 V
versus the Ag/AgCl reference electrode and will therefore establish a
potential drop of 0.20 to 0.25 V versus aluminum anodes. Use of the 0.20
to 0.25 V potential drop for Ohm's law and calculation of the anode
resistance with Dwight's equation (Eq.1) based on anode dimension at 40
to 50% consumption will then result in a maintenance current density that
is roughly one-half the value of the calculated initial current density.
Therefore, if the steel is polarized to -0.80 V versus Ag/AgCl, the current
output of the anode is (according to Eq. 3).
E
I 
Resistance

Where DE = 1.05 V -0.8 V = 0.25 V, and resistance = 0.0441  (The derated

anode radius based on a 10% reduction of the initial radius).

0.25 V
I  5 .6 A
0.0441 

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 The actual potential drop between structural steel cathodic and aluminum
anodes at some time after launching of the platform is estimated as the
difference between the given aluminum versus Ag/AgCl potential and the
average of polarized steel potentials as measured with Ag/AgCl reference
electrodes at various locations of the structure. The true current output per
anode is therefore available for predicting the life of the cathodic protection
system given the capacity of 330 kg (725-lb) aluminum anodes, namely:
(1280 A h / lb) (725 lb / anode)
Life 
(8760 h/yr) (I A/anode)
Which leads to the life in years for I amps of current output
per anode as follows:
106
Life 
I (A/anode)

Based on a current output per anode of 5.6 A, the design life of

the cathodic protection system is:
106
Life   18.9 years
5.6
The required design life is 20 years, so another anode geometry should
be chosen. Suppose that the new anode has the following anode
characteristics: length = 10 ft (120 in.), radius = 6 in., weight = 1135 lb,
and anode capacity = 1280 A h/lb. The total number of anodes needed,
based on the surface areas of the water and mud sections, is:

28 641 lb
N water   25.2
1135 lb / anode
41 045 lb
N mud   36.2
1135 lb / anode
N tota l  26  37  63 anodes

The resistance of one anode using Dwight's equation (Eq-1) is:

20  cm   (4) (120)    1 in. 

 ln    1    0.03532 
2  (120)   (6)    2.54 cm 

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 0.45 V
I   12.74 A
0.03532 
The structure initial current density is now evaluated and is equal to:
(12.74 A / anode) (63 anodes )
Current density  2
 0.0239 A / ft 2  23.9 mA / ft 2
33 484 ft
The initial total current output / based on a potential drop of 0.45 V
and using Eq 3 is:

An initial structure current density of 257 mA/m2 (23.9 mA/ft2) is acceptable.

A more conservative design will allow for a higher number. Next, the anode
resistance is calculated using Eq 12 and based on a de-rated radius of 5.4 in.
(a 10% reduction).
20  cm   (4) (120)    1 in. 
Resistance  ln    1    0.03642 
2  (120)   (5.4)    2.54 cm 
Using potential on a current of 6.86 A, A the design life in years
of the cathodic protection system is:
(1280 A h / lb) (1135 lb / anode)
Life   24.2 years
(8760 h/yr) (6.86 A/anode)
Therefore, the design is acceptable.

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Type of System
 The use of an impressed-current system or sacrificial
anodes will both provide satisfactory cathodic
protection, but each has advantages and disadvantages
with respect to the other (Table 1).
 The main anodic reactions may be summarized as
follows:
 Sacrificial anodes
Z
Primary reactions M  M  ze
Secondary reaction M z   zH 2 O  M OH z  zH 
 Impressed-current anodes
3 H 2 O  2 H 3 O   2 e  21O 2
and / or
2 Cl   Cl 2  2e
or, in the case of graphite anodes:
C  O2  CO2
 Whereas sacrificial anodes are normally restricted to environments
having a resistivity of <6000 cm there is no similar limitation in the
use of power impressed system.
 In the protection of pipelines or other underground structures the
anode reaction is dependent on diffusion of water to the anode surface
and oxygen and CO2 away from it, and since these processes do not
occur with the same mobility as in water it is necessary to use a very
large surface area of anode and a corresponding low current density.
For this reason the actual anode is the carbonaceous backfill, and
graphite or silicon-iron anodes are used primarily to make electrical
contact between the cable and the backfill.

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Table 1: The shape function, k, obtained by dividing the anode length by the
anode diameter
L/d K
5 0.0140
6 0.0150
7 0.158
8 0.0165
9 0.0171
10 0.0177
12 0.0186
14 0.0194
16 0.0201
18 0.0207
20 0.0213
25 0.0224
30 0.0234
35 0.0242
40 0.0249
45 0.0255
50 0.0266
55 0.0270
60 0.0270

Table 2: Paralleling Factor Used for Determining Anode Resistance

n p
2 0.00261
3 0.00289
4 0.00283
5 0.00268
6 0.00252
7 0.00237
8 0.00224
9 0.00212
10 0.00201
12 0.00182
14 0.00186
16 0.00155
18 0.00145
29 0.00135
22 0.00128
24 0.00121
26 0.00114
28 0.00109
30 0.00104

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Table 3: Adjusting Factor, F, for Parallel Anodes
Number of Adjusting Factor, Anode Spacing ft
Anode in 5 10 15 20 25
Parallel
2 0.652 0.576 0.551 0.538 0.530
3 0.586 0.460 0.418 0.397 0.384
4 0.520 0.385 0.340 0.318 0.304
5 0.466 0.333 0.289 0.267 0.253
6 0.423 0.295 0.252 0.231 0.218
7 0.387 0.265 0.224 0.204 0.192
8 0.361 0.243 0.204 0.184 0.172
9 0.332 0.222 0.185 0.166 0.155
10 0.311 0.205 0.170 0.153 0.142
11 0.292 0.192 0.158 0.141 0.131
12 0.276 0.180 0.143 0.132 0.122
13 0.262 0.169 0.139 0.123 0.114
14 0.249 0.160 0.131 0.116 0.107
15 0.238 0.152 0.124 0.109 0.101
16 0.226 0.144 0.117 0.103 0.095
17 0.218 0.138 0.112 0.099 0.091
18 0.209 0.132 0.107 0.094 0.086
19 0.202 0.127 0.102 0.090 0.082
20 0.194 0.122 0.098 0.86 0.079
22 0.182 0.114 0.091 0.079 0.073
24 0.171 0.106 0.085 0.074 0.067
26 0.161 0.100 0.079 0.069 0.063
28 0.152 0.094 0.075 0.065 0.059
30 0.145 0.089 0.070 0.061 0.056

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Reference electrodes used for cathodic protection system in
offshore structures

Type of Electrode Protection potential of steel, V

Ag/AgCl -0.80 (or more negative)
Cu/CuSO4 -0.85 (or more negative)
Zinc +0.25 (or more positive)

Energy characteristics of materials used for sacrificial

anodes
Material Energy capacity; Ay/Kg Consumption rate Kg/Ay
Al-Zn-Hg 2750-2840 3.1-3.2

Al-Zn-In 1670-2400 3.6-5.2

Al-Zn-Sn 925 - 2600 3.4-9.4

Zinc 81 10.8
Magnesium 1100 7.9

Consumption rates of impressed-current anode materials

Material Typical Anode Current Density Consumption Rate Per AY

A/m2 A/ft2

Pb-6Sb-1Ag 160-200 15-20 0.045-0.09 kg (0.1-0.2 1b)

Pt (plated on substrate) 450-1080 50-100 0.006 g
Pt (wire or clad) 1080-4500 100-500 0.01 g
Graphite 10.8-40 1-4 0.225-0.45kg (0.5-1.0 1b)
Fe-14Si-4Cr 10.8-40 1-4 0.225-0.45kg (0.5-1.0 1b)

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 CASE STUDY(1)

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Cathodic Protection Design for 1,900
Miles (3,050 Km) of High-Pressure
Natural Gas Pipeline

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 General
The main pipeline runs from northwest Alberta, Canada to just
south of Chicago, Illinois. Pipelines from British Columbia
and Alberta feed gas into the main pipeline. A systematic
approach to the design was undertaken. A computer analysis
of the Cathodic Protection (CP) attenuation and voltage
gradients was made. An analysis of subsurface geology was
conducted for deep-anode groundbeds. This article discusses
the systematic design process used for the CP application.

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Project Start:
A route survey: soil conditions, subsurface geology, locations
of electrical transmission lines…etc
Pipeline runs parallel (20m) to another cathodically protected
line for most of the route.
Concerns over parallel high voltage (HVAC) transmission
line were approached.
Attenuation and voltage gradient calculations were made:
rectifier spacing and distance between pipelines and anodes.

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Pipeline Route (Fig.1)
Extends from Fort St. John, British Colombia Canada to south
of Chicago, Illinois (USA).
In Canada ~ 1559 km.
In USA: 1499 km.
Facility: high pressure line (12 MPa) ~35.4 million cubic
meters per day.

Fig. 1: Pipeline Route

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Initial Evaluation
Design Phase Concerns
• Close proximity to parallel pipelines.
• Crossing of foreign pipelines.
• Crossing of two HVDC transmission lines in the US.
• Effect of HVAC line in Canada and the US.
• Soil conditioning along pipeline route.
• Subsurface geology along route (deep anode beds).

Paralleling and Crossing Pipelines

The parallel line (20m away) runs for 2285 km and
other parallel lines run for short distances.
Discussions with representatives of the other
pipelines, so as cathodic interference would be
minimal.

