Chapter 2 ……. Your responsibility!

Circuit Review

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 Basic Circuit Elements
 Resistor
Current is proportional to voltage (linear)
 Ideal Voltage Source
Voltage is a given quantity, current is unknown
 Wire (Short Circuit)
Voltage is zero, current is unknown
 Ideal Current Source
Current is a given quantity, voltage is unknown
 Air (Open Circuit)
Current is zero, voltage is unknown

1/27/2004 EE 42 Lecture 3
 Resistor
 The resistor has a current- voltage relationship called
Ohm’s law: i +
v=iR
where R is the resistance in Ω, R v
i is the current in A, and v is the
voltage in V, with reference -
directions as pictured.

 Since R is never negative, a resistor always absorbs power.

1/27/2004 EE 42 Lecture 3
 Ideal Voltage Source
 The ideal voltage source explicitly defines 
the voltage between its terminals. Vs
-
 Constant (DC) voltage source: Vs = 5 V
 Time-Varying voltage source: Vs = 10 sin(t) V
 Examples: batteries, wall outlet, function generator, …
 The ideal voltage source does not provide any information about the
current flowing through it.
 The current through the voltage source is defined by the rest of the circuit
to which the source is attached. Current cannot be determined by the
value of the voltage.
 Do not assume that the current is zero!

1/27/2004 EE 42 Lecture 3
 Ideal Current Source
 The ideal current source sets the value of the current
Is
running through it.
 Constant (DC) current source: Is = 2 A
 Time-Varying current source: Is = -3 sin(t) A
 The ideal current source has known current, but unknown voltage.
 The voltage across the voltage source is defined by the rest of the circuit to which
the source is attached.
 Voltage cannot be determined by the value of the current.
 Do not assume that the voltage is zero!

1/27/2004 EE 42 Lecture 3
 I-V Relationships Graphically

i i i

v v v

Resistor: Line Ideal Voltage Ideal Current

through origin with Source: Vertical line Source: Horizontal
slope 1/R line
Wire( short Vertical line
circuit) :
Horizontal line
Air (Open circuit) :
through origin through origin
1/27/2004 EE 42 Lecture 3
 Inductors, reactor or coil
 Generally - coil of conducting wire
 Usually wrapped around a solid core. If no core is used, then the
inductor is said to have an ‘air core’.
 Acts like an short circuit at low frequency when connected to a d.c.
voltage or current source. And acts as open circuit at high frequency.
 L , inductance, has the units of Henries (H)
t1

p L  vL iL  LiL  iL dt di
to vL  L
Impedance, Z = 𝒋𝑾𝑳
dt
t1
1
iL   vL dt
7 L to
 capacitors
 A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical component that stores
electrical energy in an electric field.The effect of a capacitor is known
as capacitance.
 Acts like an Open circuit at low frequency when connected to a d.c.
voltage or current source. And acts as short circuit at high frequency.
 The capacitance will increase with increase, materials permittivity, plate
area, and decrease the distance between plates.

Impedance, Z = 𝟏/𝒋𝑾𝑪

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 Chapter 3:
Analog Recording Instruments

* For more information refer to the book

frequently

HW: 1, 6, 7, 15,19 and 24

9
3.1 Introduction
Recording Instruments: are instruments used to display, In a form that may be read
easily by an operator, an output that is proportional to the quantity Qi being
measured.

Type of recorders depends on type of quantity being measured:

Qi Recorder Type
Constant with Voltmeter, Ammeter
time (Static)

Vary slowly Self-balancing potentiometer or digital voltmeter

with time
(Quasi-Static)

Vary rapidly Oscilloscope, oscillograph, magnetic tape

with time
recorder or disk recorder.
(Transient)

