=====RDBMS Q & A=====

==WITHOUT
HUSTLE,TALENT WILL ONLY YOU CARRY SO
FAR==
=HOPE THIS
EFFORTS HELPS A LOT=
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Q1) give difference between DBMS & RDBMS?

DBMS:
1)Manages and organizes data in a database.
2)Does not enforce a specific data model.
3)Can store data in various formats such as hierarchical,
network, or flat files.
4)May not provide built-in support for data integrity and
relationships between data.
5)Does not necessarily support ACID transactions.
6)Querying and manipulation of data may vary depending
on the specific DBMS.

RDBMS:
1)Manages and organizes data in a database using the
relational data model.
2)Enforces a predefined structure using tables, rows, and
columns.
3)Stores data in a tabular format where each row represents
a unique record and each column represents a data attribute.
4)Provides mechanisms for ensuring data integrity and
enforcing relationships between data through primary keys,
foreign keys, and constraints.
5)Supports ACID transactions to ensure data consistency
and reliability.
6)Utilizes SQL (Structured Query Language) for querying
and manipulating data.
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Q.2)explain any four objects of ORACLE?

1)Tables: Store structured data in rows and columns.

2)Views: Virtual tables derived from underlying tables or
views.
3)Indexes: Improve data retrieval performance by creating a
sorted lookup structure.
4)Stored Procedures: Named and stored database objects
that encapsulate SQL statements for reusability and
performance.
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Q.3)what is RDBMS?enlist any two products of RDBMS?
RDBMS: Relational Database Management System that
organizes data into tables.

Two RDBMS products:

1)Oracle Database: dev. by oracle corporation.

Feature-rich, widely used RDBMS developed by Oracle
Corporation.
Oracle Database supports high-performance transaction
processing, data warehousing
2)MySQL: Popular open-source RDBMS known for its
simplicity, speed, and scalability.
developed by Oracle Corporation and is widely used in web
applications, especially for small to medium-sized projects
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Q.4)what are features of ORACLE?
1)Scalability: Easily handles growing data volumes and
user loads.
2)High Availability: Robust features for continuous access
and automatic failover.
3)Security: Advanced encryption, access controls, and data
protection.
4)Data Integrity: Ensures accuracy and consistency of data.
5)Performance Optimization: Query optimization and
parallel processing for faster operations.
6)Advanced Analytics: Data mining, machine learning, and
in-database analytics.
7)Multi-Model Database: Supports multiple data models
(relational, XML, spatial, graph).
8)Cloud Integration: Seamless integration with Oracle's
cloud services.
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Q.5)what is RDBMS?enlist any four characterstics of
RDBMS?
RDBMS is a software that organizes structured data in
tables, enforces relationships, and ensures integrity.
It uses SQL and offers features like transactions and
security.
1)Tabular Structure: Organizes data into tables.
2)Data Integrity: Enforces accuracy and consistency.
3)Relationships: Establishes associations between tables.
4)Query Language: Utilizes SQL for data operations.
5)ACID Transactions: Ensures reliable data processing.
6)Scalability: Handles large datasets and user loads.
7)Data Security: Provides robust access controls and
encryption.
8)Data Independence: Allows flexible schema
modifications.
9)Backup and Recovery: Supports data restoration
mechanisms.
10)Concurrency Control: Manages simultaneous data
access.
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Q.6)explain advantages & disadvantages of RDBMS?
Advantages of RDBMS:

1)Data integrity enforcement.

2)Data independence and flexibility.
3)Powerful querying capabilities.
4)Concurrency control for multi-user environments.
5)Scalability options for handling large datasets.

Disadvantages of RDBMS:
1)Complexity in design and management.
2)Performance overhead due to relationships and
constraints.
3)Limited flexibility for unstructured or rapidly changing
data.
4)Cost of commercial RDBMS products.
5)Challenges in horizontal scalability.
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Q.7)what is TRIGGER? list types of TRIGGERS?
Triggers are predefined actions in RDBMS that execute
automatically in response to specified events or changes.

