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Communication skill for leadership

What is Listening Skills?

The listening process starts from receiving the information or noise, and then your
mind will interpret the information by your mental filters and little information will be
remembered in your brain storage by which it is evaluated based on your judgment
and finally the response will be delivered in the way of verbal voice or loud applause.

Listening differs from hearing

Hearing implies just perceiving the sounds while listening means listening with
understanding whatever you are listening. Both the body as well as mind is involved
in listening process. Listening is an active process while hearing is a passive activity.

Hearing is an effortless activity while listening is an act requiring conscious efforts,

concentration and interest. Listening involves both physical and psychological efforts.

Characteristics of Good and Effective Listener

Good and effective listener tries to give maximum amount of thought to the
speaker’s ideas being communicated, leaving a minimum amount of time for mental
exercises to go off track. A good listener:

1. Is attentive- Good listener must pay attention to the key points. He should be
alert. He should avoid any kind of distraction.
2. Do not assume- Good listener does not ignore the information he considers
is unnecessary. He should always summarize the speaker’s ideas so that
there is no misunderstanding of thoughts of speakers. He avoids premature
judgements about the speakers message.
3. Listen for feelings and facts- Good listener deliberately listens for the
feelings of the speaker. He concentrates totally on the facts. He evaluates the
facts objectively. His listening is sympathetic, active and alert. He keenly
observes the gestures, facial expression and body language of the speaker. In
short, a good listener should be projective (i.e. one who tries to understand the
views of the speaker) and empathic (i.e. one who concentrates not only on the
surface meaning of the message but tries to probe the feelings and emotions
of the speaker).
4. Concentrate on the other speakers kindly and generously- A good
listener makes deliberate efforts to give a chance to other speakers also to
express their thoughts and views. He tries to learn from every speaker. He
evaluates the speaker’s ideas in spare time. He focuses on the content of the
speaker’s message and not on the speaker’s personality and looks.
5. Opportunizes- A good listener tries to take benefit from the opportunities
arising. He asks “What’s in it for me?

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Types of listening
1. Active Listening – Active listening is a way of listening that focuses entirely
on what the other person is saying and confirms understanding of both the
content of the message and the emotions and feelings underlying the
message to ensure that understanding is accurate.
2. Pretending Listening – Is a way where listener is not concentrating and will
not remember anything because he is actually daydreaming or being
distracted by something else even though he will occasionally nod or agree
using ‘stock’ safe replies.
3. Selective Listening – It means selecting the “desired” part & ignoring the
“undesired” part of the message.
4. Intuitive Listening – It means listening through intuitive mind by silencing the
internal dialogues going simultaneously.
5. Empathic Listening – It is listening intently & intensively to understand the
person fully, deeply both emotionally as well as intellectually.

5 Stages of the Listening Process

1. Receiving (Hearing)

The first stage of the listening process is the receiving stage, which involves
hearing and attending. Hearing is the perception of sound waves; the students
must initially hear to listen, but the students do not need to listen to hear.

2. Understanding (Learning)
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In the Figure of the listening process, stages two, three, and four are
represented by the brain because it is the primary tool involved in these
stages of the listening process.

In the understanding stage, the students attempt to learn the meaning of the
message; comprehend/examine the meaning of the stimuli they have
perceived.

3. Remembering (Recalling)

Remembering means that the students have not only received and clarified a
message but have also added it to the brain’s stockpile. If the students do not
remember what they have heard, they are probably not effectively listening.
Even a minor distraction can cause misinterpretation of the message. The
remembering stage of listening helps us move forward with communication.

4. Evaluating (Judging)

The fourth stage in the listening process is evaluating or thinking critically

about the message. The students determine whether the information spoken
is well-constructed or muddled, partial or impartial, invalid or valid.

5. Responding (Answering)

Responding—sometimes called feedback—is the fifth and final stage of the

listening process.

The students will provide verbal and/or nonverbal reactions. Nonverbal

responses such as nodding or eye contact allow the listener to communicate
his or her level of interest without interrupting the speaker, thereby preserving
the speaker/listener roles. When the students respond verbally to what they
hear and remember—for example, with a question or a comment.

How to be a better listener

Being a good listener can help you become a more valuable asset to your
team. Follow these steps to improve your listening skills:

1. Give the speaker your undivided attention

Distractions can make it difficult to focus on the things a speaker is telling you.
To become a good listener, limit as many distractions as possible and give the
speaker your undivided attention. This includes silencing your phone, turning
off your computer and avoiding the urge to multitask by checking emails or
giving attention to other tasks. This can help you focus on the speaker,
ensuring that you're taking in everything that they are saying.
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It is also important to be aware you take the time to give the speaker your
undivided attention. Managing your time correctly can help you ensure you
can limit distractions while you are listening.

2. Provide appropriate nonverbal communication

Providing a speaker with the appropriate nonverbal cues can help them feel
more at ease and comfortable as you listen to them. Nonverbal
communication helps you listen and provide your support without having to
interrupt your speaker. This can include maintaining sufficient eye contact,
sitting up straight and smiling when appropriate. Proper nonverbal
communication while listening can also help the speaker feel more at ease
and more likely to openly communicate their ideas.

3. Pace the conversation

Being a good listener often includes opening a dialogue and allowing for a
conversation to start between you and the speaker. Pace the conversation by
determining the goal of the speaker's message and evaluating their nonverbal
cues to decide when it's appropriate to respond. Instead of rushing to fill
silences, let the speaker finish their thoughts and acknowledge their message
accordingly. This will also give you time to absorb their message and process
what they are saying before it's time to respond.

4. Ask meaningful questions

Once it is time to open up a dialogue, the questions you ask should be
meaningful and establish your investment in the speaker's message. Ask
questions that can help both you and the speaker reflect on what they said as
well as elaborate on any points that may need extra clarification. The
questions might help the speaker remember other things they wanted to say
or open up a new line of dialogue that will be worth exploring.

5. Recall previous information

Recalling information that the speaker has already discussed, as well as

summarizing the points they made in your responses, can help you become a
more effective listener. Doing this not only shows the speaker you understand
what they said, but it also ensures they can clarify any misunderstandings and
confirm their key points.

6. Provide your input

Being a good listener encompasses both processing a speaker's message
and providing valuable input from your point of view. It is best to do this once
the speaker has contributed everything they needed to say and you have
properly interpreted all the information they have presented.

Tips for listening more effectively

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Here are a few extra tips to help you listen more effectively:

Manage your time appropriately

When preparing to listen effectively, it is important to ensure you've scheduled

a time when you can provide the speaker with your undivided attention. It is
best to avoid creating too many meetings or cluttering your schedule so that
each time you are listening to a speaker, you can do so while focusing clearly
on what they are saying.

Be mindful of your perspective

It is natural to approach any subject with a different point of view than the
speaker's. Regardless of the message, be mindful of different perspectives
when you're interpreting the other person's message. Even if you disagree,
recognizing the difference in your point of view and using it to understand the
speaker's message can help you listen more effectively.

Take notes
It's useful to take notes when listening to a speaker. Jotting down key ideas,
questions and any points that may need further clarification will allow you to
understand their message more effectively.

Display empathy
Listening to someone with an emphasis on empathy can help prevent any
misunderstandings from occurring. The more you work to connect with what
others are thinking and feeling, the less likely you are to misunderstand them.

Avoid interruptions
The more interruptions you experience while a person is speaking, the less
likely they are to fully communicate what they intended to say. Avoiding
interruptions and creating an environment where they can speak without
distraction or interruption will make it easier for them to share their message.

Stay curious and open-minded

While you should give the speaker a chance to share their message without
interruption, effective listening includes maintaining your curiosity and staying
open-minded. The more you can ask questions and think creatively about
what the speaker is sharing, the more likely you will be to properly interpret
their message.

Q Explain the 6 ‘R’s of note taking?

Ans Cornell 6-R Notetaking Method
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The Cornell 6-R Notetaking method breaks the process down into
components, but it is really an ongoing, dynamic process. The value of taking
notes this way is that it organizes information and prepares you for tests from
the very beginning, and saves time.

Record
Write down important facts, names, dates, concepts, theories,
procedures and other information in the column on the right.

Reduce
Summarize the main ideas with key words or questions and
write these in the column on the left.

Recite
Cover the details section, and ask yourself the question in the
main idea column, or formulate a question based upon the
concept phrases in the left column. How well could you
remember what you wrote down? Keep track of what you need
to learn.

Reflect
Reflect upon the ideas in the notes, including how they are
applied, the implications of conclusions or data, and the
meaning of examples or cases discussed. Search for
connections between ideas. You give meaning to what you are
learning by reflecting upon it. Record your thoughts,
observations, questions and unresolved issues in the lower
section of the page for the summary.

