Dr.

Vetriveeran Rajamani,
Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE,
VIT, Vellore
Methods for determining stability
1. Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT, Vellore

Time Domain Analysis
2. Root Locus Technique

3. Bode Plot

4. Polar Plot (Nyquist Plot) Frequency Domain

Analysis

5. Nichols Plot

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frequency response
analysis
 A Perspective on the Frequency-
Response Design Method
The design of feedback control systems in industry is
probably accomplished using frequency-response methods
more than any other.
Advantages of frequency-response design:
 Advantages of frequency-response design:

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

5

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Frequency response
The frequency response of a system is defined as
the steady-state response of the system to a
sinusoidal input signal.
G(s)
r (t )  R sin 0t  y (t )  Y sin(0t   )

H(s)
For a LTI system, when the input to it is a sinusoid signal,
the resulting output , as well as signals throughout the
system, is sinusoidal in the steady-state;
The output differs from the input waveform only in
amplitude and phase.
 Input to a linear timeinvariant system is
sinusoidal with amplitude R and frequency 0
r  t   R sin 0t
The steady-state output of the system, y(t), will be
a sinusoid with the same frequency 0 but possibly
with different amplitude and phase
y  t   Y sin 0t   
where Y is the amplitude of the output sine wave and
 is the phase shift in degrees or
radians.
Let the transfer function of a linear SISO system be M(s);
then the Laplace transforms of the input and
the output are related through
Y s  M s R s
The closed-loop transfer function of the LTI
system:
Y ( s) G( s)
M ( s)  
R( s ) 1  G ( s) H ( s)
For frequency-domain analysis, we replace s
by jω:
Y ( j ) G ( j )
M ( j )  
R( j ) 1  G ( j ) H ( j )
The frequency-domain transfer function M(jω)
may be expressed in terms of its magnitude and
phase:
M ( j )  M ( j ) M ( j )
magnitude phase
 M ( j ) A   c
M ( j )  
The magnitude of M(jω) is 0   c
A
G ( j )
M ( j ) 
1  G ( j ) H ( j )
G ( j )

1  G ( j ) H ( j ) 0 c 

Gain characteristic 0
The phase of M(jω) is
M ( j )  M ( j )
 G ( j )   1  G ( j ) H ( j ) 
M ( j )
Phase characteristic Gain-phase characteristics
of an ideal low-pass filter
 Frequency Domain Specifications
The performance and characteristics of a system in frequency
domain is measured in terms of frequency domain specifications.
1 Resonant Peak

2 Resonant Frequency

3 Bandwidth

4 Cut-off rate

5 Gain Margin

6 Phase Margin
 Frequency Domain Specifications

• Resonant Peak Mr
 The resonant peak Mr is the maximum value of magnitude of closed loop
transfer function 𝑴(𝒋𝝎)

 The maximum value Mr is related to the overshoot of step response of the system.

 Normally, the ideal resonant peak is between 1.1 and 1.5.

• Resonant frequency ωr
 The resonant frequency ωr is the frequency at which the peak resonance Mr
occurs.
 Frequency Domain Specifications

• Bandwidth BW
 The bandwidth BW is the frequency at which the magnitude of closed loop
transfer function 𝑴(𝒋𝝎) drops to 70.7% of, or 3 dB down from, its zero-
frequency value.

 The bandwidth of a control system gives indication on the transient response

properties in the time domain.

 A large bandwidth corresponds to a small rise time or faster response, since higher-
frequency signals are more easily passed through the system.

 Conversely, if the bandwidth is small, only signals of relatively low frequencies are
passed, and the time response will be slow and sluggish
 Frequency Domain Specifications
• Cutoff Rate
 It is the slope of the log-magnitude curve near the cut off
frequency.

• Gain Margin
 The value of gain to be added to system in order to bring the
system to the verge of instability.

• Phase Margin
 Additional phase lag to be added at the gain cross over freq. in
order to bring the system to the verge of instability.
For a prototype second-order system (  0.707)
M r depends on  only.
Resonant peak
For   0, the system is unstable;
1
Mr  For 0<  0.707,   M r ;
2 1   2
For   0.707, M r  1

Resonant frequency r depends on both  and n .