Types of Triggers:
1)DML Triggers (Data Manipulation Language Triggers):

These triggers fire in response to data manipulation

operations (insert, update, delete) on a table.
They allow you to perform additional actions before or after
the data modification occurs.
2)DDL Triggers (Data Definition Language Triggers):

These triggers fire in response to data definition operations

(create, alter, drop) on a database object.
They enable you to perform specific actions before or after
the schema changes occur.
3)Instead of Triggers:

Instead of triggers are used to replace the default actions of

DML statements on a view.
allow you to define custom logic.
4)System Triggers:

System triggers are automatically executed in response to

system-level events or database-specific actions.
Examples include login triggers that execute when a user
logs in or database startup triggers.
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Q8)write syntax of nested if statement in PL/SQL with
example?
IF condition1 THEN
IF condition2 THEN
-- Statements when both conditions are true
ELSE
-- Statements when condition1 is true but condition2 is
false
END IF;
ELSE
IF condition3 THEN
-- Statements when condition1 is false and condition3 is
true
ELSE
-- Statements when both condition1 and condition3 are
false
END IF;
END IF;

#EXAMPLE FOR NESTED IF STATEMENT:

DECLARE
age NUMBER := 25;
salary NUMBER := 5000;
BEGIN
IF age > 18 THEN
IF salary > 10000 THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Loan and credit card
eligible.');
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Loan eligible, credit
card not eligible.');
END IF;
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Not eligible for loan or
credit card.');
END IF;
END;
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Q.9)explain following predefined exceptions:
no-data-found,zero--divide,two-many-rows,duplicate-val-on
-index?
Predefined exceptions are specific error conditions provided
by Oracle in PL/SQL.
Here's a brief explanation of the following predefined
exceptions:

1)NO_DATA_FOUND:

This exception is raised when a SELECT INTO or FETCH

statement does not return any rows.
It helps handle situations where a query expects a result but
finds no matching records.
2)ZERO_DIVIDE:

The ZERO_DIVIDE exception is raised when attempting to

perform a division or modulus operation with zero as the
divisor.
It is used to handle errors related to dividing a value by
zero, which is mathematically undefined.
3)TOO_MANY_ROWS:

The TOO_MANY_ROWS exception occurs when a

SELECT INTO or FETCH statement returns more than one
row.
It allows handling situations where you expect only one row
but the query results in multiple rows, which is unexpected.
4)DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX:

The DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX exception is raised when

inserting or updating a table violates a unique or primary
key constraint.
It is triggered when a duplicate value is inserted into a
column with a unique index or when a primary key
constraint is violated.
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Q.10)what is PL/SQL.explain different datatypes in
PL/SQL?
PL/SQL is a procedural extension of SQL used in Oracle
Database.

1)Scalar Datatypes:
NUMBER: Represents numeric values.
VARCHAR2/CHAR: Used for storing strings of characters.
DATE: Represents date and time values.
BOOLEAN: Represents true or false values.
BINARY_INTEGER: Used for integer values.
PLS_INTEGER: Similar to BINARY_INTEGER, but with
stricter range checks.
BOOLEAN: Represents true, false, or null values.
RAW: Stores binary data as a sequence of bytes.

2)Composite Datatypes:
RECORD: A composite datatype that holds related fields
under a single variable.
TABLE: Represents a collection of homogeneous data
elements.

3)Reference Datatypes:
REF CURSOR: A cursor variable that holds the address of a
query result.
REF: Represents a reference to an object in the database.

4)LOB Datatypes:
CLOB: Stores large character data.
BLOB: Stores large binary data.
NCLOB: Stores large Unicode character data.
BFILE: Stores a reference to a binary file stored outside the
database.
5)User-Defined Datatypes:
OBJECT: Represents a user-defined object type.
VARRAY: Represents a variable-size array.
TABLE: Represents a nested table type.
RECORD: User-defined record type.
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Q.11)what is block?list its types?
A PL/SQL block is a group of related statements that
organize code and control its execution.
It consists of declaration, execution, and exception handling
sections.
1)Anonymous Block: Nameless block of code for one-time
execution.
2)Stored Procedure: Named block of code stored in the
database for reuse.
3)Function: Named block of code that returns a value.
4)Package: Container for related procedures, functions, and
variables.
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Q.12)what is cursor?explain various attributes of cursor
with example?
A cursor in PL/SQL is a mechanism that allows you to
retrieve and manipulate query results row by row.
It provides a way to traverse through the records returned
by a SELECT statement and perform operations on them.
Attributes of a cursor in PL/SQL:
1)%FOUND:

The %FOUND attribute returns TRUE if the most recent

fetch operation successfully returned a row, and FALSE
otherwise.
It is commonly used in loops to check if there are more
rows to process.
Example:

DECLARE
CURSOR c_emp IS SELECT * FROM employees;
v_emp c_emp%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN c_emp;
LOOP
FETCH c_emp INTO v_emp;
EXIT WHEN c_emp%NOTFOUND;
-- Process the current row
END LOOP;
CLOSE c_emp;
END;

2)%NOTFOUND:

The %NOTFOUND attribute returns TRUE if the most

recent fetch operation did not return a row, and FALSE if a
row was successfully fetched.
It is often used in conjunction with %FOUND to control
loop termination.
Example:
DECLARE
CURSOR c_emp IS SELECT * FROM employees;
v_emp c_emp%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN c_emp;
LOOP
FETCH c_emp INTO v_emp;
EXIT WHEN c_emp%NOTFOUND;
-- Process the current row
END LOOP;
CLOSE c_emp;
END;

3)%ROWCOUNT:

The %ROWCOUNT attribute returns the number of rows

affected by the most recent DML (Data Manipulation
Language) statement.
It is useful for tracking the number of rows affected by an
operation.
Example:

DECLARE
CURSOR c_emp IS SELECT * FROM employees
WHERE salary > 5000;
v_emp c_emp%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN c_emp;
FETCH c_emp INTO v_emp;
IF c_emp%ROWCOUNT > 0 THEN
-- Process the fetched row
 ELSE
-- No rows matched the condition
END IF;
CLOSE c_emp;
END;
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Q.13)what is exception handling?explain user defined
exceptions with examples?
Exception handling is a mechanism in PL/SQL that allows
you to handle and manage errors or exceptional
conditions that may occur during the execution of a
program.

User-defined exceptions:

User-defined exceptions are custom error conditions

defined by the programmer.
They are created based on specific requirements or business
logic.

EXAMPLE:
DECLARE
my_exception EXCEPTION;
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(my_exception, -20001);
balance NUMBER := 1000;
withdrawal_amount NUMBER := 2000;
BEGIN
IF withdrawal_amount > balance THEN
RAISE my_exception;
 ELSE
balance := balance - withdrawal_amount;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Withdrawal successful.
Remaining balance: ' || balance);
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN my_exception THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Insufficient balance.
Cannot perform withdrawal.');
END;
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Q.14)what is PL/SQL?list the sections of PL/SQL block?
PL/SQL (Procedural Language/Structured Query Language)
is a procedural extension of SQL used in Oracle Database.
It allows the creation of stored procedures, functions,
triggers, and packages, enhancing the capabilities of SQL
for data manipulation and programmatic logic.

Sections of a PL/SQL block:

Declaration section:

This section is optional.

It is used to define variables, constants, cursors, types, and
other program objects that will be used within the block.
Declarations help establish the data types and structures
needed for subsequent execution.
Execution section:
Also known as the executable section or the main body of
the block.
It contains the actual PL/SQL statements that perform the
desired operations or calculations.
It includes SQL statements, procedural statements, control
structures (IF-THEN-ELSE, LOOP, etc.), and
function/procedure calls.
Exception handling section:

This section is optional but recommended for robust error

handling.
It allows you to handle and manage exceptions (errors or
exceptional conditions) that may occur during the execution
of the block.
Exception handling ensures proper error reporting, logging,
and recovery from unexpected situations.
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Q.15)what is PROCEDURE in PL/SQL?give syntax of it?
prepared SQL code that you can save, so the code can be
reused over and over again.

#SYNTAX:

CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name

[(parameter1 [mode] datatype1 [, parameter2 [mode]
datatype2 ...])]
IS
-- Declaration section (optional)
variable declarations
BEGIN
-- Executable section
PL/SQL statements

[EXCEPTION
-- Exception handling section (optional)
exception handling statements]

END [procedure_name];
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Q.16)write a note on package in PL/SQL?
package is a schema object that contains definitions for a
group of related functionalities.
A package includes variables, constants, cursors,
exceptions, procedures, functions, and subprograms.
A package in PL/SQL is a schema object that groups related
procedures, functions, variables, and other constructs
together.
It consists of a specification (public interface) and a body
(implementation). Packages organize code, promote
reusability,
encapsulate functionality, and allow for public and private
components. They improve code organization,
maintainability,
and performance while providing a way to persist state and
manage dependencies.
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Q.16)what is CURSOR? explain different types of
CURSORS?