Review
Review your notes again immediately after taking them. If the
notes are from lecture, fill in any blanks, clarify any missing or
partial information. Recite and reflect again to test yourself. Plan
spaced time for review of your notes each week.

Recapitulate
Summarize what you have gone over in your notes again. Write
a summary of each page of notes in the lower section of the
page. This will help the information to be stored in long-term
memory.

What Is Note Taking?

Note taking is collecting pieces of information from a source or speaker and then
listing them in an outline using bullets or grouping them into categories and sections
through diagrams. It is a process of recording important data in notes taking.It is also
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an essential skill that should be mastered especially by people who are studying or
who are frequent at conferences.

Methods of taking notes

 The Outline Method This method is used for simplicity and is
one of the easiest methods of taking notes. Anyone can pick up
this method and use it with no issues.

Use this method in cases where:

 You want your notes to be organized from the start.

 To see the relationships between both topics and subtopics.
 You want to convert the points into questions to quiz yourself
on later.

 The Cornell Method

In this method, you are still using key points, but this method goes
deeper into the organizing method. For one, the page is broken
into three sections:

 a narrow column called the “cue”

 a wider column for your actual notes
 a summary at the bottom
This method is great if you:

 Want notes to be organized even further and easier to review.

 Want to pull out major ideas and concepts quickly.

 Mind Mapping Method

Mind mapping is a method that works for subjects that have

interlocking topics or complex and abstract ideas. Chemistry,
history, and philosophy are examples where this method shines.
This type of method for note taking is great for:

 Visual learners who struggle with studying via notes.

 For people who need to remember and connect relationships,
and events with topics.
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
 Flow Notes Method

This method also helps in drawing other bridges and form

connections in various fields or within the subject. If some information
reminds you of another piece of information or technique, make a
note and jot it down.
 The Sentence Method

Another simple method and is a lesser version of flow notes. The

idea with this is a simple note-taking.It’s genuine transcription at
it’s finest.

The problem with this method is that it can be tough to keep up

with everything else that’s happening. If you’re writing notes by
hand, you will definitely be missing key points and ideas. On a
computer, you may be able to keep up, however, you may face
challenges still.

 Charting Method

Charting notes take the Cornell method and divide a sheet into
three columns. Similar to the mind mapping method, this helps you
in connecting relationships and facts together between topics
This method is a lazier method than the other ones mentioned
above but works for the people who want to highlight key pieces
of information on various topics and want to organize facts for
easy review.

 Writing on Slides

The final method is another strategy for people who can’t be

bothered to take extensive notes. This method works well
particularly in classes where the instructor provides slides that
they’re using for their lectures.
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RELATIVE CLAUSES

NON-DEFINIG RELATIVE CLAUSES Non-defining relative clauses give us non- essential

information. We have to use who for people and which for things. You cannot use that
and you cannot leave out who or which. You have to put commas at the beginning and at
the end.
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USAGE OF TENSES

Difference Between Phrase and Clause

Clauses and phrases are two quite different components of a sentence, but
their similarities make it challenging for English language learners to
differentiate between the two. Although both phrases and clauses are
significant collections of words that comprise sentences, clauses are entire
thoughts that can operate on their own.
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What Is the Difference Between Phrase and

Clause?
Every sentence is made up of clauses and/or phrases, but distinguishing
between the two can be difficult and challenging at times.

Both phrases and clauses are collections of two or more words that help us
form sentences, but they have different purposes. To assist us in
comprehending the distinction, we need to define them both separately first.

A clause is a collection of words that includes the subjects and the verbs.

A phrase is a set of words that lacks the subject and the verb.

A sentence can appear as a single clause, but a sentence cannot be made up

of a single phrase. Phrases contribute value to sentences but cannot produce
them on their own.

Types of Clauses
Clauses can be classified into four types.

In English grammatical constructs, four kinds of clauses are used. The four
major types of clauses in English grammar are as follows.
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1. Main or the primary clause: The main clause of a sentence consists

of the subject and the verb. It can be used as an independent sentence
or in conjunction with a subordinate clause to provide further
information. The simple statement "Droplets dripped" is an instance of
an exceedingly short, basic main clause in a famous book on War and
Peace. The main clause is formed by combining the word "droplets"
with the verb "dripped." A compound sentence may consist of two
major clauses connected by a comma and coordinating conjunction
that can stand alone. "My kitty was agitated, so we headed for a walk,"
for instance, is a compound phrase.

2. Subordinate clause: A subordinate clause is a subsidiary sentence

that is linked to the main clause by subordinate conjunction such as
"because," "as," or "while." Coordination conjunctions such as "or,"
"but," or "but" can also be used to link a subordinate phrase to the main
sentence. A subordinate clause might be the primary clause without
the conjunction, but the fusion makes it an incomplete notion. In the
statement "She slipped because she was pushed," for example, the
subordinate clause is "because she was pushed. "
3. Adjective clause: An adjective clause, also referred to as an adverbial
clause, is a dependent phrase that connects to the main clause with
the use of a relative pronoun. These include "who," "whom," "whose,"
"which," or "that," or by employing a relative adverb such as "when,"
"where," or "why." For example, in the statement "She sobbed when
Ryan ditched her," the adjective clause is "when Ryan ditched her."
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4. A noun clause: It is a clause that substitutes a single noun. "The

diamond trophy goes to the victor," for example, can be changed to
"The diamond trophy goes to whoever wins the marathon." "Whoever
wins the race," as it substituted the noun "the victor," is the noun clause.

Now let us have a look at different types of phrases.

Different Types of Phrases

In English grammar, there are many different sorts of sentences that fulfill
various functions. Here are some examples of popular phrases.

1. Noun phrase: It is made up of a noun and its adjective modifiers. The

noun phrase in the statement "The youthful smart scholar will
graduate" is "the youthful smart scholar. "
2. Verb phrase: A verb phrase made up of the verb and its modifiers.
The verb phrase in the statement "My grandmother was walking
energetically" is "was walking energetically. "
3. Gerund phrase: A phrase that starts with a gerund (a verb that ends in
-ing and behaves as a noun) and includes its modifiers. For instance, in
the statement "Listening music is enjoyable," the gerund phrase in this
statement is " listening music".

4. Infinitive phrase: The infinitive phrases that start with the infinitive
verb "to." The infinitive phrase in the statement "Germy's goal is to
study the antiquities" is "to study the antiques. "
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5. Appositive phrase: A comma-separated appositive phrase

reinterprets a word with vital or non-essential content. The appositive
term in the sentence "Marie, my sister, is a doctor" is "my sister. "
6. Participial phrase: A participial phrase starts with a past or present
participle and modifies the verbs to be used as adjectives or nouns. For
instance, the participle phrase in the statement "Having taken the
chance to perform, the band performed magnificently" is "Having taken
the chance to perform "
7. Prepositional phrase: A phrase that starts with a preposition and
describes the placement or state of the statement's subject. The
prepositional phrase in the statement "The chef piped frosting on the
cakes" is "on the cakes. "
8. Absolute phrase: These phrases are used to change an entire
statement and have a subject but no action verb. The absolute term in
the statement "He left the glass, his hands shaking" is "his hands
shaking. "

These are some of the most common phrases. However, there are also an
adjective and adverb phrases.

Definition of a Sentence
A sentence means a group of words that makes complete sense. It
begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop. It always contains
a finite verb. A sentence may be a statement, question, exclamation or
command. It consists of a main clause and one or more subordinate
clauses. A sentence may be short and simple or long and complex. For
example:

She likes Sweets

She likes Bengali Sweets

She likes Bengali Sweets which are made of milk

She likes Bengali Sweets which are made of milk and are tasty

Structure of a Sentence
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A sentence consists of the following parts :

1. Subject : The person or thing about which something is stated is

called subject.

2. Predicate : It is that part of a sentence that tells something about the

subject.

 His sister works in London

 The flight arrived late

3. Direct Object : A person or thing which receives the action of the

verb is the direct object. It comes after the verb and answers the
question ‘What’. For example:

 Sohan ate breakfast

 The breakfast was tasty

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4 Indirect Object : A person or thing that the action is done to or for

is known as the indirect object. It is the receiver of the direct object.
It follows the verb and answers the questions ‘Whom’. The indirect
object usually comes just before the direct object

5. Object of the Preposition : It is a noun or pronoun that provides

meaning. The noun that comes after the preposition is called the
object of the preposition.

