Chapter Three

3. POLITICS, ECONOMY AND

SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE
HORN TO THE END OF THE
THIRTEENTH CENTURY
 3.1 EMERGENCE OF STATE
• One of the m ost i m p or tant f ac tor f or the
emergency of state is the beginning of sedentary
life.
• With im p rovem ent of m eans and ways of
production, human beings begun to possess
surplus production and ensure food security for
long period.
• Eventually trade transaction developed between
farmers and artisans via bartering system.
• Development of agriculture and trade gradually
resulted in the formation of class with in the
community.
 Cont’d
• Generally states were formed because of
expansion of agriculture and trade.
• State is an autonomous political entity
which have: Population, Def ined Territory,
Government(with the power to enact and
enforce laws) and Sovereignty. (Recognition
also taken as an essential element of state.)
• States arose independently in different
places and at different times.
 Con’d
• Religiou s leaders were promin en t in
maintaining social and religious affairs of
initial formation of states.
• With the development of trade and market
places, religious leaders were replaced by
Chiefs who begun to collect tributes and
provide security for the community.
• Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions
in Africa where early state formation took
place.
 3.2 Ancient States
A. Punt
 the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and
the Horn.
 The evidence on Punt comes from Egyptian
hieroglyphic writings.
 Different Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt had
sent trade expedition towards Punt to
collect commodities like myrrh, ebony and
electrum (gold and silver alloy) and Dwarfs.
 Cont’d
• Of these pharaohs, Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743
-2731 B.C) and Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468
B.C.) are the most important one.
• Especially Hatshepsut’s expedition is well
documented at her tomb in Dier El Bahri.
• She sent f iv e ships under the leadership of
Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-Tumilat.
The expedition was warmly welcomed by the
Puntites King Perehu and the royal Family.
• The Egyptian collected commodities like
frankincense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods
(sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard
and leopard skins, ostrich feathers and egg, live
monkeys, giraffes etc…
 Cont’d
• The Egyptians used commodities from
Punt for ritual purpose and that is why
Punities are Known as Khebis of the Ta
Netjeru (divine/ Ghost land)
• The Punities import materials like axes,
daggers, swords, knives, sickles, clothes,
bracelets, necklaces, beads and other
trinkets were imported from Egypt.
• However there is no agreement among the
scholars concerning the exact location of
Punt.
 B. Da’amat
• Da’amat had a center a little to the south of
Aksum
• Inscription of the king of Da’amat dated 5 C.
th