For 0<  0.707, n fixed,   r ;
r  n 1  2 2
For   0.707, r  0.

Bandwidth BW  n [(1  2 2 )  4 4  4 2  2]1/2

BW is directly proportional to n , n  BW 
  BW n 
For 0    0.707, n fixed,   BW ;
Example. Frequency response of a Capacitor
Consider the capacitor described by the equation
dv
i C
dt
where v is the input and i is the output. Determine the
sinusoidal steady-state response of the capacitor.
Solution. The transfer function of the capacitor is
I ( s)
 M ( s )  Cs
V ( s)
So M ( j )  Cj
Computing the magnitude and phase, we find that
M ( j )  Cj  C
M ( j )  M  90
Gain characteristic: M ( j )  Cj  C

Phase characteristic: M ( j )  M  90

Output: I ( j )  M ( j )V ( j )

For a unit-amplitude sinusoidal input v, the output i will be a

sinusoid with magnitude Cω, and the phase of the output
will lead the input by 90°.

Note that for this example the magnitude is proportional to

the input frequency while the phase is independent of
frequency.
 Frequency-Domain Specifications
M ( j )
Resonant peak M r
Mr Resonant frequency r
Cutoff
rate Bandwidth BW
0.707
d M ( j )
0
0 r BW  d
 
0
r

M ( j )
Typical gain-phase characteristic of a control system
Correlation between pole locations, unit-step response and
the magnitude of the frequency response

y (t ) max overshoot  e  / 1 2

M ( j )

1.0 0dB
0.9
3dB

0.1 t
0 0 BW 
1  0.4167  2.917 2
tr 
n BW  n [(1  2 2 )  4 4  4 2  2]1/2
 Effects of adding a zero to the OL TF2
n
R(s) n2 Y ( s ) Open-loop TF：G ( s)  s( s  2 )
n

s( s  2n ) Closed-loop TF：

Y ( s) G( s) n2
M ( s)    2
R( s ) 1  G ( s ) s  2n s  n2
Adding a zero at s  1 Tz

R(s) n2 Y (s)

1  Tz s Open-loop TF：
s( s  2n )
(1  Tz s )n2
G ( s) 
s( s  2n )
The additional
zero changes
n2 (1  Tz s ) both numerator
Closed-loop TF： ( s )  2
s  (2n  Tzn2 ) s  n2 and denominator.
 The general effect of adding a zero the open-loop
transfer function is to increase the bandwidth of the
closed-loop system.

n  1
  0.2
 Effects of adding a pole to the OL TF 2
n
R(s) n2 Y ( s ) Open-loop TF：G ( s)  s( s  2 )
n

s( s  2n ) Closed-loop TF：

Y ( s) G( s) n2
M ( s)    2
R( s ) 1  G ( s ) s  2n s  n2
Adding a pole at s  1 Tp

R(s) 1 n2 Y (s)

1  Tp s Open-loop TF：
s( s  2n )
n2
G ( s) 
s( s  2n )(1  Tp s)

n2
Closed-loop TF：  ( s) 
Tp s 3  (1  2nTp ) s 2  2n s  n2
The effect of adding a pole the open-loop transfer function is
to make the closed-loop system less stable, while decreasing
the bandwidth.

n  1
  0.707
Bode plot
The Bode plot is the frequency response plot of the sinusoidal transfer
function of a system.

It consists of two plots:

1. Magnitude of sinusoidal transfer function versus log ω

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

2. Phase angle of sinusoidal transfer function versus log ω

The standard representation of the logarithmic magnitude of open

loop transfer function of
G(jω) is 20 log10 |𝐺(𝑗𝜔)|

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 Bode Plot
The Bode plot of the function G(jw) is composed of two plots:
-- the amplitude of G(jw) in decibels (dB) versus log10w or w

-- the phase of G(jw) in degrees as a function of log10w or w.

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

Both these plots are drawn on a semi-log graph.

Without loss of generality, the following transfer function

is used to illustrate the construction of the Bode Plot
K 1  T1s 
G s H s  j
s 1  T2 s  1  T3 s 
where K, T1, T2, ωn are real constants.