A cursor in PL/SQL is a database object that allows you to

retrieve and manipulate data from a result set.
It acts as a pointer to a specific row within a query result

PL/SQL has three types of cursors:

1)Implicit Cursor: Automatically created by PL/SQL for

single-row queries
and its attributes such as %FOUND, %NOTFOUND,
%ROWCOUNT
2)Explicit Cursor: Explicitly declared and used for more
control over result sets.
Explicit cursors involve three steps: declaration, opening
the cursor, and processing/fetching the result set.
3)Ref Cursor: Cursor variables that allow dynamic SQL
queries and result set passing.
It is declared as a variable of type SYS_REFCURSOR
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Q.17)what is function?explain with example?

In PL/SQL, a function is a named block of code that

performs a specific task and returns a value.
It can accept parameters and compute a result based on the
provided inputs
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION
calculate_discount(price NUMBER) RETURN NUMBER
IS
BEGIN
RETURN CASE WHEN price > 1000 THEN price * 0.1
ELSE 0
END;
END;
/

execution:

DECLARE
total_price NUMBER := 1500;
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Discount amount: ' ||
calculate_discount(total_price));
END;
/
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Q.18)write syntax for TRIGGER?

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER trigger_name

{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF} {INSERT | UPDATE
| DELETE}
{OF column_name | ON table_name | {SCHEMA |
DATABASE} }
[FOR EACH ROW]
[WHEN (condition)]
DECLARE
-- Variable declarations (optional)
BEGIN
-- Trigger logic
EXCEPTION
-- Exception handling (optional)
END;
/
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Q.19)explain %TYPE & %ROWTYPE with examples?
%TYPE: It allows you to declare a variable with the same
data type as a specific column or variable.
It ensures type safety and automatically reflects any
changes to the underlying database object.
DECLARE
emp_name employees.employee_name%TYPE;
BEGIN
emp_name := 'John Doe'; -- Same data type as
employees.employee_name
-- Rest of the logic
END;

%ROWTYPE: It allows you to declare a variable with the

same structure as a table or cursor.
It creates a composite variable that holds the complete row
structure.

DECLARE
emp_record employees%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT * INTO emp_record FROM employees WHERE
employee_id = 100;
-- Access individual columns using
emp_record.column_name
-- Rest of the logic
END;
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Q.20)list RDBMS packages.explain any one in detail?
Oracle Database:

1)DBMS_OUTPUT
2)DBMS_SCHEDULER
3)DBMS_SQL
4)UTL_FILE
5)DBMS_METADATA
6)DBMS_LOB

#EXAMPLE OF ANY ONE:

DBMS_OUTPUT: It enables displaying output from

PL/SQL code during debugging or testing.
Example:

BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Hello, world!');
END;
/
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Q.21) what is transaction?list properties of transaction?
transaction refers to a logical unit of work that consists of
one or more database operations.
Transactions help maintain the consistency, integrity, and
reliability of data in a database.
Properties of a transaction are commonly referred to as the
ACID properties, which stand for:

1)Atomicity: Atomicity guarantees that a transaction is

treated as an all-or-nothing operation.
Either all the database operations within a transaction are
executed successfully and committed to the database,
or if any operation fails, the entire transaction is rolled
back, and the database is left unchanged. Atomicity
ensures that the database remains in a consistent state.

2)Consistency: Consistency ensures that a transaction

brings the database from one consistent state to another.
The database should satisfy all defined integrity constraints
and rules both before and after the transaction.
In other words, a transaction should not violate any data
integrity rules or leave the database in an inconsistent state.

3)Isolation: Isolation ensures that each transaction is

executed in isolation from other concurrent transactions.
It means that the intermediate states of a transaction should
not be visible to other transactions until the
transaction is committed. Isolation prevents interference
and maintains data integrity, even when multiple
transactions are executing concurrently.

4)Durability: Durability guarantees that once a transaction

is committed and changes are made to the database,
those changes are permanent and will survive any
subsequent system failures, such as power outages or
crashes.
The changes are stored in non-volatile memory, typically
disk storage, to ensure durability.
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Q.22)define cascadeless schedule?
A cascadeless schedule is a type of schedule in a database
system where a failure in one transaction
does not cause inconsistent or incorrect updates to
propagate to other transactions or the database.
It ensures that the effects of a failed transaction are properly
undone without affecting other transactions.
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Q.23)what is serializiability?explain view serializiability
with example?
Serializability is a property in database systems that ensures
concurrent transactions produce the
same result as if they were executed sequentially. It
guarantees consistency and correctness of outcomes
in concurrent execution.
#VIEW SERIALIZABILITY:View serializability ensures
that concurrent transactions can be
transformed into an equivalent sequential execution while
preserving the order of read and write operations
on shared data items. It maintains data consistency and
integrity in a concurrent database system.
#EXAMPLE:
To explain view serializability, let's consider an example
with two transactions, T1 and T2, and
two data items, A and B:
Example of view serializability in an RDBMS:

Consider two transactions, T1 and T2, running

concurrently:

T1:

Read CustomerName=1 from Customers table.

Update OrderAmount=100 in Orders table.
T2:

Read OrderAmount=200 from Orders table.

Update CustomerName=2 in Customers table.
Equivalent serial schedules preserving operation order:

Schedule 1: T1, T2

T1: Read CustomerName=1.

T1: Update OrderAmount=100.
T2: Read OrderAmount=200.
T2: Update CustomerName=2.
Schedule 2: T2, T1

T2: Read OrderAmount=200.

T2: Update CustomerName=2.
T1: Read CustomerName=1.
T1: Update OrderAmount=100.
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Q.24)list states of transactions?
1)Active: Transaction starts executing.
2)Partially Committed: Transaction has completed its
operations but not yet committed.
3)Committed: Transaction has successfully finished and
changes are saved.
4)Aborted: Transaction encountered an error and changes
are rolled back.
5)Failed: Transaction failed before completion and needs
recovery.
6)Terminated: Final state after transaction completion,
whether committed or aborted.
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Q.25)what are problems in concurent execution?
1)Lost Updates: Simultaneous updates may lead to
overwritten changes.
2)Dirty Reads: Reading uncommitted changes from another
transaction.
3)Inconsistent Analysis: Inconsistent data versions during
multiple reads.
4)Unrepeatable Reads: Values change between multiple
reads due to concurrent updates.
5)Phantom Reads: Different query results due to concurrent
inserts or deletes.
6)Deadlocks: Transactions waiting for each other, causing a
standstill.
To address these problems, databases use concurrency
control mechanisms
like locking, timestamps, and isolation levels to ensure data
consistency.
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Q.26)what is serializability?explain conflict serializability
with example?
Conflict serializability is a concept in database concurrency
control that ensures the
correctness of concurrent transactions by preventing
conflicts between their read and write operations.
#EXAMPLE:
Transaction T1:

1.Read Account A's balance.

2.Write Account A's balance.

Transaction T2:

1.Read Account B's balance.

2.Write Account B's balance.

Schedule 1: T1 followed by T2

T1: Read Account A's balance.

T1: Write Account A's balance.
T2: Read Account B's balance.
T2: Write Account B's balance.

Schedule 2: T2 followed by T1
T2: Read Account B's balance.
T2: Write Account B's balance.
T1: Read Account A's balance.
T1: Write Account A's balance.
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Q.26)what is schedule?list types of schedule?
A schedule in database management systems represents the
order of executing transactions and their operations.
Types of schedules include:

1.Serial Schedule: Transactions executed sequentially

without overlap.
2.Serializable Schedule: Concurrent execution that
maintains the illusion of serial execution, ensuring the same
result.
3.Non-Serializable Schedule: Lacks serializability, leading
to conflicts and data inconsistency.
4.Recoverable Schedule: Ensures transactions read
committed data, avoiding uncommitted data.
5.Cascadeless Schedule: Prohibits reading uncommitted
data to prevent cascading rollbacks.
6.Strict Schedule: Transactions only observe committed
data, ensuring consistency.
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Q.27)what is seriliazability?explain types with examples?
Serializability ensures the correctness of concurrent
transactions. There are two types:
1)Conflict Serializability: Focuses on conflicts between
read and write operations.
Transactions are conflict serializable if their conflicting
operations can be reordered.
Example: T1: Read(X), Write(X) | T2: Write(Y), Read(Y)

2)View Serializability: Focuses on data visibility.

Transactions are view serializable if their
outcome is equivalent to a serial execution with the same
data snapshot.
Example: T1: Read(A), Write(B) | T2: Read(B), Write(A)

Both types maintain data integrity and consistency in

concurrent transactions.
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Q.28)explain advantages of concurrent execution?(note:2
marks just do points explanation not neccesary)
1)Increased throughput: Concurrent execution allows
multiple transactions to be processed simultaneously,
leading to higher throughput and improved system
efficiency.

2)Reduced response time: By executing transactions

concurrently, the overall response time of the system can be
reduced,
allowing for faster transaction processing and improved
user experience.
3)Improved resource utilization: Concurrent execution
enables optimal utilization of system resources such as
CPU, memory, and I/O devices. Multiple transactions can
make use of available resources concurrently, maximizing
efficiency.

4)Enhanced scalability: Concurrency allows a system to

handle a larger number of concurrent users and transactions,
providing scalability and supporting increased workloads
without sacrificing performance.

5)Improved system availability: With concurrent execution,

individual transactions can proceed independently,
reducing the impact of failures or delays in one transaction
on others. This enhances system availability and fault
tolerance.

6)Better user concurrency: Concurrent execution enables

multiple users to work simultaneously on different parts of
the database,
improving user concurrency and collaboration in multi-user
environments.

7)Optimal utilization of multi-core processors: With the

prevalence of multi-core processors, concurrent execution
allows for
efficient utilization of multiple cores, harnessing the power
of parallel processing.
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Q.28)DEFINE:
1)GROWING PHASE :The period when a file
or database expands in size due to the addition of new
records or data elements.
2)SHRINKING PHASE:The period when a file
or database reduces in size as records or data elements are
deleted or removed.
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Q.29)give lock compatibility matrix?
Lock Compatibility Matrix:

1)Shared (S) Lock: Compatible with other shared locks,

incompatible with exclusive locks.

2)Exclusive (X) Lock: Incompatible with all other lock

types.
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Q.30)what is DEADLOCKS?explain methods of prevention
of deadlock?
Deadlock is a situation where two or more processes or
transactions are unable to proceed because each is
waiting for a resource that is held by another.
#Methods of Deadlock Prevention:

1)Avoidance: Analyzing resource needs to ensure safe states

and prevent deadlocks.
2)Detection and Recovery: Periodically detecting and
resolving deadlocks.
3)Prevention: Designing systems to eliminate deadlock
conditions.
4)Resource Hierarchies: Establishing resource allocation
orders to prevent deadlocks.
5)Preemption: Forcibly reallocating resources to break
deadlocks.
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Q.31)list different types of failures?
Types of Failures:

1)System crashes: Complete failure of the system or critical

components.
2)Disk failures: Physical damage or malfunctioning of
storage disks.
3)Network failures: Disruptions or failures in the network
infrastructure.
4)Software errors: Programming or software bugs causing
unexpected behavior.
5)Hardware failures: Malfunctioning or faulty hardware
components.
6)Power outages: Loss of electrical power supply.
7)Human errors: Mistakes made by users or administrators.
8)Natural disasters: Unpredictable events causing physical
damage or power outages.
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Q.32)explain how deadlock is recovered?
Deadlock Recovery:

1)Process Termination: One approach is to terminate one or

more processes involved in the deadlock.
By selectively terminating processes, the resources held by
those processes can be released and made
available for other processes to continue execution.
However, care must be taken to ensure that the
terminated processes do not lose their work irrecoverably.

2)Resource Preemption: Another approach is to preempt

resources from one or more processes to break
the circular wait condition and resolve the deadlock. By
forcibly reclaiming resources from one process and
allocating them to others, the deadlock can be broken,
allowing the remaining processes to proceed.
Preemption should be done carefully to ensure that the
preempted processes can continue execution once
the required resources are available again.

3)Rollback: In some cases, the system may perform a

rollback, also known as backtracking or transaction undo.
This involves reverting the actions of one or more
processes involved in the deadlock to a previous consistent
state.
By undoing the operations, the resources can be released
and allocated to other processes, breaking the deadlock.
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Q.33)explain validation based protocol?
Optimistic concurrency control method where concurrent
transactions proceed without locks, and changes
are validated before committing for consistency.

#Here's how it works:

1)Read Phase: Each transaction reads data from the

database without acquiring any locks.
The read values are recorded in a local workspace or buffer.

2)Validation Phase: Once a transaction completes its

operations, it checks for any potential conflicts
with other concurrently executing transactions. It compares
the read values from the buffer with the
current committed values in the database. If conflicts are
detected, such as inconsistent updates or overlapping writes,
the transaction is considered invalidated.

3)Write Phase: If the transaction passes the validation phase

without conflicts, it proceeds to write its changes
back to the database. The changes become visible to other
transactions and are committed.

4)Commit Phase: Finally, the transaction is committed, and

its changes become permanent in the database.
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Q.34)list basic operation to recover from failure?(note:do
only points:explanation not needed cz 2 marks only)
1)Detection: Identifying the failure.
2)Isolation: Preventing further damage by isolating affected
components.
3)Diagnosis: Determining the cause and impact of the
failure.
4)Restoration: Restoring the system or components to a
functional state.
5)Data Recovery: Recovering lost or corrupted data.
6)Reconfiguration: Adjusting system settings to prevent
future failures.
7)Testing and Verification: Ensuring system functionality
and data integrity.
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Q.35)write short note on checkpoint?
A checkpoint is a mechanism used in database systems to
ensure data consistency and facilitate recovery in the event
of a failure.
It involves capturing the current state of the database and
recording it in a stable storage area. Here are key points
about checkpoints:

1)Checkpoints serve as reference points or markers within

the transaction log to indicate a stable state of the database.
2)They are typically taken at regular intervals or during
specific events, such as when a significant amount of
data has been modified or when the system is idle.
3)During a checkpoint, all modified data pages are written
from memory to disk, and the corresponding
log records are flushed to disk as well.
4)By capturing the database state, checkpoints provide a
starting point for recovery processes in case of system
failures,
such as crashes or power outages.
5)During recovery, the system can restore the database to
the most recent checkpoint and then replay the transaction
log to
bring the database up to its most recent consistent state.
6)Checkpoints help reduce the recovery time by limiting the
amount of transaction log that needs to be processed during
the recovery phase.
7)The frequency of checkpoints is configurable and
depends on factors such as system performance, data
volatility, and recovery requirements.
8)Checkpoints play a crucial role in ensuring data durability
and maintaining the ACID (Atomicity, Consistency,
Isolation, Durability)
properties of database transactions.
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Q.36)explain two-phase locking protocol with example?
The Two-Phase Locking (2PL) protocol is a concurrency
control technique used in database systems to ensure
serializability and prevent conflicts between transactions.
Here's a brief explanation of the 2PL protocol:

1)Growing Phase: During the growing phase, a transaction

can acquire locks on resources (such as data items or
database records)
in two modes: shared (read) locks or exclusive (write)
locks. Once a transaction releases a lock, it cannot acquire
any new locks.
2)Shrinking Phase: After a transaction releases a lock, it
cannot request any new locks and must progressively
release its existing locks.
Once a lock is released, it cannot be reacquired.

#EXAMPLE:
Example of Two-Phase Locking (2PL) protocol:

Student A holds the pencil (exclusive lock) to write, while

Student B waits. Once Student A finishes,
Student B acquires the lock and can use the pencil. This
ensures exclusive access to the shared resource and
prevents conflicts.
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Q.37)DEFINE: i)REDO: Reapplying committed changes
from the transaction log during recovery.

ii)UNDO:Rolling back uncommitted

changes during recovery.

iii)LOGICAL ERROR: Flaw in program

logic leading to incorrect results.

iv)SYSTEM ERROR:Unexpected
condition disrupting program execution.

v)UPGRADING: Improving or enhancing a

system to a newer version with better features and
performance.

vi)DOWNGRADING:Reverting to an older
version of a system or component due to
incompatibility or preference for a previous
version.

vii)LOCK: A mechanism used in computer

systems to control access to shared resources,
ensuring that only one process or thread can
modify resource at a time to maintain data consistency &
prevent conflicts.

viii)TIMESTAMP:Unique time-based
identifier used for ordering and coordination of events or
transactions.

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Q.38)what is log?explain log based recovery?
Log: In the context of databases, a log is a sequential record
of all operations or changes made to a database.
It serves as a reliable and persistent record of transactions
and their associated actions, including updates, inserts,
and deletes, allowing for recovery and rollback in case of
failures or errors.

Log-based recovery: Log-based recovery is a technique

used in database systems to restore a database to a
consistent
state after a failure or crash. It involves replaying the
sequence of actions recorded in the transaction log, undoing

uncommitted changes and redoing committed changes, to

bring the database back to a consistent and correct state.
By using the log to recover data, log-based recovery
ensures data durability and maintains the integrity of the
database.
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