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HVDC Transmission Line Crossings
The pipeline crosses two bipolar HVDC lines.
Earth return only occurs in cases of pole breakdown or
during maintenance.
The closest pipeline comes to any earth electrode at ~80
km.
Previous tests showed that at this offset distance, even
at full earth return of ~1000 A, effects on buried
pipeline would be minimal.
Soil Conditions
Soil data taken at 1.6 km intervals in the US
(resistivity, pH, chlorides and sulphates).
In Canada: resistivity taken adjacent to proposed
groundbeds, power line crossings and existing foreign
groundbeds.
In Canada resistivity 1000-2000  cm.
In the US: 8000-10000  cm.
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Surface Geology (Lithology)
As there was insufficient space at compressor stations
and mainline block valve sites for surface groundbeds,
deep anode groundbeds were needed.
Data bases that designate state were accessible in the
US and Canada.

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Design Analysis
•Good quality coating and high soil resistivity decrease attenuation.
•From the beginning of the pipeline to the Mississippi river, low soil
resistivities make attenuation a significant factor.
•In the high resistivity soil of Illinois attenuation becomes less
significant.
•Main pipeline is coated with Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE) and the
long term coating resistance was taken as 20% of the initial coating
resistance to allow for coating deterioration.
•The analysis led to selecting a current requirement of ~39.1 mA/km
for the new pipeline and~197 mA/km, for long term requirement.
•Verification on the coat quality and current requirement was made
through tests 151 km of newly installed, 610 mm diameter line in
Canada.
•Voltage attenuation graphs indicated that placing a rectifier every
32 km would provide a reasonably smooth voltage profile. This
would:
Minimize over protection and stresses on the coating near the
rectifiers.
Minimize stray current effects on nearby foreign pipelines.
•Initial DC output of each block valve rectifier ~1.5 A.

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Voltage Gradient Analysis
• A maximum of P/S potential of 1.2V is decided with
permissible excursions of 1.5V where unavoidable.
• Voltage gradient calculations (Fig. 2) with groundbed
located. 63.5 m from pipeline, an anode gradient of 0.2V
would occur in a 1000 -cm soil, and a 0.4V for 2000 -
cm soil.
• These values were considered suitable to minimize the
impact on the P/S potentials, so deep groundbeds were
designed to be 70 m from the pipeline.
• At compressor stations, there were sufficient rooms for
groundbeds to be at the desired distance from the
piping, still be situated on-site. As a result, the anode
bed could install closer to the ground surface than at
block valves.
• The main line block valve sites were small, so deep
groundbeds (70m) could be used.

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Fig. 2:Earth Potential Increase at the Pipeline from a
Proximate Deep-Anode Bed

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Compressor Stations Sites
• The pipeline is electrically continuous with the
compressor station to minimize electrical isolation
maintenance.
• Compressor station underground structure: gas,
vent, air, and instrumentations lines, and a small
amount of AC grounding using insulated
conductors and galvanized groundbeds.
• There are steel foundations piles at 7 stations in
Canada and 2 in the US.
• Current requirement for steel piling ~5.3 mA/m2.
• Typical current requirement for compressor
stations without steel piles = 18 A, with steel piles
= 30 A.

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Horizontal Directional Drilled Crossing

• The pipeline is installed under several rivers and major

highways using Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD).
• Two concerns:
Effect of pulling the tubes on the coat;
Few HDD crossing where the pipes would not be tied into
adjacent sections until the second year of construction.
• For the first concern: measure coat conductance before typing
pipe into mainline adjacent sectors.
• For the second concern: design a temporary CP system using
anodes (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3:Temporary Magnesium Anode CP for Horizontal Directional Drilled
Sections not Tied in to the Main Pipeline during the First Year of
Construction

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Final Design
• Deep-anode groundbeds: using high-silicon
chromium iron anodes in a coke breeze column with
a vent tube.
• All anode cables: run into a junction box at top of
groundbed & connected to a positive bus.
• At compressor stations: depth of groundbed 50 to
81m, each bed containing 10 to 22 anodes, anode
column varied bet 35 to 72m (Fig. 4).
• Resistance to ground of anode beds: calculated to
vary from 0.5 to 1.3 .
• At mainline block valves: groundbed depth: 81m, A
three – anode column (11m) located at the bottom of
the hole (Fig.5).
• Resistance – to – ground of these anode beds:
calculated to vary from 0.9 to 2.9.

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Fig. 4: Typical CP Layout Fig. 5: Typical CP Layout Main
at Compressor Station Line Block Valve Sites

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Rectifiers
• Constant - current air – cooled: 60 V, 50, 60 or 80 A
at compressor stations, 40 V, 8 or 12 A at mainline
block values.
• Rectifiers were connected to the supervisory control
and data acquisition system (SCADA) to permit
remote monitoring.
Test Stations
• At 3.2 km intervals.
• Foreign line test stations were installed wherever
practicable.
• These were limited to crossings within 61 m. should
there be interference at remote crossings, mitigation
will be effected as required.

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Electrical Isolation
• Main pipeline is electrically continuous, block
valves are welded into the line.
• Isolation at delivery / meter stations.