6 Verbs : A verb means that part of speech which describes an action

or occurrence. For example,

John ran a mile.

Perry is a teacher.

Verbs are of the following types according to their function in the

sentence.

(i) Finite Verbs : A finite verb (or main verb) agrees with its subject in
person and number. It forms the main clause of a sentence. It also
changes according to the tense of the sentence.

(ii) Non-Finite Verbs : A verb that does not change according to the
person, number and tense of the sentence is called a non-finite verb.
Non-finite Verbs are of three types :

(a) Infinitive : It is generally used like a noun. Generally the word “to” is
used before the infinitive verb.

(b) Participle : It is a verb which can be used as an adjective. Present

participle ends with ing and the past participle ends with ed or t.

(c) Gerunds : A gerund is a verb but acts as a noun. It ends with ing.

Auxiliary Verbs : The verbs ‘be’, ‘have’ and ‘do’ which are used with
main verbs to make tenses, passive forms, questions and negatives are
known as auxiliary or helping verbs. These include is, own, are, was,
were, has, have, had, does, do, did.

(v) Transitive Verbs : The Verbs which always have direct objects. In other
words, these give action to someone or something: Therefore, these are
also called action verbs which express doable activities.

Intransitive Verbs : An intransitive verb indicates an action that does not

pass over to an object. It merely expresses a state or being.
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7. Phrases : A phrase means a group of words that makes some sense

but not complete sense. It acts as a single part of speech. It may not
have a subject, or a predicate or both. Phrases are of the following
types:

(i) Prepositional Phrase : It is a group of words that begins with a

preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun or gerund. For example :

He gave the job to her

(ii) Noun Phrase : A noun phrase consists of a single noun or pronoun

and its modifiers. It does the function of a noun. It may be used as a
subject, an object or a complement. For example:

The dark, foul smoke engulfed the locality (noun phrase as subject)

(iii) Verb Phrase : In a verb Phrase, a main verb and one or more
helping verbs are linked together. It serves as the predicate of a clause
or sentence. It defines the different times of the action. For example:

I have read a book

I was reading a book

8. Complements : A word or a group of words that completes the

meaning of a subject, an object, or a verb is known as complement:

(i) Subject complement : A subject complement modifies or refers to the

subject and follows a verb. It may be a noun or an adjective for example:

Taj Mahal is Magnificent : (The adjective magnificent is a subject

complement that describes the subject Taj Mahal).

Mr. Anoop Jalota is a bhajan Singer (The noun phrase bhajan

singer describes Mr. Anoop Jalota).

(ii) Object Complement : It modifies and follows an object. For example :

Voters elected her a member of the Parliament (Member of Parliament

describes the direct object her).

I consider smoking cigarettes harmful to health (Cigarettes is the direct

object, harmful to health describes it).

(iii) Verb Complement : Direct or Indirect object of a verb is called verb

complement. It may be a noun, pronoun, or word/group of words acting
as a noun. For example :
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Naina gave Mohan my umbrella (Mohan is the indirect object, my

umbrella is the direct object of the verb gave. Both are verb
complements)

Types of Sentences

3.1 Classification According to Function

1. Declarative/Assertive Sentences : These sentences make a
declaration in the form of a statement, an opinion, a suggestion, a
proverb or a universal truth. These can be positive or negative but
always end with a full stop. For example:

The teacher is going to the class room (simple statement)

Sunita is a good singer (opinion) (declaration)

The sun rises in the east. (universal truth)

Barking dogs seldom bite (proverb)

2. Imperative Sentences : These sentences express an order,

command, advice, request, proposal or suggestion. These may end with
a full stop or exclamation depending on the imperative word. For
example:

Get out (Command)

Always Speak the truth (Advice)

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Please be patient (request)

Let’s go to the book fair (suggestion)

3. Interrogative Sentences : These sentences ask questions. ‘Wh’ and a

verb are used to frame an interrogative sentence. A question mark
comes after such a question. For example:

Who is your father?

When are you going to London?

Do you have any money?

Are you feeling alright?

4. Exclamatory Sentences : These sentences express strong emotions

or feelings such as joy, surprise, wonder, regret, etc. An exclamatory
sentence ends with an exclamation mark. For example :

Alas! India lost the match. (regret)

Hurray! My daughter passed the IIT examination (joy)

Oh my God! It is raining. (surprise)

What a shame! (regret)

What a beautiful scene! (wonder)

3.2 Classification According to Structure

5. Simple Sentences : There is only one subject one predicate and one
finite verb in a simple sentence. It contains only one independent
clause. For example |:

She sings (She is the subject and sings is the predicate)

The dog ran after the ball (Dog is the subject and ran after the ball is
the predicate).

Either subject or verb can be compound (meaning two or more), but the
key is there always remains only ONE independent clause. For example:

Blue is her favourite colour.

Blue and Red are her favourite colours.

Sam loves and hates pink.

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The examples above are all simple sentences, though some contain
compound elements.

Example one has a simple subject (Blue) and a simple verb(is).

Example two has a compound subject (Blue and Red) and a simple verb
(are).

Example three has a simple subject (Sam) and a compound verb (loves
and hates). However, they are all still considered simple sentences
because there is no dependent clause that can stand alone.

6. Compound Sentences : There are two or more independent/main

clauses in a compound sentence. A comma, a colon, a semi-colon is
used to join these clauses. Conjunctions used to join similar elements
(e.g. two nouns, two verbs, two modifiers) are
called coordinating conjunctions (Here is a list of co-ordinating
conjunctions for future compound sentences you will write: for, and, nor,
but, or, yet, so. An easy way to remember these is the
acronym FANBOYS.)

It rained heavily throughout the day; consequently, the city was flooded

The thief ran to escape but the police caught him

The winter set in, it was cold and we took out woollens from the cupboard

She is neither honest nor sincere.

7. Complex Sentences : There is one main clause and one or more

subordinate (dependent) clauses in a complex sentence. The
subordinating conjunction indicates time, place, manner, reason,
conditions or concession and provides a link between the clauses.

8. Complex Compound Sentences : A Complex compound sentence

consist of two or more independent clauses plus one or more
dependent clauses. For example:

Smita smiled brightly and laughed delightedly when he saw her new scooty.
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8 Essential Skills For Reading Success

The different types of reading skills are:

Decoding
Decoding is the ability to sound out words children have heard before but
haven’t seen written out. This is a vital step in the reading process as it forms
the foundation for other reading skills.

Decoding heavily relies on an early language skill called phonemic awareness.

Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear and manipulate different sounds
into words. Children develop this awareness when learning about syllables,
words, and sounds (phonemes).
Phonics
Phonics is the ability to recognize the connection between sounds and letters
they make. This process of mapping the sounds in words to written words is a
very important reading skill. Children first decode the words into sounds and
encode the sounds into words as they write and spell.
Vocabulary
A good vocabulary is a fundamental part of academic success. This reading
skill is necessary to understand the meaning of words, their definitions, and
their context.

The more words a child knows, the better they are at reading and
understanding the texts they read.
Fluency
Fluency is the ability to read aloud with understanding, accuracy, and speed.
It is a skill needed for good reading comprehension. Kids fluent in reading
know how to read smoothly, at a good pace, using proper tone, and without
making too many errors.
Sentence Construction & Cohesion
Sentence construction and cohesion may seem like a writing skill, but it’s an
essential reading skill. Connecting ideas between and within the sentences
are called cohesion, and these skills are essential for reading comprehension
Reading Comprehension
Understand the meaning of the text – both in storybooks and information
books. In fiction books, children imagine the characters and share an
emotional and adventurous journey with them. In non-fiction books, children
gain new information, which deepens their understanding of new topics and
concepts. Reading comprehension is a complex skill that requires time and
practice to develop fully.
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Reasoning & Background Knowledge

This skill helps the child use the background knowledge to make inferences
and draw conclusions. Most readers can relate what they have read to what
they know. They can also read between the lines to pull out the information
when it’s not literally spelled out in the text.
Working Memory & Attention
These skills are closely related but different and are part of a group of abilities
known as executive function. When children read, attention helps them
absorb the information from the text, and working memory allows them to
retain that information. This helps them gain meaning and build knowledge
from what they read.