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3.2 General characteristics of recording instruments
A. Input Impedance (Z): Controls the energy removed from the system by
recording instrument in order to display the input voltage. e.g., simple dc voltmeter .
The power loss through the meter is:

v2
P
Zm 𝑍𝑚 = 𝑅𝑚/(1 + 𝑗𝑤𝑅𝑚𝐶 ) , Error = (vi-vm)/vi = (Rs/Rm)/(1+(Rs/Rm)) ….eq.1

where, Zm: input impedance of the meter( modeled as resistance and capacitance in parallel)

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 B. Sensitivity (S):
- High Sensitivity (S) is required to give a sufficiently large pen
displacement (d) for accurate readout.
- To achieve a good sensitivity, amplifiers are incorporated into
recorders.
d
S , d : displacement , Vi : voltage being measured
Vi
Vi  dS R , , , , , , , S R  1 / S

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C. Range:
The maximum voltage that can be recorded
d*
V 
*
 d *S R , d *  width of the chart , V *  Range
S

D. Zero drift:
Adjust the zero offset so that the pointer displacement is zero when
the input voltage is zero.

Zero drift usually results from circuit instability in the amplifier that
occur with temperature fluctuations, variations in line voltage, and
time.
To minimize zero drift by:

1. Using regulated line voltage, 2. Warm up

3. Control room temperature, 4. Periodically check and adjust the zero position

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14 Dr. Mohammad A. Omari
 Solution:
 At 20°C, deflection/load characteristic is a straight line. Sensitivity = 20
mm/kg.
 At 30°C, deflection/load characteristic is still a straight line. Sensitivity
=22 mm/kg.
 Bias (zero drift) = 5 mm (the no-load deflection)
 Sensitivity drift = 2 mm/kg
 Zero drift/°C = 5/10 = 0.5 mm/°C
 Sensitivity drift/°C = 2/10 = 0.2 (mm per kg)/°C

15 Dr. Mohammad A. Omari

 Examples:
 What limit must be placed on the resistance ratio Rs/Rm if the
acceptable voltmeter load error is 2%.
Error = (Rs/Rm)/(1+(Rs/Rm))

Rs/Rm = 0.0204……….usually Rm designed to be 10^6 - 10^8 Ω

 Am amplifier that is being used in instrumentation system to

measure a voltage of 25 mV over a period of 15 days exhibits a drift
of 0.05mV/h. determine the error that may result from zero drift.
Max. drift = 15*24*0.05 = 18mV

 A recorder is being used in an instrumentation system to measure a voltage of

25mv over a period of one week exhibit a drift of 0.05mv/h. if you want to
limit the recorder error to 5%, after how many hours the operator should
perform a zero shift check? 0.05*25 = (0.05)x == x = 25hrs

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 E. Frequency Response: if the voltage being recorded is dynamic, the
recorder should reproduce the transient input without amplitude or phase
distortion.
It is the ability of a recorder to respond to transient signals, which is based on the
recorder’s steady state response to a sinusoidal input.

Vi  Ai e jwt  Vo  Ao e j ( wt  )
 The frequency response function H(w) for the
recorder: Check section 2.7 and 2.8 in self reading!

v o ( w)
H ( w) 
v i ( w)

1
H ( w)  ,..... Amplitude
2
1  ( wRC )
-1
  - tan wRC ...... Phaseshift
 Specifications for recorders frequently give the amplitude ratio Ao / Ai in terms of
decibels. ( A is voltage).
N dB  20 log10 ( Ao / Ai )
Table 3.1 Conversion of Voltage Ratio

Ao / Ai N dB Ao / Ai N dB
1 0 1 0
1.01 0.086 0.99 -0.087
1.02 0.172 0.98 -0.175
1.05 0.424 0.95 -0.446
1.1 0.827 0.9 -0.915

1.2 1.583 0.8 -1.938

1.5 3.522 0.707 -3.012
18 2 6.02 0.5 -6.021
 3.3 Voltmeters for steady-state measurements
There are three types of analog voltmeters: Analog voltmeter, Amplified analog
voltmeter, (both use Galvanometer to indicate the voltage) and the potentiometer.