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CASE STUDY(2)

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 CASE STUDY (2)
HYDROGEN INDUCED CRACKING
(MATERIAL PERFORMANCE, JUNE, 1992)

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The Incident
• Failure date: 1988.
• Oil transportation pipeline failed by HISCC.
• Leak caused by hydrogen-induced SCC.
• Location: Rotterdam-Antwerp pipeline (RAPL), the
Netherlands.
• Pipe diameter 34 inches, wall thickness 7.8 mm.
• The pipe material: grade x-60 (API 5L Specifications).
• Product temperature range from 12 - 30oC.
• Operating pressure: 35 bar.
• Before leakage, pressure was increased to 42 bar,
(still below the maximum allowable service pressure,
52 bar).
• The pipeline is cathodically protected by impressed
current technique.
• An additional sacrificial anode of magnesium is used.
• The Mg anode came close to the pipe, due to soil
subsidence.
• Soil subsidence was also thought to cause plastic
deformation of the pipe.

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Failure Investigation:
• Visual inspection.
• Inspection for mechanical damage and reduction in
thickness by both optical and SEM investigation.

Failure Analysis:
• SEM examination showed a quasi-cleavage-like
brittle fracture with several secondary creaks.
• Binocular and SEM investigation indicated that
crack initiation took place at the outer surface of the
pipe. The jagged crack appearance with a tending
toward stepwise cracking suggested hydrogen in the
cracking process.
• No plastic deformation.
• Type of crack: trans-granular.
• Hydrogen was evolved during cathodic protection.

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SSRT under Cathodic Polarization Condition:
• Potential more negative than -850 mV (vs. Cu/CuSO4)
reference electrode was measured.
• The cathodic protection (on potential) of this pipe
section was-1400 mV vs. Cu/CuSO4.
• Potential drop over the coat was 300 mV (vs.
Cu/CuSO4).
• This potential value was negative enough for hydrogen
evolution.
• Consequently, hydrogen-induced cracking occurred.
• Confirmation of the measured findings by SSRT tests at
different applied potential values.

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Outer (a) and inner (b) surface of the pipe at the
location of the crack

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Table 1: Chemical composition of X-60 line pipe material and specification for API5L

%C %Mn %P %S %Nb %V %Ti

X60 0.18 1.30 0.017 0.014 0.005 0.055 0.005

API5L <0.26 <1.35 <0.04 <0.05 >0.005 >0.02 >0.03

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Binocular photograph of fracture surface
showing several crack initiation steps in the
outer pipe surface

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 SSRT program and results (strain rate 10-6/sec)
Test No. Potential Reduction in area(%) Elongation (%) Test Duration
w.r.t Ag/AgCl (h) (min)

17 Air 67 14 44 30
18 air 70 16 48 55
1 i.c.p.c 59 17 48 10
2 i.c.p. 62 16 47 55
3 -900 36 14 42 25
4 -900 38 13 39 12
9 -950 39 10 31 55
10 -950 36 11 34 40
11 -1000 40 11 39 55
12 -1000 32 12 39 15
7 -1100 22 11 34 25
8 -1100 28 12 36 5
13 -1150 28 12 38 55
14 -1150 25 10 36 24
5 -1250 28 10 33 35
15 -1250 23 11 36 35
16 -1250 30 8 30 25

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 CASE STUDY(3)

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Deep Water Platform Protection Using
Coating Combined With Cathodic
Protection

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The subsea protection design, comprising a combination
of cathodic protection and coating, for two platforms
installed in the Gulf of Mexico at a water depth of 620 ft
(189 m) is described. The results of surveys undertaken
after installation reveal potentials considerably more
protective than the minimum protective potential. In
addition to eliminating the retrofit, significant cost and
weight savings were achieved.

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 IMPINGEMENT ATTACK
ALUMINUM-BRASS TUBED
HEATING BUNDLES
Equipment : Heating bundle
Material of construction: AI-brass tube of the bundle
Phenomenon: Impingement corrosion
Perforation in the upper two rows of tubes due to Impingement .

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 Introduction
Combined coating and cathodic protection for a sub-sea pipeline.
This pipeline transports oil from oil fields to central production platform, CPP.
Concept of coating combined with cathodic protection; 20 – 30Y.
History:
BP; Abudhabi and North Sea: Coal tar epoxy and al sacrificial anodes:
Osberg B Jacket (109 m deep) North Sea.
Conco: in the Gulf of Mexico (1989): consideration for using the system based
on a study in 1972.
Conco installed the first coated and cathodic protection protected platform (GI
47L) in Nov. 1983.
The coating was epoxy poly-amide typically used for tank lining system.
A standard design was used: with a bare area allowance of 25%.
Instrumentation anodes with auxiliary coupons and inspections revealed
that it was conservation. Even 10% was still conservative.
The anode current for the 189Kg anode stabilized at approx. 0.3A. The
current for this anode, for a polarized uncoated structure, would be ~
3.5A.
Utilization of high initial current density is additionally incorporated into
the C.P. design of the two green canyons deep water fixed platforms. An
initial C.D. of 301 mA/m2 resulted in platform potentials of 0.95V
(Ag/AgCl) on platforms in the Arab Gulf and North Sea.