BC, shows that he used politico-religious

title known as Mukarib.
• Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah
(principal god), Astarr (Venus god), Na’uran
(light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin
(moon god) were worshipped in the domain
of the Da’amat state and other northern
Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural centers
• There were similar practices in South
Arabia at the time
 Yeha
• is located 30 kms to the nor theast of
A ks u m an d w as th e ol d e s t of th e s e
centers
• It probably emerged around 1000 B.C as a
small emporium where South Arabian
merchants and their agents bought and
stored ivory, rhinoceros horn and other
commodities coming from the interior.
• It reached its zenith around 750-500 B.C
• Remains of walls of some of its buildings
and stone masonry as well as still
standing temple and inscriptions indicate
Yeha’s glory.
 Cont’d
Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of
Aksum, where stone tablets that are inscribed
in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall
decorated with paintings representing herds
of cattle have been excavated.
A d d i - S e g l e m e n i : i s l o c a t e d a t 1 0 k m s
southwest of Aksum, from where a stone slab
is found and the oldest Ethiopian
monumental inscription is discovered.
There were also other cultural centers like
Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih,
Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe and
Tekonda etc…
 C. Axumite State
• Aksumite state was formed around 200-100
B.C, initially limited to a relatively small area
comprising the town of Aksum and its environs.
• However in its Zenith, Aksumite territories
extended from the Red Sea coast in the East to
River Nile Basin in the West and Northern most
of Eritrea in the north to Shewa in the south.
• According to Periplus of Erythrean Sea, Adulis
was major port of axum.
• The LDT connects trde centers in Aksumite
states like Kaskas, Coleo, Matara…
 Con’d
• Major export items of the Axumites were
ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and
some spices (like ginger, cassia and
c i n n amon ), g ol d, r h i n oc e ros h or n s ,
hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and
some curiosity animals like apes.
• In return: a number of manufactured
products like garments and textiles from
Egypt, India, the Roman Empire, and Persia;
glassware and jewelry from Egypt and
other places; metallic sheets, tools or
utensils of various kinds, oil and wine
from the regions of Roman Empire and
Syria were imported.
 Con’d
• The Axumites had maintained multifaceted
relations with the outside world including the
Greco-Roman World(*Axumite King Zoscalus
used to speak Greek Language), middle East
and Far East(Sri Lanca) and Asia minor.
• Christian Topography, describes commercial
activities of the Axumites and the LDT between
Axum and Sasu (people beyond Blue Nile)
• Silent trade was co nducted between the
Axumites and Sasu (because of language
barrier and Trust issue)
• The Axumites had extensive relation with the
South Arabian region, leading to exchange of
ideas, material and spiritual culture.
 Con’d
• Different Axumite kings (Aphilas, Endybis,
Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II) had minted
and issued different kinds of coins in gold,
silver and bronze for both overseas and
local transactions.
• Axum was one of Four great power of the
world: Roman Empire, Persia and China)
• It was a major naval and trading power
from the first to the seventh centuries.
• Aksum had a large f le et of ships, which
was used not only for trade but also for its
wars across the Red Sea
 Con’d
• King Caleb (r 500-535) extended the
territories of Axum in South Arabia after
defeating Dhu Nawas, who had professed
to Judiasm and persecuted Christians in
South Arabian region, in 523 and 525.
• It was during Gabra Maskal, the son and
s u c c e s s o r o f C a l e b , th a t S t. Ya r e d
developed Ethiopian Orthodox Church
liturgical songs and hymns.
 Decline of Axum
• Both internal and external factors
accounted for the decline of Axum.
• Environmental degradation, decline in
agricultural productivity and possibly
plague infestation started to weaken it.
• The whole international trade relation was
crippled with occupation of the Adulis by
the Arabs in 702.
• As a result the Axumites were cutoff from
their diplomatic and commercial partners
which resulted in decline in economy.
 Con’d
• The Axumites were also challenged
internally, mainly the rebellions of the Bejja,
the Agaw and Yodit who finally sealed the
collapse of the Aksumite state.
• However, as a civilization, Aksum had a
profound impact upon the peoples of the
Horn of Africa and beyond, and on its
s u cces s ors ( Zagwe an d Solomon ic
Dynasty and the Gondarian Period)
 Con’d
• Some of its achievements include Sub-
Saharan Africa’s only surviving indigenous
script and calendar as well as EOC hymns
and chants, paintings etc; diversif ie d
ceramic and lithic tools, ivory curving, and
urbanization and sophisticated building
traditions.
• It also developed complex administrative
and governance system, and agricultural
system including irrigation
 Zagwe Dynasty
• After its decline, the center of Aksumite state
shifted southwards to Kubar rural highland in the
territory of the Agaw.
• This paves the way for the Agaws to took part in
state affairs of the Axumites.
• The Agaws successfully integrated with the
Axumites (for instance Merra T/haymanot
married Mesobe-Worq, the daughter of the last
King of Axum Dil Naod), and took over the state
administration.
• Merra T/aymanot overthrew his father in law and
took in control of power.
• Notwithstanding the debates, the Zagwe Dynasty
is believed to have ruled from c. 1150 to 1270.
 Cont’d
• The Dynasty established its center at
Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
• Its territory includes most of highland
provinces of Axumite state in the north to
Shewa in the South and Lake Tana and
Gojjam in the West.
• The Agaw maintained the ancient Axumite
tradition intact.
• The Zagwe Rulers maintained cultural and
trade contact with eastern Mediterranean
region
 Con’t
• Export items includes slaves, ivory and rare
spices
• While they imported goods like: cotton, linen,
silver and copper vessels, various types of
drags and newly minted coins.
• Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's
p ain t in g s an d t h e t ran slat ion of some
religious works from Arabic into Ge'ez.
• Zagwe rulers are also best known for the
c o n st r u c t io n o f c av e , se mi- h e w n an d
monolithic churches.
• Cave: with some decoration inside, almost
similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel
• Semi-hewn: They are not totally separated
from the surrounding rock. Their roofs or
walls are still attached to the rock, eg. Bete
Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota,
Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and
Bete Abba Libanos.
• Monolithic: with detailed decoration in the
interior and exterior par ts. They are
completely separated (carved out) from
surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete
Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete
Medhanialem.
 Cont’d
• Of all, Bete Medhanelem is the largest of
all and Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most
finely built in the shape of the Cross.
• Lalibela build these churches to second
Jerusalem and avoid dif fic ulties that
Ethiopian Pilgrims had faced on their way
to Jerusalem.
• Internal (problem of succession) and
external factors ignite dynasty’s decline.
• They were considered as ‘usurper’ by their
rivals
• T hei r r i va l s co nsi der ed Z a gwe k i ngs
“illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of
the Queen of Sheba.
• The legend was in turn based on a book
known as Kebra-Negest that was translated
from Coptic to Arabic and then into Ge’ez.
• Exploiting the legend the rivals contend
“Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite
state until its power was “usurped” by the
Zagwes.
• Finally Yekuno Amlak(1270-85), who
claimed to the descent of Last king of
Axum Dil-Naod, organized his force and
defeated the last king of Zagwe Yitbarek
• Yeku n o-Aml ak took th e s tate power
p r oc l ai m i n g th e “r e s torati on” of
“Solomonic” Dynasty.
 East, Central, Southern, and
Western States
Bizamo: was a kingdom located on the
southern bend of Abay River just opposite to
the present districts of Gojjam and around
the current Wambara area.
 It was founded in the eighth century and
had early connections with Damot.
Damot: was a strong kingdom that expanded
its territories into most of the lands the south
of Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as
west of Awash and east of Didessa.
 Motalami was a prominent king of Damot
in the thirteenth century
Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in
southwestern Ethiopia
• The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho
• Enarya's kingship was a divine one: the
king (Hinnare- Tato ) was secluded and
considered as sacred
• The real power rested with Mikretcho
(council) including Awa-rasha (king's
spokesperson) and Atche-rasha (royal
treasurer.
• By the 9 c. the Axumite King Digna-Jan
th

led campaign in to Enarya followed by EOC.

 Gafat
 historically, the territory of Gafat lies south
of Abay
 It was inhabited by Semitic speaking
population related to Harari and the Gurage
 the Gafat largely remained practitioners of
their own indigenous religion.
 The state was governed by rulers bearing the
title of Awalamo.
 As of early medieval period, Gafat was
paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom
mainly in cattle,
 Muslim Sultanats
• With the expansion of Islam in to the region,
Muslim communities and states had been
established at many locations especially
along the main trade routes from Zeila and
its many branches penetrating the interior.
A. Shewa: ruled by Makhzumite Dynasty
established by Makhzumi Khalid, who
claimed decent from Meca, in 896 A. D.
• Fatagar: founded around Minjar, Shenkora
and Ada’a in the 11th C.
 Con’d
C. Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between
upper waters of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle.
• Despite its size, Dawaro resembled Ifat in
many ways.
• Dawaro had a currency called hakuna for
transaction .
D. Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying
high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle
and Rift valley Lakes.
• Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s
Muslim provinces
 CON’D
 Tr a d e w a s m a i n l y b a s e d o n b a r t e r
exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc.
 It had strong army composed of cavalry
and infantry.
E. Ifat: was a state located adjacent to
Shewan Sultanate, established by Umar
Walasma.
• Umar intervened between quarrelsome
Makzumite princes and weakened and
finally annexed the sultanate of Shewa.
• The sultanate was fertile and well watered,
hence their economy was dominated by
agriculture
• Chat was described for the f ir st time as
 Cont’d

• There were also other autonomous states

mutually independent states like
Arababani, Biqulzar, Dera , Fadise, Gidaya,
Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah
and Sim which were established and
flourished.
 Foreign Relations
• Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with
Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C.
• I t h ad v e r y c l o s e r e l ati o n s w i th al l
c om m e rc i al l y ac ti v e S ou th A rab i an
Kingdoms starting sometimes before
1,000 B.C
• The introduction of Christianity to Aksum
established a new pattern of relation
between the region and Egypt.
• Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt
and the general reduction of the Christians
into minority, relations between the two
were fairly smooth and friendly.
 Cont’
• Aksum had also established close
relationship with Byzantine
Empire(commercial interest in the Red Sea
against Persians) however since seven
century, this relation became complicated
and began to deteriorate.
• The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs to
the region led to the decline of Aksumite
land routes and shipping lines.
• Egyptian rulers used the consecration and
sending of Bishops to Ethiopia to promote
their interest over Ethiopia, while the
Christian Rulers of Ethiopia threatens to
divert River Nile.
 Con’d
• Moreover the coming of Mamluks in Egypt
presented a barrier to the contacts between
Christian Ethiopia and European states.
• Despite challenges, the tradition to visit
Jerusalem and other holy-lands in the
Middle east by the Ethiopians sustains
Ethiopia's relation with Christian Europe as
most of these pilgrims who came in to
contact with fellow Christian Europeans:
 they transmitted information about the EOC
and its exceptional liturgical practices.
Territorial extent of Christian Kingdom & its
domination over the muslims
 Cont’d
• From the information, Europeans begun to
imagine that there is strong Christian state
in Africa.
• Around 12 C. a myth about a very rich and
th

powerful Christian ruler known as Prester

John began to circulate in Europe.
• The legend developed when the Muslims
dominate crusade wars over christians.
• The Europeans do not know the
geographic location of country of Prester
Jhon but regard Christaian Ethiopia as
potential one.
 Economic Formation