4 Different Types Of Reading Techniques

Skimming
Skimming, sometimes referred to as gist reading, means going through the
text to grasp the main idea. Here, the reader doesn’t pronounce each and
every word of the text but focuses their attention on the main theme or the
core of the text. Examples of skimming are reading magazines or newspapers
and searching for a name in a telephone directory.
Scanning
Here, the reader quickly scuttles across sentences to get to a particular piece
of information. Scanning involves the technique of rejecting or ignoring
irrelevant information from the text to locate a specific piece of information.
Intensive Reading
Intensive reading is far more time-consuming than skimming and scanning as
it needs the reader’s attention to detail. It involves close reading that aims at
the accuracy of comprehension. Here, the reader has to understand the
meaning of each and every word.
Extensive reading
Extensive reading lays more emphasis on fluency and less on accuracy. It
usually involves reading for pleasure and is more of an out-of-classroom
activity. It is highly unlikely for readers to take up the extensive reading of text
they do not like.

4 Common Reading Problems




Issues with decoding



 23

Beginner readers may struggle when they meet new or unfamiliar terms, but
typically decoding becomes easier with repeated practice of reading the text
out loud. If a child continues to struggle, there may be an underlying difficulty
or a physical impairment that does not allow them to hear the sounds or see
the letters.






Poor comprehension of reading skills




Some children can read like a pro but may not be able to tell you what they
have read. This indicates a problem of incomprehension. These children may
find the same difficulty when their teachers or parents read aloud.






Speed



The more children read, the more they expand their vocabulary. They begin to
recognize more words by sight, enabling them to read faster. If speed is the
issue with your child, slow processing of information could be the problem.
Since reading is a cognitively demanding task, it involves holding information
in the mind while continuously processing the text. This can exhaust the
children with slow processing. Such children may require extra time to
complete tasks that require extensive reading.






 

Mixed reading difficulties

 

Mixed reading problems in kids include decoding words and difficulty with
comprehension. They have challenges when it comes to reading words,
retaining information, and understanding the text. These problems could be
due to a reading disorder. Although some kids learn slower than others, if you
notice any difficulty that affects your child’s daily life, it should be evaluated by
a professional.
 
 24

Texts are made up of a set of signs that make up a language and that
transmit a message whose meaning is acquired according to the context in
which it is produced and received

There are different types of texts according to its structure and

communicative function: literary texts, scientific texts, explanatory texts,
persuasive texts, argumentative texts.

Literary texts
Literary texts have an aesthetic purpose, not a practical one; and for this,
the author uses expressive resources such as rhetorical and literary
figures. To capture the reader’s attention, the author has total freedom:
each writer imprints his own style on his work. The content of these texts
may or may not be based on a real event. For example: story, novel

 Narrative texts. They relate a succession of actions that occur in a

specific place and time. Its purpose can be communicative or literary.
In addition, they can be oral or written and can take on the most
varied forms. These texts have dynamic verbs, adverbs and spatial
connectors (“first”, “second”, “then”, “after”). For example: intimate
diaries, jokes, novels, short stories, short stories, anecdotes,
biographies, reports, news.
 lyrical texts. They can be written in verse or prose. They seek the
expression of beauty through words, appealing to emotions,
expressions and feelings. For example: poetry, odes
 dramatic texts. They are texts designed to be performed on a
theatrical stage, in front of an audience. For example: tragedy,
comedy, tragicomedy.
Informative texts
Informative texts provide descriptions and data of reality to convey
information or knowledge. Its content is concrete, real and objective. They
lack subjectivism, arguments, points of view and judgments of the
author. These texts use informative or technical language, according to the
public they are addressed to. Its ultimate goal is to facilitate the receiver’s
understanding. They may be:

 journalistic texts. Its function is to inform, analyze or comment on

current issues that are relevant to citizens. They are published in the
media (news portals, newspapers or magazines) and deal with the
most varied topics: international, sports, economy, politics, finance,
education, science, health, sports, culture, among others. For
example: news, chronicles, editorials.
 Scientific texts. They are written by scientists and addressed to a
particular scientific community to expose the results of a set of
 25

investigations. They are written in technical language and offer data

and scientific information, respecting a series of academic standards
in terms of exposition, presentation and reference. They are objective
and expository texts. In addition, they must be clear, universal and
verifiable. Their extension can vary and, in many cases, they have a
main author and several collaborators. For example: popular science
articles, monographs.
Appellate texts
Appellate texts seek to persuade the receiver to carry out a certain action.
The author can use argumentative resources, such as giving direct orders
(by means of the imperative mood or infinitives), suggestions or data that
support the order. They may be:

 Instructive texts. They offer indications to carry out a certain action

so, on many occasions, they are accompanied by an illustration,
which facilitates their understanding. These texts are intended to be
followed to the letter and should avoid creating confusion: they are
precise and objective. For example: cooking recipes, instructions for
the use of an electrical appliance, instructions for the use of a drug.
 advertising texts. Its main objective is to convince the recipient to
consume a product or service or change certain behavior. For
example: There are things that money can not buy, for everything
else, there is MasterCard. These texts are resources used by
marketing to provide data and information about a product or service
as well as encourage the recipient to buy it. To capture the attention
of the public, they are usually accompanied by music, sound or
image. For example: graphic, audiovisual, digital advertising.
 persuasive texts. They aim to induce the receiver to behave in a
certain way or modify some conception or opinion. They can be
concise or extensive. Its effects, in many cases, can be measured.
For example, the effectiveness of a propaganda message can be
measured based on the number of votes received by the candidate in
question. For example: political campaigns, speeches.
Descriptive texts
Descriptive texts seek to characterize facts, situations, objects, animals or
people. They can emphasize different edges of an element. They can also
be limited to giving details about the physical or psychological aspect of a
person or combine both.

Expository texts
Expository (or explanatory) texts aim to disseminate information about
concepts and facts understandable to the recipient. To do this, they use
resources such as comparison, reformulation, exemplification or
description. They are formal texts written in the third person, which do not
 26

contain opinions or subjective statements. Depending on the audience to

which they are directed, they can use technical language.

They objectively and deeply delve into a specific topic to inform or

publicize a series of concepts, data or specific facts. They provide and
transmit clear and direct knowledge and are developed in various fields,
such as scientific, educational, legal, social or journalistic. For
example: encyclopedic texts, definitions, educational manuals, theses,
monographs, laws, decrees.

Argumentative texts
Argumentative texts are those texts that aspire for their recipient to acquire
a certain position on a certain topic. To persuade his reader, the author
uses rhetorical, narrative and expository resources. Some elements of
these texts are textual citations, illustrations and examples, stories, textual
references to an authority on the subject and abstractions, among others.
For example: reader’s letter, editorial, essay, criticism.

Comprehension strategies
Monitoring comprehension
Students who are good at monitoring their comprehension know when they understand what they
read and when they do not. They have strategies to "fix" problems in their understanding as the
problems arise. Research shows that instruction, even in the early grades, can help students
become better at monitoring their comprehension.

Metacognition
Metacognition can be defined as "thinking about thinking." Good readers use metacognitive
strategies to think about and have control over their reading. Before reading, they might clarify
their purpose for reading and preview the text. During reading, they might monitor their
understanding, adjusting their reading speed to fit the difficulty of the text and "fixing" any
comprehension problems they have. After reading, they check their understanding of what they
read.

Graphic and semantic organizers

Graphic organizers illustrate concepts and relationships between concepts in a text or using
diagrams. Graphic organizers are known by different names, such as maps, webs, graphs, charts,
frames, or clusters.

Answering questions
The Question-Answer Relationship strategy (QAR) encourages students to learn how to answer
questions better. Students are asked to indicate whether the information they used to answer
questions about the text was textually explicit information (information that was directly stated in
the text), textually implicit information (information that was implied in the text), or information
entirely from the student's own background knowledge.
 27

Generating questions
By generating questions, students become aware of whether they can answer the questions and if
they understand what they are reading. Students learn to ask themselves questions that require
them to combine information from different segments of text. For example, students can be taught
to ask main idea questions that relate to important information in a text.

Recognizing story structure

In story structure instruction, students learn to identify the categories of content (characters, setting,
events, problem, resolution). Often, students learn to recognize story structure through the use of
story maps. Instruction in story structure improves students' comprehension.

Summarizing
Summarizing requires students to determine what is important in what they are reading and to put
it into their own words. Instruction in summarizing helps students:
 Identify or generate main ideas

 Connect the main or central ideas

 Eliminate unnecessary information

 Remember what they read

Q WHAT IS GROUP DISCUSSION (GD)?

Group Discussion(GD) normally comprises 10 to 15 participants at a time.
The Group Discussion process commences by the declaration of the topic
to the group, which is followed by giving preparation time of 3 to 5 minutes
to everyone. Sometimes, more than 5 minutes’ preparation time may be
given only in the case that the topic is based on a case-study and requires
longer statements.
 28

The process of GD Round follows the below-mentioned steps -

Step 1:- The very first stage of any GD is the announcement of the topic. The
topic will be declared by the panelist.