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Elongated trapezoidal anodes used resulted in:
1. Higher current than conventional anodes.
2. Anodes polarized platform (lower maintenance C.D. requirements.).
In the Arabian Gulf: this has been reflected in a 40% wt reduction in the
anode requirements.
Use of a high initial C.D.: an additional advantage: rapid formation of a
protective calcareous deposit.

Subsea Corrosion Protection System

Two Parts :
* Platform Structure
* Mud Mats
All Parts of Sub-Sea Platform Structure were coated.
Mud Mats were left Bare

Platform
The sub-sea platform structure was coated with a tank-lining-type epoxy
system. Surface preparation was done to Steel Structures Painting Council
white metal blast (SSPC-SP 5). Two coats were used, each 4 mils (102 m)
thick. Surface preparation, anchor profiles, weather conditions, coating
times, etc., were monitored throughout the entire job.

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The CP design was based on achieving an initial current density of 28
mA/ft (301 mA/m2), based on a bare area allowance of 15 percent. This was
accomplished for both platforms in accordance with the following approach.
The 52A drilling platform is used as an example.
1. Determine the bare area exposed to seawater (15 percent of the coated
area).
405.578 x 0.15 = 60.837 ft2
2. Determine the anode resistance (RA) using the initial anode dimension.

0.0627 (1n 4L 1)

RA 
Where: L r
RA = initial anode resistance (ohms),
 = seawater resistivity (20 ohm-cm),
L = length of anode (120 in. [305 cm]),
r = cylindrical radius (in.).
The cylindrical radius for the trapezoidal anodes used was determined by:
C
r
Where: 2
C = a + 2b + c

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With
A = 10.7 in.
b = 9.25 in.
c = 9 in.
C = 38.2 in.
r = 6.08 in.
RA = 0.0352 ohm
3. The initial anode current output is determinate by:

Einit 0.5
I  14.2 A
RA 0.0352

Where Einit is the potential difference between the un-polarized platform

and the aluminum-zinc-indium alloy anode

The initial platform current required is:

A
60,837 ft2 x 0.028 2 1703 A
ft
The total number of anodes required is:
1703A
 120anodes
14.2 A / anode

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 Table (1): Comparison of Protection Systems

Central Production Platform As Installed Coating Uncoated Standard CP

and CP Design
CPP 52A CPP 52A
Net anode weight, lb/anode 900 900 725 725
Gross anode weight, 1150 1150 875 875
lb/anode
Number of anodes 125 138 605 690
Total anode weight 143.750 158.700 529.375 603.750
Coating weight 28.573 32.446 -- --
Coating cost. $ 678.600 770.600 -- --
Total anode cost. $ 168.750 186.300 665.000 759.000
Total anode installation cost. $ 100.000 110.400 484.000 552.000
Protection system weight, lb 172.323 191.146 520.375 603.750
Protection system cost. $ 947,350 1,067,300 1,149,000 1,311,000

Table (2): Drilling Platform 52A Potentials Determined One Month after Installation
Location Potential vs Ag/AgCl(V)
295 ft(A) 455 ft 610 ft
Leg A1 -0.998 -0.957 -0.945
Leg B1 -.0993 -0.947 -0.908
Leg A4 -1.00 -0.944 -0.900
Leg B4 -0.993 -0.936 -0.905
Leg C2 -1.00 -0.880 -0.882
Leg C3 -0.990 -0.860 -0.883
(B) -0.990 -0.860 -0.788

A: Feet below sea level.

B: Four of 16 conductors partially driven

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 Mud Mats
• Magnesium Rods, (1" Diameter) with Core Diam. 0.135". Comprized the initial polarization
system.
• Each Had 140 ft 43m of Mg. Rod Divided to Protect the Bare Areas.
• These Anodes would provide an initial C.D. of 30 mA/ft2
• 14 Additional 900 lb (409 Kg.) of Al-Zn-In Anodes put on the Platform Structure to provide the
Additional Maintenance current to protect the mud mats after initial polarization.
• So the total number of anodes recommended was
120 + 14 = 134 Anodes

Cost Effectiveness
• 1ry Cost Effective Objective of coating: Eliminate risk of premature retrofit.
• Minor retrofitting in Deep waters Result in Costs Exceeding the costs of original protection
system.
• Secondary cost effectiveness achieved is reflected) in comparison of as installed cost compared
to the uncoated standard design.
• Table (1)
• Coating Cost ~ $ 1.9/ft2(20.45$/m2)
• Installation cost of anode = $ 800/anode
• Coating load based on a coat thickness of 8 mils.
Protection System Evaluation
The protection on each leg of the 52A drilling platform was monitored one month after
installation.
Legs with no anodes: Worst Condition (least polarization).
Points on Table 2 represent those furthest from anodes and where the shielding from the C.P.
was greatest.
Areas most affected (least polarization): conductor bay (Table2).