A. Agriculture and Land Tenure
•
System
Agriculture was the backbone for most of the
peoples in Ethiopia and the Horn
• People use Irrigation and improve soil fertility
through different mechanism to produce
more.
• Lan d h as alw ays been on e of th e most
precious possessions of human society
throughout history.
• The rules according to which members of the
society hold, share and use land constitute
what is known as the land tenure system.
 Con’d
• The most ancient system of land holding
which survived in many parts of Ethiopia
and the Horn is the communal land tenure
system which is Group Right.
• Peasants in the north had rist rights in
their respective areas
• Rist is a kind of communal birthright to
land by members of the families and clans
whose ancestors had settled and lived.
• Most of the subjects of the state had rist
rights. The rist owners were known as bale
-rist
 Con’d
• Yet, they paid tributes to the state and all
land belonged to the state theoretically
• Tribute was collected through a complex
hierarchy of state functionaries or of ficials
who were given Gult right over the areas
and populations they administered on
behalf of the government.
• Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’
produce. The person who is authorized to
do so is called bale-gult.
• Eventually Gult right became hereditary
called Riste-Gult.
 2. Handicraft
• Indigenous handcraft technology had
existed since the ancient period
• Metal workers, carpenters, potters, tanners
and weavers produced different materials
for the community
• However artisans were mostly despised and
marginalized
• The ruling family spend enormous wealth on
imported items than indigenous one.
• As a result handicraft productions did not
show sign of improvement as anticipated.
 3. trade
• Trade(internal and external) was another
important economic activity of ancient
states that obtained considerable income.
• The region was crisscrossed by various
trade routes connecting various market
places in all directions
• A network of roads connected the centers
with the coast and various dependencies in
the interior
• Security and maintain of regular f lo w of
Trade was the main concern of state.
 Socio-cultural achievements
ARCHITECTURE
 architecture is one of the most important
achievements of Ethiopia.
 Axumite architecture began to f lourish and
one of the unique architectural technologies
was the engraving of stele around the 3 rd
C.AD
 There were totally f if ty eight steles in and
around Aksum that can be grouped into well
made and decorated, half completed and
megaliths
 Con’d
• the steles were engraved specifically at
Gobodara from which they were transported
and planted in Aksum
• The longest one of these stele measures
33meters heights.
• It represents a-14 storied building with
many windows and a false door at the
bottom. It also bears pre-Christian symbols,
which are a disc and a crescent (half moon)
at the top
• 2 largest have 24 height, and the third 21
nd

with 10 and 9 story building respectively

and false windows and doors
 Cont’d
• The Zagwe churches are regarded as
some of the finest architecture of artistic
achievements of the Christian world and
registered by UNESCO as part of world
cultural heritage in 1978, two years before
that of the Aksumite stele
• Zagwe architecture used a softer material
like sandstone, which was cut and shaped
all round, except the floor, into a variety of
delicately decorated churches
 Writing system
• Before 6 C BC, peoples in the north used
th

Sabean Language with Boustrophedon writing

system but without vowels.
• Since 6 c BC variants of script arose, evolving in
th

the direction of the Geʽez script

• By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose,
an abjad (26 consonant letters only) written left-
to-right with letters identical to the first-order
forms of modern vocalized alphabet
• Though the first completely vocalized texts
known are inscriptions by Ezana 330 AD,
• Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system
has immense contribution to the development
of literature, art and the writing of history
 Calander
• Calendars were developed and adopted
among various peoples of Ethiopia and
the Horn
• Oromo c al en dar h as been bas ed on
astronomical observations of moon in
conjunction with particular stars or group
of stars
• There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354
days in 12 months of a year
• The Sidama calendar rotates following
movements of stars with 13 months a year,
12 of which are divided equally into 28
days while the thirteenth month has 29
days
 Cont’d
• The Sidama week has only 4 days and
hence each month has 7 weeks.
• Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of
30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years)
Epagomen al days , wh i c h c ompr i s e a
thirteenth month.
• A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic and
Gregorian calendars results from
alternative calculation in determining date
of Annunciation
• The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to
become the official calendar of the country
 Con’d
• The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar
calendar consisting of 12 months in a year
of 354 or 355 days.
• It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which
Mohammed and his followers made f light
from Mecca to Medina Dates in this era are
usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the year
of the Hijra "). Years prior to the Hijra are
reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra").
• Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya,
Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their
own dating system.
 numerals
• Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the
Horn at the beginning of fourth century AD.
Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to
the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals, but
it lacks individual characters for multiples
of 100.