Step 2:- It's a preparation time where all the candidates will be given a time of
2 to 5 minutes for getting their content ready

Step 3:- Now the discussion is started by one candidate and it can be anyone
among the all participants. After that, each participant gets a chance to speak
and present their views in front of the group.

Step 4: - Participants kept on speaking until the panelist ask them to

summarize the whole discussion. Sometimes panelists are just asked to
summarize the topic and anyone among all participants can summarize the
discussion. But sometimes they ask the specific candidate to summarize
mostly the quiet person in the discussion so everyone can get an equal
chance. If they choose you then you make sure that you have heard all the
participants properly and deliver all the relevant points that summerize the
topic.

Step 5:- this is the final step in this panlist declare the scores of discussion for
each candidates based on thier perfromance.

TYPES OF GROUP DISCUSSION

TOPICAL GROUP DISCUSSIONS The matter for these types of Group

discussion is based on current affairs or static matters. Students are
advised to be thorough with these and read newspapers daily to be up to
date. Also, these discussions are not time bound.
CASE-STUDIES In this student are given situations especially out of a
business and will be judged on how they reach a solution to the problem.
They will be required to analyse the situation and give their views
ABSTRACT GROUP DISCUSSIONS This kind of discussion gives no
outline of the topic, which means no one knows which direction to take.
 29

The participants must use innovative strategies and ideas to steer the
discussion. The topic could be one word or a sentence, but no one usually
knows what to say on that or what the panel might like.

Qualities Judged/needed in a Group Discussion (GD)

Following important qualities are judged in a group discussion :-

1. Initiative

Initiative is the ability to take action without being told. The candidate who
starts the discussion has this quality.

2. Subject Knowledge

Here, the selectors find out the following points :-

Whether the candidates have understood the meaning of the topic of

discussion.
Whether they have proper knowledge about the topic. Here quality is given
more importance than quantity.
Whether they have proper general knowledge.
Whether they have original ideas and whether they can develop these
ideas logically.
3. Time Management

Here the best candidate is the one who :-

Expresses all his views within his own time limit.

Gives other candidates time to express their views.
Summarises everyone's views in a few minutes just before the discussion
ends.
4. Communication Skills

Communication Skills are the ability to express ideas clearly and concisely.

5. Leadership Skills

The candidate who starts the discussion, fixes time limit for each candidate,
maintains discipline during the discussion and summarises the discussion
at the end has got leadership qualities.

6. Conflict Handling Skills

 30

Sometimes, two or more candidates have a heated discussion and start

shouting at each other during a group discussion. The candidate who
steps in and cools them down has conflict handling skills.

7. Ability to work as a Team

The selectors also look for candidates who have the ability to work as a
team member.

8. Group Acceptance

Selectors look for the candidate who is accepted by the others in the group.
They reject candidates who try to dominate others. They also reject those
who speak for a long time, not allowing other to speak. Similarly, those
who interrupt other repeatedly are rejected.

9. Persuasiveness

Persuasiveness is the ability to influence others by your ideas. It is the

ability to sell your ideas to others. This requires sound reasoning.

10. Open to other ideas

The selectors also look for candidates who have an open mind and accept
good ideas from others.

Q The Importance of Body Language in a Group Discussion

Ans To understand the importance of positive body language, candidates must
understand that it is not just the mouth that speaks but the entire body acts as an
instrument of speech. So, you must first understand how your body speaks and then
learn to manage and control the non-verbal messages that you send across to your
audience.
Demonstrating a positive body language is important as interviewers pay attention to
the slightest details of your postures and gestures during the interview. Experts
advise that you must know how to use your body to effectively enhance your verbal
message. Leaning forward slightly towards the group during the Group Discussion
and the interviewer during the Personal Interview would go on to show that you are
interested. Giving listening cues such as nodding whenever a fellow
aspirant/interviewer makes an important point shows your engagement in the
process.
On the other hand, gestures such as scratching your head, repeatedly crossing and
uncrossing the legs or touching your face are all instances of a nervous body
language.These actions must be avoided by the candidates to be able to make a
positive impact on the panel members.
 31

Q How one can prepare for the presentation?

Ans Steps in Preparing a Presentation

Planning Your Presentation

Preparing a presentation can be an overwhelming experience if you allow it to be one. The strategies
and steps below are provided to help you break down what you might view as a large job into smaller,
more manageable tasks.

Step 1: Analyze your audience

The first step in preparing a presentation is to learn more about the audience to whom you'll be
speaking. It's a good idea to obtain some information on the backgrounds, values, and interests of your
audience so that you understand what the audience members might expect from your presentation.

Step 2: Select a topic

Next, if possible select a topic that is of interest to the audience and to you. It will be much easier to
deliver a presentation that the audience finds relevant, and more enjoyable to research a topic that is of
interest to you.

Step 3: Define the objective of the presentation

Once you have selected a topic, write the objective of the presentation in a single concise statement.
The objective needs to specify exactly what you want your audience to learn from your presentation.
Base the objective and the level of the content on the amount of time you have for the presentation and
the background knowledge of the audience. Use this statement to help keep you focused as you
research and develop the presentation.

Preparing the Content of Your Presentation

Step 4: Prepare the body of the presentation

After defining the objective of your presentation, determine how much information you can present in the
amount of time allowed. Also, use your knowledge about the audience to prepare a presentation with
the right level of detail. You don't want to plan a presentation that is too basic or too advanced.

The body of the presentation is where you present your ideas. To present your ideas convincingly, you
will need to illustrate and support them. Strategies to help you do this include the following:

 Present data and facts

 Read quotes from experts
 Relate personal experiences
 Provide vivid descriptions

And remember, as you plan the body of your presentation it's important to provide variety. Listeners may
quickly become bored by lots of facts or they may tire of hearing story after story.
 32

Step 5: Prepare the introduction and conclusion

Once you've prepared the body of the presentation, decide how you will begin and end the talk. Make
sure the introduction captures the attention of your audience and the conclusion summarizes and
reiterates your important points. In other words, "Tell them what you're going to tell them. Tell them.
Then, tell them what you told them."

During the opening of your presentation, it's important to attract the audience's attention and build their
interest. If you don't, listeners will turn their attention elsewhere and you'll have a difficult time getting it
back. Strategies that you can use include the following:

 Make the introduction relevant to the listeners' goals, values, and needs
 Ask questions to stimulate thinking
 Share a personal experience
 Begin with a joke or humorous story
 Project a cartoon or colorful visual
 Make a stimulating or inspirational statement
 Give a unique demonstration

During the opening you want to clearly present your topic and the purpose of your presentation. Clearly
articulating the topic and purpose will help the listeners focus on and easily follow your main ideas.

During the conclusion of your presentation, reinforce the main ideas you communicated. Remember
that listeners won't remember your entire presentation, only the main ideas. By reinforcing and
reviewing the main ideas, you help the audience remember them.

Practicing and Delivering

Step 6: Practice delivering the presentation

Most people spend hours preparing a presentation but very little time practicing it. When you practice
your presentation, you can reduce the number of times you utter words and phrases like, "um," "well,"
and "you know." These habits can easily diminish a speaker's credibility. You can also fine-tune your
content to be sure you make your most important points in the time alloted.

In addition to planning the content of your presentation, you need to give advanced thought to how you
want to deliver it. Do you want to commit your presentation to memory, use cards to guide you, or read
from a script? Or, you might want to use a combination of methods. To help you decide, read the
advantages and disadvantages of the four delivery methods described below.

Speaking from Memory

A distinct advantage of speaking from memory is your ability to speak to the audience without relying on
notes or a script. This allows you the flexibility to move away from the podium and to maintain eye
contact with the audience. However, speaking from memory has disadvantages, too. Presentations from
memory often sound rehearsed and the possibility exists that you'll forget an important point, present
information that's inaccurate, or completely lose your train of thought. If you decide to deliver your
presentation from memory, have notes handy to jog your memory just in case!
 33

Speaking from Notes

Many people like to speak from notes. Typically these notes are either on cards or paper in outline form
and contain key ideas and information. If you are using an electronic presentation tool, you may be able
to include your notes in the presentation itself. The benefit of delivering a presentation from notes is that
you sound natural rather than rehearsed and you can still maintain relatively good eye contact with the
audience. The down side is that you might not express your key ideas and thoughts as well as you may
have liked had you planned your exact words in advance.

Speaking from Text

Speaking from text involves writing your speech out, word for word, then basically reading from the text.
As with speaking from memory, an advantage of this method is that you plan, in advance, exactly what
you're going to say and how you're going to say it. A disadvantage is that you might appear to the
audience to be stiff or rehearsed. You will need to make frequent eye contact and speak with expression
to maintain the audience's interest.

Using a Combination of Methods

You may find the best method to be a combination of all three. For instance, experts suggest you
memorize the first and last ten minutes of your talk so that you can speak flawlessly and without notes.
Notes may be suitable for segments of your presentation that you know very well, for example, relating a
personal story. Finally, speaking from a text might be appropriate when you have quotes or other
important points that you want to make sure you communicate accurately and completely. You can
make a smooth segue to written text by saying something like: "I want to read this quote to you verbatim,
to ensure that I don't distort the original intent."

What is SCQA?or
SPQR( situation,problem,question and response)
SCQA is an abbreviation that stands
for Situation, Complication, Question, and Answer. The SCQA
method is a framework used to structure information in a way that
captures a reader’s attention. It is very important in business writing,
as the reader is more likely to understand the text and agree with its
message.

SCQA is an effective method of making business writing more appealing and

interesting to the reader.

SCQA stands for Situation, Complication, Question, and Answer.

 34

Inverting the pyramid is another tactic to enhance readability. It simply reverses

the structure of the text by presenting the conclusion first and then diving into the
details around it.

Steps for preparing a debate

Step 1: Brainstorm ideas

 Individual brainstorm – allow five minutes silent time for individual

brainstorming – the pupils should write one point on each of the sticky
notes. Tell them to use key words rather than full sentences.
 Group brainstorm – each group needs a sheet of paper and a “chair”.
The chair should go around the group hearing all the ideas and sticking
them on the paper. Duplicated ideas get stuck on together.
Step 2: Organise ideas

 The group then need another sheet of paper on which they write 1-9
down the side. From the brainstorm they need to identify between 7
and 9 arguments. They may have more than these so to get them
down they can:
 Scrap small or insignificant arguments
 Join together similar arguments to make larger ones
 On their sheet they need to write the names of the arguments. EACH
NAME SHOULD BE NO LONGER THAN THREE WORDS.
 They then need to divide the arguments between the first three
speakers. The first speaker should have three arguments. The second
and third speaker should have two or three arguments. The fourth
speaker does not have any new arguments.
Step Three: Structure the speeches

Introduce the idea of the speech structure on the board:

 35

 Introduction – who are you and what do you stand for?

 Preview – What are the names of the points you are going to cover?
 Rebuttal – unless you are the first speaker, you’d say “first lets take a
look at what we heard from the previous speaker” and disagree with
their points.
 Point One – “Now onto my points”
Name
Explanation (the reasoning – why is your point true and why does it
mean your overall position is right?
Evidence (facts, analogies, examples, imagery or authority to support
your reasoning)
 Point Two – Name, Explanation, Evidence
 Point Three – Name, Explanation, Evidence
 Reminder – remind the audience of the three points you have covered
 Vote for Us
Step 4: Prepare your speeches

Introduce the Idea of developing your arguments by “Making Them REAL”

 Reason
 Evidence
 Analysis
 Link
Choose the first speakers in each group and allow them some time to think
about how to make each of their points REAL. Only allow them to write down
six words for each point (in addition to the name)– it’s speaking and listening
not reading out!

Choose the summary speaker and either a chair or timekeeper from each
group

Step 5: Prepare the rest of the class

Whilst the first three speakers are preparing their speeches:

 The summary speakers need to think what they think the biggest
issues in the debate will be. Their speech will focus on three big issues
and show why their side has won those issues.
 The chairs, timekeepers and any other pupils should try to think what
the other side might say and come up with rebuttal.

What is an argument?
An argument is an act of expressing a point of view on a subject and
supporting that view using evidence such as research, statistics and
examples. While arguments can take place in a variety of settings such as
political arenas, marketing campaigns and the business sector, it's most
 36

common for professionals in research-based professions to gain knowledge in

their respective disciplines by presenting arguments.

Types of argument structures

There are various types of argument structures. Most arguments fall into one
of two primary categories—inductive and deductive—based on the type of
reasoning they present. Inductive reasoning refers to the act of drawing broad
conclusions from evidence gathered through specific scenarios.

Toulmin method
The Toulmin method is an argumentative structure first outlined by author
Stephen Toulmin. This method focuses on supporting the various key claims
of an argument using factual evidence.

Classical method
The Greek philosopher, Aristotle, originally outlined the classical method and
others like Roman rhetoricians Cicero and Quintilian later developed it. This
method focuses on the clear definition of an argument and presentation of
evidence that leads an audience to draw conclusions seamlessly.

Rogerian method

Composition scholars adapted the Rogerian method using the work of

American psychologist Carl Rogers. This method is popular for the discussion
of controversial issues and focuses on identifying a neutral perspective or
compromise that individuals of opposing perspectives can agree upon.

How to structure an argument

1. Introduce the problem
Introduce the problem or issue at the center of your argument. In your
introduction, provide any relevant background information and context that
may enable your audience to understand your argument. At this point, you
may also provide a basic outline of the evidence you plan to present.

2. Present your claim

After you provide your audience with sufficient context, you can present your
claim or thesis statement. This portion of your argument offers your
perspective on the issue. Your claim should be concise, direct and easily
intelligible by your audience.
 37

3. Support your claim

To convince your audience of your claim, you will need to provide evidence
that supports it. Present examples, research, statistics, studies and other
information that proves your claim and fosters a sense of validity. While
supporting your claim, try to focus on offering facts rather than anecdotal
information.

4. Acknowledge the opposing side of the argument

After offering adequate evidence to support your claim, try to acknowledge the
opposing side of your argument. You may explain why you disagree with
counterclaims, disprove their validity or concede to their validity within certain
contexts. Addressing opposing perspectives will help you maintain objectivity
and add credibility to your argument overall.

5. Restate your claim

As you near the end of your argument, draw conclusions about your claim by
restating it and briefly summarize the evidence you presented. In your
conclusion, you may present an appeal to the audience's emotions or
perspective that can further persuade them. For example, you may explain
how the issue personally affects your audience to demonstrate your
argument's importance.

Q Explain writing as a process ?

Ans Writing is a process that involves at least four distinct
steps: prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing. It is known as
a recursive process. While you are revising, you might have to
return to the prewriting step to develop and expand your ideas.

Prewriting
1. Prewriting is anything you do before you write a draft of
your document. It includes thinking, taking notes, talking
to others, brainstorming, outlining, and gathering
information (e.g., interviewing people, researching in the
library, assessing data).
2. Although prewriting is the first activity you engage in,
generating ideas is an activity that occurs throughout the
writing process.
 38

Drafting
1. Drafting occurs when you put your ideas into sentences
and paragraphs. Here you concentrate upon explaining
and supporting your ideas fully. Here you also begin to
connect your ideas. Regardless of how much thinking
and planning you do, the process of putting your ideas in
words changes them; often the very words you select
evoke additional ideas or implications.
2. Don’t pay attention to such things as spelling at this
stage.
3. This draft tends to be writer-centered: it is you telling
yourself what you know and think about the topic.

Revising
1. Revision is the key to effective documents. Here you
think more deeply about your readers’ needs and
expectations. The document becomes reader-centered.
How much support will each idea need to convince your
readers? Which terms should be defined for these
particular readers? Is your organization effective? Do
readers need to know X before they can understand Y?
2. At this stage you also refine your prose, making each
sentence as concise and accurate as possible. Make
connections between ideas explicit and clear.

Editing
1. Check for such things as grammar, mechanics, and
spelling. The last thing you should do before printing
your document is to spell check it.
2. Don’t edit your writing until the other steps in the writing
process are complete.
What are the Features of Effective Writing?

The five Features of Effective Writing are focus, organization, support and
elaboration, grammatical conventions, and style.

Thesis Focus
 39

Focus is the topic/subject/thesis established by the writer in response to

the writing task. The writer must clearly establish a focus as he/she fulfills
the assignment of the prompt. If the writer retreats from the subject matter
presented in the prompt or addresses it too broadly, the focus is weakened.
Writers may effectively use an inductive organizational plan which does
not actually identify the subject matter at the beginning and may not
literally identify the subject matter at all. The presence, therefore, of a
focus must be determined in light of the method of development chosen by
the writer. If the reader is confused about the subject matter, the writer has
not effectively established a focus. If the reader is engaged and not
confused, the writer probably has been effective in establishing a focus.

Organization

Organization is the progression, relatedness, and completeness of ideas.

The writer establishes for the reader a well-organized composition, which
exhibits a constancy of purpose through the development of elements
forming an effective beginning, middle, and end. The response
demonstrates a clear progression of related ideas and/or events and is
unified and complete.