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 Anode Life
The Anode Life is calculated by
WQFU
Lt 
8760 I

Where:
Lt = effective lifetime in years,
W = net weight of anode (900 lb),
Q = anode capacity = 1250 A h/Ib (2756 A h/Kg),
F = anode utilization factor (0.9),
I = mean current output during lifetime, and,
8760 = number = of hours in one year.
The main current output is determined by ohm's low:
V
L
Rd

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Where:
V is the potential difference between the polarized platform and the aluminum anode and
Rd is the anode resistance based on a derated radius. The derated radius is 50 percent of the
initial radius (6.08 x 0.5). Substitution of this value into equation (1) results in an anode
resistance (Rd) of 0.042 ohm.
For a platform polarized to -0.85V vs. Ag/AgCl, an anode life of 22 years is obtained. These
Green Canyon platforms are more polarized than -0.85V vs. Ag/AgCl. . Platform potentials -
0.900 and -0.950V vs. Ag/AgCl result in lifetimes of 29 and 40 years, respectively. The
system life will exceed the 20-year design life.

Conclusions

A unique combination of coatings and CP has been used to protect the sub-sea portion of two
deep water platforms. Potential surveys undertaken after installation demonstrates protection
well beyond the minimum protective potential. The primary objective, namely the
elimination of the retrofit risk, has been achieved. Additionally, cost and weight savings,
when compared to conventional design, were of the order of $200.000 and 400.000 pounds,
respectively. The system life will exceed the design life of 20 year.

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 CASE STUDY(4)

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 CASE STUDY(4)
A Corrosion Protection System For A North
Sea Jacket
The Oseberg Field: North Sea

The Field Contains Two Platforms

- A: Process equipment etc ....
- B: Drilling & well head equipment .

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 Design Parameters
• Several nearby fields as well as the northern parts of the
reservoir will be tied into the field centre through the B-
platform .
• Design life of the steel jacket :40 Y.
• B-platform:
8-legged steel jacket Tow-out wt. : 18,800 ton It has :-
8 J-tubes collected in two J- tube caissons 4 fire and sea water
caissons ,32 piles,
38 conductors.
All items to be protected for life time Total area to be
protected: 70,000 m2
Moreover, each well is included in the design: 5 A for
38.5 Y Water depth 109 m .

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Corrosion Protection Design Consideration
Both I CCP and sacrificial anode systems were evaluated at the
conceptual design stage .
Though ICCP is good from the weight point of view, it was rejected:
1- As the field center is complex
-Two connected platforms
-One export pipeline
-Two nearby subsea wells
-Several pipelines coming in from satellite fields

All these items has to be electrically insulated from each

other. This would not be necessary if these items has to be
protected by sacrificial anodes, completely interconnected
and designed according to the same set of rules.

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2. No ICCP system would be proven for a life time of 40 Y in the North
Sea environment.
Protecting the bare jacket for 40 Y with sacrificial anodes
required a substantial anode weight .
Two approaches to reduce weight : sacrificial anode
with different degrees of coating reducing the design C.D.
Table Comparison of different options.

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 Current Density Criteria:
 All experience at North Sea or elsewhere shows that the C.D.
criteria was conservative
 For weight calculations : mean C.D. is important
 For the performance of the system: initial C.D. , and
 final C.D. are the important parameters
Figure-2 for C.D. ( mean value) and C.D.( final value).

Based on these consideration ,the current density values shown

in the first line of table 2 where used.
The new mean C.D.(line 3 of table 2), led to a reduction in
weight. from 1500 ton to 1330 ton .
Weight could be further reduced by coating.

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Coating System Selection and Performance
 Two questions, once coating decision made:
- Which coating system to use
- How to include it in the CP decision
So: Revise Dn V criteria, (Fig. 3)
In Fig. 3 :
 Curve :" Mean" is used when calculating the
necessary anode weight.
 Gives a factor to scale down C.D.
 In effect: gives the bare area of the jacket averaged
over its lifetime.

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Curve "Final": Important for distribution and sizing of
anodes., and gives % of the jacket bare at any time.
For Actual design, (Fig.3) is used as follows:
Multiply mean C.D. (Line 1, Table 2) X Mean coating
breakdown values (Fig. 3):

105 x 0.35 = 36.75 mA/m2

Current Consumption at end of lifetime
= 80% (Fig.3)X jacket area x Final C.D. (Table 2)
= 0.8 x jacket area x 110 A
=6,160,000 A

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 The coating breakdown factor is the most uncertain factor in
the corrosion protection design.
Since the current consumption will increase with time, the
final current
density is rather high, consequently, the total current output from
the anodes at the end of the lifetime must be rather high, thus the
number of the anodes will be almost the same as if the jacket was
uncoated.
 i.e. the coat only gives a weight saving, but the same
installation cost, since there must be many relatively small
anodes.

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Selection of Anodes
AI-anodes were not popular:
• possibility of passivation when the coating system is
new and the current consumption is low.
Now AI-Zn-Hg, but AI-Zn-In has a better performance
Test on anodes , free corrosion:
• All anodes tested at -0.980 1.115 V (galvanostatic
Polarization) indicated that AI-Zn-In gives best performance
(Least and most negative potentials in a 3 month duration
test) while AIZn-Hg anodes showed intermediate behaviour.

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Selection of Anodes

 Galvanic currents between steel cathodes and different anodes:

corroding freely for 3 months. Fig.5:
 Anodes with smooth generally corroded surface performed best.
 Heavily pitted, with large passive areas did not give sufficient
current or low enough potential.

 The jacket will be almost completely covered with anodes

(more than 2000). Drag will-be high. Cylindrical cross section
anodes (instead of the more common trapezoidal.) will reduce
the drag coef. from 1.7 to 1.4.

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 ACTUAL DESIGN SUMMARY
COA TING SYSTEMS
Jacket: Submerged Zone : coal tar epoxy: 300J.l plus a white
high-solid solvent less epoxy of --200J.l.
•From splash zone down to -45m:
as above plus additional 300 self polishing anti-fouling
coating
•Atmospheric zone:
Zinc ethyl silicate primer, 280/-1 vinyl coat plus 50/-1 vinyl
acrylic topcoat.

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 ACTUAL DESIGN SUMMARY
Coating Systems
• Conductors, submerged zone: solvent - free two
component epoxy: 12mm.
• Splash, atmospheric zones: abrasion resistant, solvent
less epoxy 2 from 3.5 mm
• Risers: All zones 20mm chloroprene rubber.
• J tubes: All zones same as jacket.
• Caissons jackets.
• Piles : No coating except internally from the mud-
line to the pipe opening, about elevation become mud
line (-90m )
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Cathodic Protection System
- Sacrificial Al-Zn-In
- All mounted on the structure none on risers, J-tubes, conductors
or piles.
- Net anode weight: 211 Kg each.
- Number of anodes 2032 plus some small anodes for protection of
special regions.
- Anodes are cylindrically shaped.
- Designed for 40Y, lifetime on, a completely coated structure with
assumed 5% bare area initially.
- Design potential 800-1050 m V (vs. Ag/ AgCl sea water reference
electrode)
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Performance
• The jacket is equipped with a permanent potential and current
monitoring system, -20 Zn deference electrodes and20 shunted
monitoring anodes which are mounted in pairs over the jacket.

• Fig. 8 :
Data on five of these pairs (on the Zn- sea water scale).
Three electrodes show slower polarization than the other two.
The first : in an environmentally affected area (-21m).
The second: coating was deliberately removed (-7 4m) The third
:mounted on a "bottle neck" leg just above the top of the piles.

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Potential Monitoring
 During the 1st year after installation: the potential is less -
negative than the protection potential.
 As long as the coating system is almost' intact, any

environmental effects can hardly be expected.

Current Monitoring
• High initial current, decreasing, gradually, average current
consumption: 105 mA/m2 on jacket surface (5% bare
initially).
• Each anode current: 180mA/m2 , and the average current
output from the 20 n10nitored anodes in less than this.

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 Conclusion
 The Oseberg B Jacket is protected by aluminum
sacrificial anodes and a coal tar epoxy system. This
ensures a fast polarization
 Represents a weight saving and a simple corrosion
protection system that, based on one year of
operation, seems to be reliable.

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Fig. 5: Surface appearance after three months testing
Al-Zn-In(3) A-Free corrosion B- 20 mA/m2

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Fig. 6: Surface appearance after three months testing
Al-Zn-In(1) C-Free corrosion BD 20 mA/m2

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Fig. 8: Potential development during the first 24
hours after lunch of the jacket. Protection
criterion is 0 mV on the Zn- seawater scale
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 CASE STUDY(5)

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 Cathodic Protection
Of External Tank Bottoms

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 General
• The corrosion process as it relates to buried, partially buried, and
submerged metallic structures is a naturally occurring phenomenon. The
principles of this process and the benefits of cathodic protection (CP) in
controlling this type of corrosion have been demonstrated in many
different situations.
• Concern has increased, at an alarming rate, over failures of ground
storage tank bottoms resulting from internal and external corrosion. This
paper will discuss various options for CP of the external (groundside)
surfaces of tank bottoms that are in contact with corrosive environments.
The advantages and disadvantages of these options will be discussed,
along with limitations that exist in determining the effectiveness of CP
through traditional measurement techniques. Suggestions for an
alternative design approach intended to improve protective current
distribution will also be discussed.