3.3.1 D’Arsonval Galanometer:

 Basic device used in detecting and measuring dc current.
 Its design incorporates a coil of wire that is supported in a magnetic field with either jeweled
bearings or torsion springs.
 Voltmeter and ammeter are delicate and maybe easily damaged if they are
connected improperly in a circuit, also the internal resistances may add an error to measurement.

T1  NBLDi
T2  k N: no. of turns in the coil
B: flux density of the mag.
Equilibrium  Field.
L: axial length of the field.
D: Mean coil diameter
NBLD
T1  T2    i  Si S: sensitivity or calibration
constant
K
3.3.2 Ammeter:
 Consists of a D’Arsonval galvanometer with a shunt resistance

ii im*
im   Rsh  * * Rm
1  ( Rm / Rsh ) ii - im

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3.3.3 DC voltmeters:
 a D’Arsonval galvnometer is converted to a dc voltmeter by using a series
resistor.

*
V
Rsr  * - Rm
im

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 3.3.4 Loading Errors:
Are errors introduced to the measurement of the variable due to the sensor and
its associated signal processing circuit.
For example, voltmeter loading errors: Whenever a voltmeter draws current
from the voltage source during measurement, an error will result due to
voltmeter load.

Vi - Vm Rs / Rm
 
Vi 1  ( Rs / Rm )
total meter resis tan ce  Rm  Rsr
Rs /( Rm  Rsr
 ) Also check eq.1 in slide No.3
1  Rs /( Rm  Rsr )

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3.3.5 Amplified voltmeters:
 Difficulties in measuring small voltages while maintaining a high input
impedance can be solved by using high-gain amplifier.
 The meter sensitivity can be increased by factor G while maintaining the
input impedance of the meter.

Vo  GVi  ei
GVi
Rsr  - Rm
im
 Gains of 10^3 are common

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3.3.6 Potentiometric voltmeters:

 Is a null balance instruments in which the unknown voltage Vx is compared

with a precision reference voltage Vr. As the wiper is moved along the slide-
wire, an adjustable voltage Vsw is obtained, which is given by:

x
Vx  Vr  Vsw
l
 The accuracy attainable by the null method is of higher level than that by the
deflection method. Null methods have difficulty in dynamic measurements.
 Accurate, inexpensive, but time consuming, Null balance instrument (no
current flows). Thus, no voltage drop across the instrument.

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 3.4 Voltmeters for slowly varying signals
 Use the potentiometric voltmeters. It can be balanced automatically with
servomotors that are driven with an amplified error signal.

3.4.1 Strip chart recorder ( for one variable)

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 3.4.2 X-Y Recorders:
 Simultaneously records two voltages along orthogonal axes.
 This instrument gives a graphic record of the relationship between two
variables.
 Used to measure voltage, current, frequency…
 It consists of a pair of servo-systems driving a recording pen in two axis
on stationary paper chart.
 Amplifiers also used to bring the input signal to the levels acceptable by
the recorder.
 Two input signals are applied to the two channels of X input and Y input.
 Application: laboratories and industrial process control:
 speed-torque characteristics of motors.
 Lift-drag wind tunnel rest.
 Regulation curves of power supplies.
 Plotting stress-strain curves.

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3.5 Voltmeters for rapidly varying signal:
3.5.1. Oscillograph recorders:

Employ galvanometers to convert the dynamic input signal to a displacement

on a moving strip of chart paper.

Two types:
1. The direct-writing type (drives pen) freq. response about 150Hz, less
expensive, more permanent, high quality.

2. Light-writing type (drives mirror that deflects the light beam on a moving strip
of photosensitive paper),
freq. response is about 25kHz

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30
3.5.4. Oscilloscopes:
The cathode-ray-tube oscilloscope is a voltage-measuring
instrument capable of recording extremely high-frequency signals
(>1GHz).

- Shows graphically the behavior of an electrical signal

- Qualitative measurement type rather than quantitative
- Consist of : 1- the electron gun, 2- the deflecting plates, and 3-
fluorescent screen

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