Support and Elaboration

Support and Elaboration form the extension and development of the

topic/subject/thesis. The writer provides sufficient elaboration to present
the ideas and/or events clearly. Two important concepts in determining
whether details are supportive are the concepts of relatedness and
sufficiency. To be supportive of the subject matter, details must be related
to the focus of the response. Relatedness has to do with the directness of
the relationship that the writer establishes between the information and the
subject matter. Supporting details should be relevant and clear. The writer
must present his/her ideas with enough power and clarity to cause the
support to be sufficient

Grammatical Conventions

Grammatical conventions involve correctness in sentence formation,

usage, and mechanics. The writer has control of grammatical conventions
that are appropriate to the writing task. Errors, if present, do not impede
the reader’s understanding of the ideas conveyed.

Style

Style is the control of language that is appropriate to the purpose,

audience, and context of the writing task. The writer’s style is evident
through word choice and sentence fluency.
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Q What is Business Correspondence?

In businesses, written communication is an important medium for

passing information. This form of written communication used for
business purposes is termed Business correspondence. The
correspondence in business communication can happen within the
organization, between different organizations, or between client and
organization.
The importance of business correspondence lies in the fact that it is
the formal way of exchanging information by which professional
relationships are maintained between organizations, employees, and
clients. Since it is in a written form, it can serve as a future reference
for the information being communicated.
Business correspondence happens daily in the lives of businessmen
in the form of letters to suppliers, letters of inquiry, complaint letters,
job application letters, and a few other forms.

Business Correspondence Meaning

Business correspondence is an umbrella term used for any form of
written communication that happens in business relationships. It
could be with business partners or internal communication within the
organization.
Business correspondence is mostly in the form of letters. People
related to any business understand the significance of business
letters since this correspondence in business communication can be
used by them to express themselves, ask a doubt or clarification
regarding any uncertainty.
The Importance of Business Correspondence
Business correspondence is essential in realizing organizational
goals. Meeting people personally can be quite a time-consuming job
hence business correspondence helps businesses with:
Maintaining Proper Relationships – The significance of
business letters is governed by the fact that it facilitates
effective communication which does not cost the business
much. It strengthens the business by making communication,
within and outside the organization, clear and concise.

Acts As Evidence – The importance of business

correspondence is further solidified as it lets businesses keep
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records of facts that can serve as evidence at a later point in

time.
Creating Goodwill – A company’s growth increases due to
business correspondence. It creates goodwill between
business and clients since any letter like a complaint, feedback,
or suggestion promotes a healthy relationship.

Costs Very Less – Business correspondence is an

inexpensive mode of communication in terms of money as well
as time. This method of correspondence in business
communication is very convenient for businesses.

Removes Ambiguity in Communication – It is a formal

correspondence between the involved parties which helps in
unambiguous communication.

Helps Businesses Expand and Grow – A business can have

a seamless flow of information regarding any product or
resources through business correspondence. This helps in the
proper utilization of manpower and time management, which in
turn leads to expansion and growth in business.

Types of Business Correspondence

A business typically uses many kinds of business correspondence in
its day to day activities. There are six most common kinds of
business correspondences in the business community as defined
below:
Internal Correspondence – The flow of information between
employees, departments, branches, and units of the same company
is termed internal correspondence. They can be formal or informal.
Some examples of formal internal correspondence are promotion
letters, a formal request for approval, a memorandum, etc. They are
mostly printed on paper.
A routine or informal internal correspondence can be a quick
instruction between a manager and subordinate, which are mostly in
the form of emails.
External Correspondence – The communication between 2
different organizations or between an organization and a client
comes under external correspondence. This type of correspondence
in business communication is usually made to suppliers, existing and
prospective clients, government offices, etc
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Sales Correspondence – Any communication related to sales is

called sales correspondence. It is not only concerned with the sale of
a product or service but encompasses many other activities. It
includes marketing letters, invoices, discount letters, statements of
accounts, etc.

Routine Correspondence – Such correspondence happens

routinely like orders, inquiries, invitations, replies, etc.

Personalized Correspondence – This involves personal and

emotional factors. Some of the examples of this type of
correspondence are letters of gratitude, congratulation letters,
appreciation notes, letters of request for a recommendation, etc.

Circulars – This type of correspondence is used when a business

has to convey a common matter to a large audience. A few examples
are notices of tenders, change in contact information, etc.

What is Correspondence?
Correspondence is simply written communication from one person to
another for various reasons: to report information, convey feelings, or
ask questions. It can be verbal or written. The communication may
include memos and emails. It can range from formal to informal. In all
cases, it is a two-way exchange of information.

Advantages of the business correspondence

1. Keeping an Appropriate Relationship -
Any company or organization may not always be able to contact a specific
person. Any firm will pay for this. Any business will benefit from commercial
correspondence in this situation.
It aids in keeping the parties' right relationships intact. Business is
strengthened by correspondence. Additionally, it facilitates internal
communication. It improves the clarity and precision of communication inside
the organization.
2. Provides Proof -
Any written communication can be used as proof. A businessperson can keep
track of all the data through business communication. These written
documents will be used as proof.
3. Foster and uphold goodwill -
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It aids in establishing and preserving goodwill between a company and a

client. Any letter of inquiry, complaint, recommendation, or feedback aids in
the development and upkeep of a company's positive reputation.
4. Affordable and practical -
It is an affordable and practical method of commercial communication.
5. Disciplinary Communication -
A formal conversation between two people takes the shape of business
communication. There might be a buyer and a seller. An employee and an
employer may be involved. It uses formal, logical language.
It assists in removing the uncertainty and doubts of the business participant.
In business, formal communication is observed and accepted.

Disadvantages of Written Communication in Business

due to some reasons written communication is not always
effective everywhere as a mode of communication.
Time Consuming and Expensive: Written Communication is time
consuming and expensive. A letter (written message) may take
two or three days to reaches destination whereas in oral
communication is message may be sent within a few seconds over
telephone. Written Communication is not only time-consuming but
also expensive. it is a costly process because a member of people
are involved in preparing and sending out a letter from an
organization and their time is definitely valuable

Delayed Feedback: One of the major disadvantages of written

communication is that it lacks in producing instant feedback.
Sending to feedback time of a letter is prolonging because the
receiver tries to answer the letter after he has read it. but in oral
communication (telephone) the message is sent instantly and
feedback is received immediately.

Lack of Flexibility: In written communication there are some

formalities to be maintained and that is why no adjustment is
possible after the message has been written.

Meaningless to Illiterate: Written Communication is meaningless

to the illiterate people as they cannot read the message. But in oral
communication, illiteracy is not a problem.
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Lack of Secrecy: In case of oral communication (telephone or

face to face communication), secrecy in talking (message) can be
strictly maintained. But in case of written communication, it is very
difficult to do so because of its inherent nature.

Lack of Personal Intimacy: In oral communication the sender and

the receiver talks directly that helps them to build personal relation.
But in case of written communication this is not possible because
of the lack of direct communication between and among the
parties.

Flattery and Exaggeration: In written communication, the sender

takes the opportunity of flattering the receiver if the prior one has
interest on the later one. Sometimes the sender tries to avoid
others criticism by flattering and exaggerating the information in
the written message.

In spite of the aforesaid drawbacks, written communication is still a

popular method of communication. In real sense, the necessity of
written communication needs not to be mentioned. There are also
more information about Advantages of Written Communication
in Business.

REPORT WRITING: Every organization has a routine practice of

reporting on the progress and the status of different activities for taking
sound business decisions.
A report is a logical presentation of facts and information. It is self-
explanatory statement which provides information to management for
decision making and follows up actions. Report is a systematic
presentation of established facts about a specific event/subject and is a
summary of findings and recommendations about a particular
matter/problem.

Types of Report:
Reports may be 1. Routine Reports 2. Special Reports 3.Formal Reports
and 4. Informal Reports.

1. Routine Reports: Routine reports are prepared periodically by

filling the printed forms, to convey information about the progress or

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status of work. They are submitted at regular intervals or soon after the

completion of the task. Following are routine reports.

a. Progress Report: This report gives information about the progress of a

project or a task which is in the process of being completed, such as
construction of a building or manufacture of products.
b. Inspection Report: It is submitted as soon as inspection is carried out.
It is necessary for finding out any irregularities or changes from standard
practice, in day-to-day work. Example internal audit report submitted by
an internal auditor.

c. Performance Appraisal: It is meant for measuring and recording the

performance of an employee. Every supervisor has to fill an assessment
report for each of the subordinates annually to evaluate the performance
of individual employees. It also gives feedback to the employees on their
performance.

d. Periodical Report: This is prepared by departmental heads at regular

intervals on the working of a section or a department to measure the
efficient functioning of each department.

2. Special Reports:
Special reports are prepared when a special situation or problem arises.
An individual or a committee of persons, who have knowledge and
understanding in the field, is appointed to investigate and study a specific
problem, collect relevant information, and make suggestions to help the
management for decision making. Following are some of the special
reports prepared in the organisation.

a. First information Report (F.I.R.):This report is required when there

are sudden accidents occurs like fire accident, building collapse, robbery
etc. It is prepared by the person in charge on the spot, and submitted to
higher authorities for their deliberation. For example report prepared by
the branch manager about fire accident occurs in branch office to
Regional Office or Head Office for immediate action. The report has to
give all the information which is available immediately after the incident
occurs such as nature of loss, extent of destruction, time of accident etc.,

b. Investigation Report: It is prepared after making a thorough inquiry

on some specific situations. An investigation is made when there is a
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problem and the management needs to find out the causes of the problem,
and also the suggestions for solving it. Example, reports on falling sales,
declining deposits in a bank, many customer complaints, losses in a
branch, etc.

c. Feasibility or Survey Report: This report is prepared when an

organisation intends to launch a new product in the market, introduce a
new service, or make any major changes that may affect the company’s
customers.

d. Project Report: This is written after the initial survey has been
completed on the research project. It describes the proposal as project to
be completed in future by showing the cash flow and expected results. It
is used for planning and also for convincing others, especially sanctioning
and funding authorities like government departments and banks.

3. Formal Reports:

A formal report is prepared in the prescribed or standard form and is

presented according to the established procedure and through the proper
channel. Reports submitted by officials or committees of organised
bodies (e.g., Companies, Co-operative Societies, Local Bodies, etc.) are
usually formal reports. It may be Statutory Report or Non-statutory
Report.

a. Statutory Report: Statutory report is one which is prepared by

secretary or directory or auditor under the provisions of specific law. E.g.,
Auditors Report, Directors Report, Inspection committee Report Etc.,

b. Non-Statutory Report: Non- statutory reports are those which are not
required under the provisions of any law, but have to be prepared to help
top managers for the efficient control and organisations of the business.
 47

4. Informal Reports:

Informal reports, on the other hand, do not follow any prescribed form or
procedure. It is usually takes the form of a person-to person
communication and may even be set up in the letter form.

Layout Of Report:

Lay out of the report deals with arrangement and presentation of

information in the report. The main purpose of report is to help the
receiver to identify the facts relating to the subject under study, draw his
own conclusions and take suitable action based on the conclusions and
recommendations. In order to achieve its purpose the report must not only
be clear, concise and logical but must also be drafted according to a
recognised form and arrangement.

It is however, difficult to lay down a specific set of rules for preparation

of reports. Except statutory report, the nature, length and style of a report
must vary with the circumstances of the case. Following are the general
arrangements of content in case of formal and special reports.

a. The Heading or Title: A report must always have a title indicating the
subject of the study, the period and the location of the study. A long
report has a full title page which gives the title, the name of the person
who assigned the report and the name of the person or group who
prepared the report, with month and year of submission. In a short report
the title appears at the top of the first page, before the text of the report.

b. Table of Contents: Table of contents is a list of chapters or topics

contained in the report. The serial number, title and page mark of each
topic is given.
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c. Body of the Report: It is a main part of the report and is made up of

the following sub-section, sub-headings or sub-titles. The body is divided
into the following parts:

i. Introduction: It contains the terms of reference and the subject of

study. Here the writer analyses the problem chosen by him in the light of
the terms of reference and the relevant circumstances.

ii. Development or Findings: In this part the writer presents the facts
and data collected with reference to his study along with the outcome of
his study. The data collected may include charts, graphs and statistical
tables from other published reports and presented in an organised form
with heading and sub-heading for better understanding of the reader.

iii. Conclusions or Recommendations: In this portion the writer draws

up some definite conclusions on the basis of the facts and data presented
after considering all aspects of the problem in hand. He then puts forward
some strong suggestions or recommendations of his own.

iv. Appendix: It is supplementary material given at the end of the report.

This may be a copy of a questionnaire used, or plans of buildings, maps
or other materials which is referred to in the body of the report.

v. References and Bibliography: In case of long reports, the reporter

had to conduct an extensive research for the preparation of the report.
Under such studies, it is practice to add a list of references and
bibliography just after the appendix to indicate the sources from which
the writer has drawn his materials for the report.

vi. Index: Index comprises of contents of the report and usually added
after the bibliography. It is generally found in long reports.
 49

vii. Summary: It contains the essence of findings and recommendations

of the report and usually appended to facilitate its consideration by the
person or superior body to whom it is submitted.

viii) Signature: All reports should be dated and signed. If it is prepared

by a committee or sub-committee and the report is common, it should be
signed by the chairman. If it is prepared by an individual, it has to be
signed by the reporter.

Quality of the Good Report:

A lot of reports are written daily. Some of them are intended to document
the progress of some activities i.e., feasibility reports, investigation
reports, some of the reports are for monitoring purposes, some are
evaluation reports but it is clear that all the reports have some objective
and purpose behind it. That objective and purpose can only be achieved if
a report has following features or characteristics:

1. Precise: The purpose of the report should be clearly defined.

Precision of a report provides the unity to the report and makes it a
valuable document for best usage.

2. Accuracy of Facts: Information contained in a report must be based

on accurate fact. Since decisions are taken on the basis of reported
information, any inaccurate information or statistics will lead to wrong
decision. It will cause delay in achieving the organizational goal.

3. Relevancy: The facts presented in a report should be relevant.

Irrelevant facts make a report confusing and likely to mislead decision
making.
 50

4. Reader-Oriented: A report is read by various stake holders. A good

report is always reader oriented. Reader’s knowledge and level of
understanding should be considered while writing the report. If the report
is reader-friendly, it is easy to read, remember and act on it.

5. Simple Language: A report should be written in a simple language,

avoiding jargons and technical words for easy and clear understanding.
The message of a good report should be self-explanatory.

6. Conciseness: A report should be brief and not be very long.

Lengthy reports affect the reader’s interest. Rather it means that a good
report is one that transmits maximum information with minimum words
and completes in all respects.

7. Grammatically Accurate: A good report should be free from

grammatical errors. Any faulty construction of a sentence may make its
meaning different to the reader’s mind and sometimes it may become
confusing or ambiguous.

8. Unbiased: Recommendations made at the end of a report should be

impartial and objective. It shall not be biased with the personal feelings of
the reporter. They should come as logical conclusion for investigation
and analysis.

9. Clarity: Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts. A good

report is absolutely clear. Reporter should make its purpose clear, define
its sources, state its findings and finally make necessary recommendation.
Clarity of facts enhances the quality of the report.

10. Attractive: A good report needs an attractive presentation. Structure,

content, language, typing and presentation style should be well designed
to make a good impression in the mind of its reader.
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Q How to write a report

Choose a topic

Before you start writing, you need to pick the topic of your report.
Often, the topic is assigned for you, as with most business reports, or
predetermined by the nature of your work, as with scientific reports. If
that’s the case, you can ignore this step and move on

Conduct research

With business and scientific reports, the research is usually your own
or provided by the company—although there’s still plenty of digging
for external sources in both.

Write a thesis statement

Before you go any further, write a thesis statement to help you

conceptualize the main theme of your report. Just like the topic
sentence of a paragraph, the thesis statement summarizes the main
point of your writing, in this case, the report.

Prepare an outline

Writing an outline is recommended for all kinds of writing, but it’s

especially useful for reports given their emphasis on organization.
Because reports are often separated by headings and subheadings,
a solid outline makes sure you stay on track while writing without
missing anything.
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Write a rough draft

Actually writing the rough draft, or first draft, is usually the most time-
consuming step. Here’s where you take all the information from your
research and put it into words. To avoid getting overwhelmed, simply
follow your outline step by step to make sure you don’t accidentally
leave out anything.

Revise and edit your report

Once your rough draft is finished, it’s time to go back and start fixing
the mistakes you ignored the first time around. (Before you dive right
back in, though, it helps to sleep on it to start editing fresh, or at least
take a small break to unwind from writing the rough draf

Proofread and check for mistakes

Last, it pays to go over your report one final time, just to optimize
your wording and check for grammatical or spelling mistakes. In the
previous step you checked for “big picture” mistakes, but here you’re
looking for specific, even nitpicky problems.
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