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It is assumed that the second-order polynomial in the
denominator has complex conjugate zeros.
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 Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,
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 Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,
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 Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,
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 1. Constant Gain

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

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 2. Integral Factor

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

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 2. Integral Factor

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

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 3. Derivative Factor

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

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 Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,
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 4. First Order Factor in denominator:

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

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 Asymptote 1
Corner or break frequency

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

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 Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,
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 5. First Order Factor in numerator:

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

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 Asymptote 1
Corner or break frequency

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

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 6. Quadratic Factor in the denominator:

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

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 Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,
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 Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,
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 Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,
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 7. Quadratic Factor in the numerator:

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

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 𝑻𝟏 < 𝑻𝟑 < 𝑻𝟐
Procedure for Magnitude plot of Bode plot :

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

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 Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,
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 Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,
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 Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,
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 Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,
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 Bode Plot GM & PM
• Gain Margin: It is the amount of gain in db that can be added to
the system before the system become unstable

𝟏
𝑮𝑴 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎log𝟏𝟎( ) = −𝟐𝟎log𝟏𝟎|𝑮(𝒋 𝝎)|
𝑮 𝒋𝝎

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

 Gain cross-over frequency: Frequency where magnitude plot intersect
the 0dB line (x-axis) denoted by ωg

• Phase Margin: It is the amount of phase lag in degree that can be

added to the system before the system become unstable

𝑷𝑴 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° + 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆[𝑮(𝒋 𝝎)] 𝝎 = 𝝎𝒈𝒄

 Phase cross-over frequency: Frequency where phase plot intersect the

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1800 dB line (x-axis) denoted by ωp
 Less PM => More oscillating system
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 Determination of Gain Margin (GM) and Phase Margin (PM)

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

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 Bode Plot & Stability
Stability by Bode Plot
1. Stable
If wg<wp => GM & PM are +ve

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

2. Unstable
If wg>wp => GM & PM are –ve

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3. Marginally stable
If wg=wp => GM & PM are zero
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 Gain Adjustment in Bode Plot :

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

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Bode Plot - Example
 For the following T.F draw the Bode plot and obtain Gain cross over
frequency (wgc) , Phase cross over frequency , Gain Margin and Phase
Margin.
G(s) = 20 / [s (1+3s) (1+4s)]

 Solution: The sinusoidal T.F of G(s) is obtained by replacing s

by jw in the given T.F
G(jw) = 20 / [jw (1+j3w) (1+j4w)]
 Corner frequencies: wc1= 1/4 = 0.25 rad /sec ;
wc2 = 1/3 = 0.33 rad /sec
 Form a table
Term Corner Frequency Slope Change
db/dB in slope
20/jw --- -20

1/(1+j4w) wc1=1/4=0.25 -20 -20-20=-40

1/(1+j3w) wc2=1/3=0.33 -20 -40-20=-60

Choose a lower corner frequency and a higher Corner frequency
wl= 0.025 rad/sec ; wh = 3.3 rad / sec
Calculation of Gain (A) (MAGNITUDE PLOT)
A @ wl ; A= 20 log [ 20 / 0.025 ] = 58 .06 dB
A @ wc1 ; A = [Slope from wl to wc1 x log (wc1 / wl ] + Gain (A)@wl
= - 20 log [ 0.25 / 0.025 ] + 58.06
= 38.06 dB
A= 20 log [ 20 / 0.25 ] = 38 .06 dB
A @ wc2 ; A = [Slope from wc1 to wc2 x log (wc2 / wc1 ] + Gain (A)@ wc1
= - 40 log [ 0.33 / 0.25 ] + 38
= 33 dB
A @ wh ; A = [Slope from wc2 to wh x log (wh / wc2 ] + Gain (A) @ wc2
= - 60 log [ 3.3 / 0.33 ] + 33
= - 27 dB
Calculation of Phase angle for different values of frequencies
[PHASE PLOT]
Ø = -90O- tan -1 3w – tan -1 4w