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 C. P. Of Tank Bottoms
Sacrificial anode system:
For small diameter thank, effectively isolated from other
underground structures.
Impressed current systems:
Where current requirement are substantial

Types of anode installations:

Horizontal or vertical, around periphery (Fig. 1).
Horizontal or vertical under tank bottom (Fig. 2).
Deep well configuration (Fig. 3)

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Experience has shown
• Structure to earth potential at perimeter of tank does not
indicate actual C.P. levels at center, particularly for large
diameter tanks.
• Pot. Measurements at center & other parts are necessary.
• Liquid level in the tank as a significant factor.
• Certain C.P. designs may not be effective in providing
adequate C.P. to tank bottom in certain areas.
• Using slant or angle drilling can improve current distribution
(Fig. 4).
• Standard method to verify effectiveness of C.P.: Structure to
soil potential. (High impedance voltmeter & reproducible ref.
electrode).
• Natural potential of C-steel ~ 0.600 mV Vs Cu/CuSO4. More
positive values: means corrosion of structure, while more
negative values: indicate protection (or well-coated).
• Effective protection at -0.85 V Vs Cu/SuSO4 (One of the
accepted criteria)

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Problem of monitoring:
Inability to place portable reference electrode in close proximity to the
underside.
Placement of ref. electrodes at the perimeter: may yield erroneous
results, especially when using distributed anodes installed along the
periphery.
Table (1): Actual measurements showing a potential difference of ~
300 mV between perimeters a center of tank.
So, recommended: At least one measurement taken at tank center.

Problem of monitoring:
Inability to place portable reference electrode in close proximity to the
underside.
Placement of ref. electrodes at the perimeter: may yield erroneous
results, especially when using distributed anodes installed along the
periphery.
Table (1): Actual measurements showing a potential difference of ~
300 mV between perimeters a center of tank.
So, recommended: At least one measurement taken at tank center.

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Problem of monitoring:
Inability to place portable reference electrode in close proximity
to the underside.
Placement of ref. electrodes at the perimeter: may yield
erroneous results, especially when using distributed anodes
installed along the periphery.
Table (1): Actual measurements showing a potential difference
of ~ 300 mV between perimeters a center of tank.
So, recommended: At least one measurement taken at tank
center.
For new tank construction: permanent reference electrode
and a lead wire underneath tank pad (Fig. 5) or a perforated
PVC or FRP pipe (Fig. 6) for potential profiling.
For existing tanks: A hole can be bored (water jetting) in a
configuration shown in Fig. 6.

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Table (1): Potential Measurements Obtained Under a 36.6m Diameter Tank Bottom

Reference Electrode Location (m) Tank-to-Cu/CuSO4 (V)

Perimeter -1.492
1.5 -1.379
3.0 -1.291
4.5 -1.242
6.0 -1.183
7.5 -1.151
9.0 -1.127
10.5 -1.109
12.0 -1.097
13.5 -1.109
15.0 1.109
16.5 -1.101
18.0 (center) -1.112

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Typical Case Studies
Case No 1 (Fig. 7):
36.5m dia., 14.6m high C-steel ground storage tank.
Deep anode ground-bed installed in close proximity to tank (2.1 A).
Measurements at periphery & center of tank.

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Case No 2 (Fig. 8):
• 33.5m dia., 14.6m high C-steel ground storage tank.
• Deep anode ground bed (2 A)
• Potential at center (0.640 V) does not satisfy the minimum accepted
criterion.
• These examples indicate the critical nature of reference electrode
replacement to assess degree of protection.
• Also: leakage current at lank perimeter (tank bottom at perimeter has
the lowest resistance to earth).
• Under conditions of max product level, good contact at center, hence
greater expected area & lowest resistance to earth, hence a higher
required current.
• Testing on an empty tank may indicate adequate C.P. at center (limited
amount of surface area being protected). Once the tank is filled, surface
area in contact with earth increases & current density decrease.
• The success of the deep anode ground-bed system is usually predicted
on relatively low, uniform soil sensitivities from the ground surface to
the total depth of the ground-bed.
• Difficult to direct the ground-bed current to the tank bottom in areas of
non-uniform soil resistively, particularly where high receptivity strata
may lie between the tank bottom and the active anode area.
• Distributed anode ground-beds installed around the periphery of the
tank, are intended to provide uniform distribution of the anode current
to the tank.

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New System Approach (Angle – Drilled Anodes)
Using distributed anodes at a 35 to 45 degree angle to the
perimeter of the tank to a depth of 7.6 to 10.7m (Fig. 4): More
uniform current distribution & higher protection levels at center.
In new installations of this type, potentials of – 1.00V at
perimeter& -0.86V at center.
Easy to conduct these types of installations: by the use of pre-
packaged or canistered anodes.

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 Summary
 The application of CP is an effective means of controlling
corrosion on a tank bottom groundside. The success of the CP
system is dependent on proper design and selection of the type
of installation and effective monitoring of the level of
protection being afforded the entire tank bottom (groundside).
The use of angle-drilled anodes around the periphery of the
storage tank should provide a better distribution of current to
the center of the tank. Monitoring through the use of
permanent reference cells installed under the base of the tank
or reference cells passed through a slotted pipe installed under
the center of the tank will provide an accurate indication of
the true potential level. True potentials might not otherwise be
realized by placing a reference cell around the perimeter of
the tank.

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