Frequency in Phase Angle

when
rad / sec in degrees
w=0 Ø= -90o

w=0.025 Ø= - 99o

w=0.25 Ø= -172o

w=0.33 Ø= -188o

w=3.3 Ø= - 259o

w=∞ Ø= - 270o
 Wl =0.025 W2 =0.33 Wh=3.3
W1 =0.25

+[G(jw)] in dB
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X Magnitude Plot
40 Y-Axis 1 unit =20 dB
X
32 dB X
20 GM Wgc =1.1 rad/sec
Log w
0

-20 GM = - [20 log G(jwpc)] dB

X = - [32] dB = - 32 dB-
-40

-60

Phase Plot Log w

-50o
Y-Axis 1 unit = 50o
x x
-100o

-150o - 180o
x x
-200o PM
Øgc=-240O =180+gc = 180o+(-240o)=- 60o
-250o
Ph. Angle

x
Wpc =0.3 rad/sec
-300o
• Calculation of Gain cross over frequency

• The frequency at which the dB magnitude is Zero wgc = 1.1 rad / sec

• Calculation of Phase cross over frequency

The frequency at which the Phase of the system is - 180o

wpc = 0.3 rad / sec

• Gain Margin

The gain margin in dB is given by the negative of dB magnitude of G(jw) at phase cross over frequency

GM = - { 20 log [G( jwpc )] }

Conclusion
= - { 32 } = -32 dB
For this system GM and PM are negative
• Phase Margin in Values. Therefore the system is unstable in

Ґ = 180o+ Øgc = 180o + (- 240o) = -60o nature.

 Problem 2:

Dr. R. Vetriveeran, Asso. Prof. Grade 1, SENSE, VIT,

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 𝑲𝒔𝟐
The loop TF 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯 𝒔 = . Sketch the Bode
𝟏+𝟎.𝟐𝒔 𝟏+𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝒔

plot for the given system. Also determine the gain value
K for the 𝝎𝒈𝒄 = 𝟓𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄.
Ks 2
G s H s 
1  0.2s 1  0.02s 
Substituing s  j and K  1
 j 
2

G  j  H  j  
1  0.2 j 1  0.02 j 
There are two corner frequencies exists.
1
c1   5 rad / sec
0.2
1
c 2   50 rad / sec
0.02
 Corner Slope of the Change in
Term frequency ω term slope
(rad/sec) (dB/dec) (dB/dec)

(jω)2 − +𝟒𝟎 −

1/(1+0.2jω) 𝟓 −𝟐𝟎 +𝟒𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎 = +𝟐𝟎

1/(1+0.02jω) 𝟓𝟎 −𝟐𝟎 +𝟐𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎

 Assume l  0.5 rad/sec and h  100 rad/sec

Change in
Frequency
Term slope Gain (Ai)
ω (rad/sec)
(dB/dec)

(jω)2 𝝎𝟏 = 𝝎𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟓 − 𝑨𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝝎𝟏 𝟐
= −𝟏𝟐 𝒅𝑩

(jω)2 𝝎𝟐 = 𝝎𝒄𝟏 = 𝟓 −

𝝎𝟑
1/(1+0.2jω) 𝝎𝟑 = 𝝎𝒄𝟐 = 𝟓0 +𝟐𝟎 𝑨𝟑 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝐥𝐨𝐠 + 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟗𝟓 𝒅𝑩
𝝎𝟐

1/(1+0.02jω 𝝎𝟒
𝝎𝟒 = 𝝎𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟎 𝑨𝟒 = 𝟎 × 𝐥𝐨𝐠 + 𝑨𝟑 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟗𝟓 𝒅𝑩
) 𝝎𝟑
  180  tan 1  0.2   tan 1  0.02 
 Determination of gain K at gain crossover frequency = 5
rad/sec

𝜔𝑔𝑐 = 5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑛𝑒𝑤

w.k.t. the magnitude of the system at 𝜔𝑔𝑐 must be

𝑛𝑒𝑤

zero.
But the magnitude of the system is 28 dB.
Hence, each and every point present in the magnitude plot
must be added by -28 dB.
𝟐𝟎 log 𝑲 = −𝟐𝟖 𝒅𝑩
log 𝑲 = −𝟐𝟖/𝟐𝟎 = −𝟏. 𝟒
𝑲 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏.𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟖